MODULE 1

Normal Stress
Normal stress is the force applied per unit area perpendicular to the surface of an object
or material. Characteristic: It represents the stress experienced by a material due to an
applied load acting perpendicular to the surface.
- Formula: Normal Stress σ= Force (F) / Area (A)
Shear Stress:
Shear stress is the force applied parallel to the surface of an object or material. It arises
from forces that tend to cause adjacent portions of a material to slide past each other.
- Formula: Shear Stress τ = Force (F) / Area (A) parallel to the applied force
Biaxial Stress:
Biaxial stress occurs when a material is subjected to stress in two perpendicular
directions. It involves both normal and shear stresses acting simultaneously in two
distinct directions.
- Example: Tensile stress in one direction combined with compressive stress in
another.
Triaxial Stress:
Triaxial stress involves stress in three perpendicular directions. It considers normal and
shear stresses acting in three different planes, providing a comprehensive stress
analysis.
- Example: Combinations of axial, radial, and circumferential stresses in a pressurized
cylindrical vessel.

Principal Stresses:
Principal stresses are the maximum and minimum normal stresses experienced at a
particular point within a material. They occur on planes where shear stress is zero.
Principal stresses play a crucial role in stress analysis as they indicate the magnitude
and orientation of the maximum and minimum stresses.
Stress Tensor:
A stress tensor is a mathematical representation of stress at a particular point within a
material. It is a second-order tensor that encapsulates both normal and shear stresses in
various directions. The stress tensor includes nine components, representing the
stresses on three perpendicular planes: three normal stresses and six shear stresses.

SECOND-ORDER CAUCHY STRESS TENSOR

Stress Analysis:
Stress analysis involves studying how materials respond to external forces or loads. It
includes assessing the distribution of internal stresses and predicting the material's
behaviour under different loading conditions. Stress analysis is essential in engineering
to ensure the structural integrity and safety of components, helping to design structures
that can withstand applied loads without failure.
In stress analysis, engineers use
1. Mathematical Models
2. Simulations &
3. Experimental Techniques
to understand how materials deform and experience stress under various conditions.
Finite element analysis (FEA) is a common method for stress analysis, allowing
engineers to simulate and predict the behaviour of structures.