©2013 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 108, pp. 421–436

Geological Analysis of Aeromagnetic Data from Southwestern Alaska:

Implications for Exploration in the Area of the Pebble Porphyry Cu-Au-Mo Deposit
ERIC D. ANDERSON,1,2,† MURRAY W. HITZMAN,2 THOMAS MONECKE,2 PAUL A. BEDROSIAN,1
ANJANA K. SHAH,1 AND KAREN D. KELLEY1
1 U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 973, Denver, Colorado 80225
2 Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401

Abstract
Aeromagnetic data are used to better understand the geology and mineral resources near the Late Creta-
ceous Pebble porphyry Cu-Au-Mo deposit in southwestern Alaska. The reduced-to-pole (RTP) transformation
of regional-scale aeromagnetic data shows that the Pebble deposit is within a cluster of magnetic anomaly
highs. Similar to Pebble, the Iliamna, Kijik, and Neacola porphyry copper occurrences are in magnetic highs
that trend northeast along the crustal-scale Lake Clark fault. A high-amplitude, short- to moderate-wavelength
anomaly is centered over the Kemuk occurrence, an Alaska-type ultramafic complex. Similar anomalies are
found west and north of Kemuk. A moderate-amplitude, moderate-wavelength magnetic low surrounded by a
moderate-amplitude, short-wavelength magnetic high is associated with the gold-bearing Shotgun intrusive
complex.
The RTP transformation of the district-scale aeromagnetic data acquired over Pebble permits differentiation
of a variety of Jurassic to Tertiary magmatic rock suites. Jurassic-Cretaceous basalt and gabbro units and Late
Cretaceous biotite pyroxenite and granodiorite rocks produce magnetic highs. Tertiary basalt units also pro-
duce magnetic highs, but appear to be volumetrically minor. Eocene monzonite units have associated magnetic
lows. The RTP data do not suggest a magnetite-rich hydrothermal system at the Pebble deposit.
The 10-km upward continuation transformation of the regional-scale data shows a linear northeast trend of
magnetic anomaly highs. These anomalies are spatially correlated with Late Cretaceous igneous rocks and in
the Pebble district are centered over the granodiorite rocks genetically related to porphyry copper systems. The
spacing of these anomalies is similar to patterns shown by the numerous porphyry copper deposits in northern
Chile. These anomalies are interpreted to reflect a Late Cretaceous magmatic arc that is favorable for addi-
tional discoveries of Late Cretaceous porphyry copper systems in southwestern Alaska.

Introduction techniques permit mapping of the igneous rocks associated

DISCOVERY of the Late Cretaceous Pebble porphyry Cu-Au-
Mo deposit in southwestern Alaska, which has a current mea-
sured and indicated resource of 5,940 Mt at 0.42% copper,
0.35 g/t gold, and 0.025% molybdenum, with a 0.30 wt % cop-
per cutoff (Lang et al., 2013), has made this remote region
highly prospective for porphyry copper deposits of similar
age. The original discovery was made by Cominco geologists
in 1988 (Bouley et al., 1995). Drilling has since shown that the
deposit contains the largest gold resource and fifth largest
copper resource of any known porphyry deposit (Lang et al.,
2013).
Because of extensive Tertiary and Quaternary cover (Det-
terman and Reed, 1973; Beikman, 1974; Eakins et al., 1978;
Case and Nelson, 1986; Wilson et al., 2006), mineral explo-
ration in southwestern Alaska relies to a large extent on geo-
physical techniques. Regional-scale aeromagnetic data may
be particularly useful because they cover a large area and
porphyry copper deposits are commonly found in linear, oro-
gen-parallel belts (Sillitoe and Perelló, 2005; Sillitoe, 2010).
Intrusions hosting such deposits are dominantly of magnetite-
series affinity (Ishihara, 1981; Seedorff et al., 2005) and these
can be mapped using magnetic data.
The present study shows that regional- and district-scale
aeromagnetic data are particularly useful in helping establish
the local geologic setting of the Pebble deposit. Filtering
† Corresponding author: e-mail, ericanderson@usgs.gov
with the Pebble deposit and allow the recognition of areas
within the region with magnetic patterns similar to Pebble,
several of which are associated with the outcrop of intrusive
rocks that are age equivalent to those hosting the Pebble de-
posit. These data suggest the presence of a regional and
largely concealed Late Cretaceous magmatic arc in south-
western Alaska that is highly prospective for porphyry copper
deposits similar in age to the 90 Ma Pebble deposit.
Geologic Setting
Regional geology
The geology of southwestern Alaska consists of a series of
amalgamated lithotectonic terranes that have been accreted
to the North American craton since the Jurassic (Fig. 1; Wal-
lace et al., 1989; Decker et al., 1994; Plafker and Berg, 1994;
Hampton et al., 2010; Goldfarb et al., 2013). Overlapping
these exotic terranes are syn- to postcollisional flysch deposits
and volcaniclastic strata that formed in the foreland basins of
the accreting terranes (Wallace et al., 1989; Hampton et al.,
2010; Goldfarb et al., 2013). Subduction of oceanic crust dur-
ing the Jurassic and Cretaceous led to the formation of nu-
merous volcano-plutonic complexes, some of which host por-
phyry copper deposits.
The Pebble deposit is related to igneous rocks that postdate
the deposition of the Late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous
Kahiltna assemblage (Wallace et al., 1989; Kalbas et al., 2007;
Hampton et al., 2010). Rocks of the Kahiltna assemblage crop

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422 ANDERSON ET AL.

A B 158°W 156°W 154°W

C 158°W 156°W 154°W
Arctic Ocean
Farewell
in
Alaska
terrane bas

Canad .
im Taylor Mountains Lake Clark
U.S.A
w
s kok
Ku

60°N

60°N
Pebble
a

ne
ra
Togiak in

er
as Rio

rt
Study Anchorage terrane b

a
tna

ul
Area il Iliamna Cook

ns
Cook
ah

ni
K

Pe
Inlet

59°N

59°N
Dillingham area
Pacific Ocean Inlet

D 158°W 156°W 154°W

t Neacola
ul
fa
a
itn lt
ol au Bonanza
H f
tna Hills
ha
ulc ne s
M o
ee nst
Shotgun Gr
ro tna
ilikad
Ch Kijik lt
k fau
Clar
60°N

ke
La
Pebble

Kemuk Figs. 2 & 5 Iliamna

lt
au
Iliamna

yf
Ba
Lake

n
ui
Iliamna Br

Dillingham Cook
59°N

Inlet
50 km

Quaternary deposits Glacier Sedimentary rocks

Jurassic-Cretaceous flysch deposits (Kahiltna
Igneous and metamorphic rocks assemblage and Kuskokwim Group); volcaniclastic
Cretaceous-Paleogene volcano-plutonic rocks and sedimentary rocks of the Togiak terrane
Triassic-Jurassic volcaniclastic and sedimentary
Jurassic plutonic rocks of the Talkeetna arc rocks of the Peninsular terrane
Triassic metamorphic rocks Ordovician-Cretaceous sedimentary rocks of the
Farewell terrane
Fault Mineral occurrence City

FIG. 1. Location and regional geology maps of southwestern Alaska. A. Index map. B. Lithotectonic terrane map of the
region. Exotic oceanic terranes (Peninsular and Togiak terranes) were accreted to the southern margin of Alaska. These ex-
otic terranes are overlapped by flysch deposits in the Kahiltna and Kuskokwim basins. The Pebble deposit is hosted in the
flysch rocks in the Kahiltna basin. C. Index map showing the outlines of the regional aeromagnetic surveys. D. Generalized
geologic map modified from Wilson et al. (2006). Triassic sedimentary rocks were intruded by Jurassic island-arc igneous
rocks, and all are overlain by flysch deposits. These rocks were later intruded and overlain by Cretaceous to Paleogene vol-
cano-plutonic rocks. Also shown are mineral occurrences in the study area and the locations for Figures 2 and 5.

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 AEROMAGNETIC DATA FROM THE PEBBLE PORPHYRY Cu-Au-Mo DEPOSIT, SW ALASKA
out along a ~400-km-long, NE-striking belt within the
Kahiltna basin (Fig. 1). They are mainly flysch deposits inter-
preted to have been derived primarily from the igneous rocks
of the Peninsular terrane to the southeast, with local contri-
butions from the Triassic Chilikadrotna Greenstones to the
northwest (Wallace et al., 1989; Wilson et al., 2006).
The Peninsular terrane is a Triassic to Jurassic island-arc
complex that was accreted to the North American craton by
the Early Cretaceous (Detterman and Reed, 1980; Jones et
al., 1987; Ridgway et al., 2002; Trop et al., 2002, 2005; Clift et
al., 2005). The terrane includes mafic to andesitic flows and
volcaniclastic rocks, limestone, and mudstone. These rocks
structurally overlie and are intruded by Jurassic plutonic
rocks of the Talkeetna arc (Reed and Lanphere, 1973; Reed
et al., 1983; Rioux et al., 2010). The plutonic rocks include
gabbroic to granitic compositions, but are dominated by
quartz diorite and tonalite rocks (Detterman and Reed, 1980;
Reed et al., 1983).
The Togiak terrane, located west of the Peninsular terrane,
is an island-arc complex that contains Late Triassic to Early
Cretaceous basaltic to dacitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks
and graywacke (Decker et al., 1994). These rocks were ac-
creted to the North American craton during the middle to
late Early Cretaceous (Box, 1985).
The Peninsular and Togiak terranes are separated by the
Farewell terrane (Fig. 1) that contains a Lower Paleozoic
through Lower Cretaceous continental margin sequence of
sedimentary rocks (Decker et al., 1994). Flysch deposits of
the Lower to Upper Cretaceous Kuskokwim Group uncon-
formably overlie rocks of the Farewell and Togiak terranes
and were structurally emplaced over the Kahiltna assemblage
(Wallace et al., 1989; Decker et al., 1994).
Cretaceous to Paleogene igneous rocks crop out extensively
in southwestern Alaska (Fig. 1; Reed and Lanphere, 1973; Wal-
lace and Engebretson, 1984; Moll-Stalcup, 1994; Bundtzen
and Miller, 1997; Wilson et al., 2006; Amato et al., 2007). The
intrusive rocks include granite, granodiorite, syenite, mon-
zonite, and diorite. Limited gabbroic rocks have been mapped.
The volcanic rocks are mostly of rhyolitic, dacitic, and basaltic
compositions.
Several NE-striking crustal-scale faults have been recog-
nized in southwestern Alaska (Fig. 1; Detterman et al., 1976;
Beikman, 1980). The Lake Clark fault extends from Lake
Clark northeast into the Alaska-Aleutian Range batholith
(Detterman et al., 1976). Based on offsets measured on
TABLE 1. Mineral Deposits and Occurrences in Southwestern Alaska
Name Commodities (minor) Type
Bonanza Hills Au, Ag Polymetallic vein
Iliamna Cu (Au, Mo) Porphyry
Kemuk PGE, Fe, Cu, Zn Alaska-type ultramafic complex
Kijik Cu, Au, Mo, Pb, Zn Porphyry
Neacola Cu, Mo Porphyry
Pebble Cu, Au, Mo (Ag, Pd, Re) Porphyry
Shotgun Au (As, Bi, Ce, Cu, T, W, Zn) Reduced intrusion-related gold;
porphyry
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423
aeromagnetic anomaly maps, Haeussler and Saltus (2005) es-
timated that there has been approximately 26 km of dextral
offset along the Lake Clark fault since the Eocene. Ivanhoe
(1962) suggested that approximately 10 km of offset has oc-
curred since the Tertiary, based on offsets of geologic units.
The Pebble district is located southwest of the mapped extent
of the Lake Clark fault. The fault has not been recognized
west of Lake Clark (Detterman and Reed, 1973, 1980; Plafker
et al., 1975; Koehler, 2010).
The Mulchatna fault is parallel to the Lake Clark fault
(Beikman, 1980). In general, the fault coincides with the
boundary between the Kuskokwim and the Kahiltna basins
and is interpreted to have significant dextral strike-slip and/or
dip-slip displacement since the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene
(Wallace et al., 1989). The Bruin Bay fault separates rocks of
the Alaska-Aleutian Range batholith from sedimentary rocks
to the southeast. The fault is interpreted as a high-angle re-
verse fault (Detterman and Hartsock, 1966; Detterman et al.,
1976). The Holitna fault is interpreted to be northwest side
up high-angle reverse with a dextral component (Wilson et
al., 2006).
Known mineral occurrences in the Pebble region
The Pebble region hosts numerous mineral occurrences
(Fig. 1; Table 1). In addition to the Pebble deposit, porphyry-
type mineralized rocks have been recognized in the Kahiltna
basin at the Kijik, Neacola, and Iliamna prospects. The Kijik
prospect contains veins and disseminated pyrite, pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite, and galena in porphyritic dacite that has under-
gone extensive propylitic and silicic alteration (Nelson et al.,
1985; Young et al., 1997; U.S. Geological Survey, 2008). At
Neacola, disseminated pyrite and bornite are found in a gra-
nodiorite with K/Ar hornblende ages of approximately 95 Ma
(Young et al., 1997; U.S. Geological Survey, 2008). The Il-
iamna Cu (Au-Mo) occurrence has porphyry-style mineral-
ized rock that is of uncertain age (J. Harrop, writ. commun.,
2011).
The Kuskokwim basin and Togiak terrane also host a num-
ber of mineral occurrences (Fig. 1). The Shotgun occurrence
contains arsenopyrite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite,
and sphalerite in quartz veins that cut hornfels adjacent to 70
to 68 Ma granitic intrusions (Rombach and Newberry, 2001).
Arsenopyrite- and stibnite-bearing quartz veins cutting dior-
ite, quartz monzonite, and quartz diorite are common at the
Bonanza Hills prospect (U.S. Geological Survey, 2008). The
Age (Ma) Reference
64 Nelson et al. (1985), Eakins et al. (1978)
unknown J. Harrop (writ. commun., 2011)
86 Humble Oil Refining Company (1959),
Foley et al. (1997), Iriondo et al. (2003)
Early Tertiary(?) Nelson et al. (1985)
95 Young et al. (1997)
90 Lang et al. (2013)
70 Rombach and Newberry (2001)
423
424 ANDERSON ET AL.

quartz monzonite has a K/Ar biotite age of approximately 64
Ma (Eakins et al., 1978). The Kemuk prospect contains
anomalous platinum, titaniferous magnetite, chalcopyrite, na-
tive copper, and sphalerite within an Alaska-type ultramafic
complex that is composed of clinopyroxene-, olivine-, and
hornblende-bearing rocks (Humble Oil Refining Company,
1959; Foley et al., 1997; U.S. Geological Survey, 2008). Bi-
otite from the ultramafic rocks has been dated at 86 Ma
(Iriondo et al., 2003). The occurrence is buried by 30 m to
more than 140 m of glacial overburden and was identified by
drilling that followed up an aeromagnetic anomaly (Humble
Oil Refining Company, 1959).
Geology of the Pebble district
The Pebble district contains igneous rocks that range from
Jurassic to early Tertiary in age (Gregory and Lang, 2009;
Lang et al., 2013). These rocks intrude Jurassic to Cretaceous
flysch deposits of the Kahiltna assemblage. Associated with
these igneous rocks are the Pebble porphyry Cu-Au-Mo de-
posit and several other porphyry-related occurrences (Fig. 2).
The Pebble deposit is spatially and temporally associated
with igneous rocks that were emplaced during multiple
pulses of magmatism. The oldest igneous rocks in the dis-
trict are Jurassic-Cretaceous basalt and related gabbroic in-
trusions (Bouley et al., 1995). These rocks crop out at the

155°30'W 155°20'W 155°10'W

59°55'N

en
rab
Pebble st G
Ea

Kaskanak
batholith

Koktuli
Mtn
䊉
Sill Zone
59°48'N

38 Zone
䊏 65 Zone
䊏
37 Zone 䉱
䊏
308 Zone

5 km

Tertiary Cretaceous Jurassic-Cretaceous

Volcaniclastic rocks Granodiorite Diorite Gabbro

Basalt, andesite, latite,
Monzonite Pyroxenite Basalt
rhyolite
Monzonite Monzodiorite Flysch

Mineral Occurrence 䊏 Porphyry 䊉 Epithermal 䉱 Skarn Pebble Fault

FIG. 2. Generalized geologic map of the Pebble district. Jurassic-Cretaceous basalt and related gabbroid intrusions and
flysch deposits were intruded by Cretaceous igneous rocks. The Pebble deposit is associated with calc-alkaline stocks that are
genetically related to granodiorite rocks of the Kaskanak batholith. Tertiary-aged monzonite intrusions and bimodal volcanic
rocks are also within the district.

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 AEROMAGNETIC DATA FROM THE PEBBLE PORPHYRY Cu-Au-Mo DEPOSIT, SW ALASKA 425

northern and southern ends of the district. Biotite pyroxen- Aeromagnetic Data
ite and diorite sills, cropping out to the southwest of the de- Aeromagnetic data have long been used as an aid in map-
posit, were emplaced about 98 to 96 Ma (Lang et al., 2013). ping and understanding porphyry-style deposits (Grant, 1985;
Diorite sills host much of the porphyry-style ores. Drilling Woods and Webster, 1985; Roy and Clowes, 2000; Behn et al.,
indicates that the Pebble deposit is genetically related to at 2001; Hildenbrand et al., 2001; Hoschke, 2008). Magnetic
least two granodiorite to quartz monzodiorite stocks that un- anomalies are caused by two different kinds of magnetism: in-
derlie the eastern and western sides of the deposit and have duced and remanent (permanent). The induced component
U-Pb dates of 91 to 89 Ma (Lang et al., 2013). The mainly is mostly determined by the magnetic susceptibility of the
unaltered Kaskanak batholith, composed almost entirely of rock, which is a dimensionless proportionality constant re-
granodiorite, crops out 5 km west of the Pebble deposit and ported in International System of Units (SI) that indicates the
has a U-Pb date of 90 Ma (Bouley et al., 1995). ability of the rock to become magnetized in the presence of a
The host rocks of the Pebble deposit have been exten- magnetic field and is predominantly a function of magnetite
sively altered (Lang et al., 2013). The earliest type of hydro- content. The remanent component depends on the thermal,
thermal alteration is sodic-calcic. The sodic-calcic–altered mechanical, and magnetic history of the rock and is indepen-
rocks are most strongly developed at depth where the min- dent of the field in which it is measured. In general, the in-
eral assemblage is characterized by calcite, albite, chlorite, duced component is predominant but the reverse is true in
rutile, and epidote. Primary magnetite in the host rocks was many igneous rocks. Rocks with higher magnetic susceptibil-
altered to hematite. The sodic-calcic alteration assemblage ities produce magnetic anomalies with larger variation in the
grades upward into a K-silicate alteration assemblage that is observed magnetic field than do rocks with lower magnetic
characterized by K-feldspar, biotite, and quartz, but lacks susceptibilities (Table 2).
magnetite. Zones of sodic-calcic– and potassic-altered Granitoids can be classified as being either of two series:
rocks are surrounded by a weak propylitic alteration halo in magnetite or ilmenite (Ishihara, 1981). Magnetite series rocks
diorite sills that locally contain hydrothermal magnetite. are typically derived from oxidized mafic melts generated in
Pervasive illite-altered rocks overprint both the sodic-calcic the mantle wedge during subduction processes. Ilmenite se-
and potassic alteration assemblages. The Pebble deposit ries magmas may be similarly derived, but they have contri-
consists of sulfides that are both disseminated and in butions from continental crustal rocks that provide carbon as
quartz-carbonate stockwork veins. Dominant sulfide miner- a reducing agent (Ishihara, 1981). The magnetite and il-
als are pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, and molybdenite (Lang menite series rocks can be distinguished by their magnetite
et al., 2013). and ilmenite content with magnetite series containing more
The Pebble district contains several other Cretaceous por- than 0.1 vol % magnetite and ilmenite series having an il-
phyry-related occurrences, including the 37, 308, 38, and 65 menite + magnetite content of less than 0.1 vol % (Ishihara,
zones (Fig. 2; Lang et al., 2013). The 37 zone is within diorite 1981). Thus, magnetite series rocks have relatively higher
and gabbro and consists of Cu-Au mineralized rocks associ- magnetic susceptibilities. Magnetite and ilmenite series plu-
ated with magnetite-bearing, garnet-, pyroxene-, carbonate-, tonic belts in the northern North America Cordillera have
and epidote-calc-silicate–altered rocks and sulfide-bearing been mapped by integrating lithological, geochemical, and
veins. The 308 and 38 zones are in similar settings with horn- geochronometric data with aeromagnetic characteristics and
blende-quartz-monzodiorite to granodiorite porphyry host magnetic susceptibility measurements (Hart et al., 2004). The
rocks that are cut by porphyritic monzonite. At 308 and 38, igneous rocks associated with the Pebble porphyry copper
Cu-Au-Mo mineralized rocks are associated with K-sili-
cate–altered rocks that are surrounded by quartz-sericite-
pyrite- and propylitic-altered rocks. The 65 zone contains TABLE 2. Magnetic Susceptibility of Common Igneous Rocks
anomalous molybdenum, copper, and gold in an area of in- (from Ford et al., 2008)
tensely altered rocks that includes quartz-sericite-pyrite, Magnetic Susceptibility (SI × 10–3)
propylitic, and lesser K-silicate assemblages.
The Pebble district has undergone multiple episodes of Rock type Min. Max. Average
faulting (Lang et al., 2013). A pre-, syn-, and posthydrother-
mal brittle-ductile fault zone trends northeast along the east- Rhyolite 0.2 35 N.A.
Andesite N.A. N.A. 160
ern side of the Pebble deposit. Eocene and older brittle ex- Granite 0 50 2.5
tensional faulting led to the formation of the NE-trending Quartz diorite, dacite 38 191 83
East Graben (Fig. 2). Following its formation, the Pebble de- Diorite 0.6 120 85
posit was tilted 20° E and the eastern part of the deposit was Diabase 1 160 55
Basalt 0.2 175 70
downthrown as much as 900 m. Gabbro 1 90 70
Post-Pebble age rocks include porphyritic monzonite intru- Peridotite 90 200 250
sions that were emplaced at ~65 Ma into basalts of unknown Pyroxenite N.A. N.A. 125
age in the East Graben (Lang et al., 2013). Monzonite intru- Monzonite, latite 33 135 85
sions and bimodal volcanic rocks were formed at ca. 46 Ma Acid igneous rocks 0 80 8
Basic igneous rocks 0.5 97 25
and are concentrated in the area of Koktuli Mountain (Lang Trachyte 0 111 49
et al., 2013). The bimodal volcanic rocks are associated with Syenite 0 111 49
the Sill zone, a low-sulfidation, epithermal-style mineralized
zone dated at ~46 Ma (Schrader et al., 2001). N.A. = not available

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426
deposit belong to the magnetite series (Lang et al., 2013) and
therefore are readily recognized in aeromagnetic surveys.
Aeromagnetic data may be collected at multiple resolu-
tions. Data resolution depends on both flight line spacing and
the height above ground that the survey is flown. High-reso-
lution data are collected along closely spaced flight lines at a
low observation height and provide a more detailed map of
the distribution of causative sources than do lower resolution
data collected at higher observation heights along more
widely spaced flight lines. Because the strength of the mag-
netic field decreases with the cube of the distance to the
source, a shallow source body has a shorter wavelength mag-
netic anomaly than a deep source body. Thus, the variations
in wavelengths of magnetic anomalies can help to determine
the depth to a causative body. The contrasting magnetic pat-
terns within an aeromagnetic data set allow for differentiation
of geologic units that have different magnetic properties and
susceptibilities.
Regional-scale aeromagnetic data from southwestern Alaska
Five regional-scale aeromagnetic surveys were flown in the
Pebble region along NW-trending flight lines (Fig. 1; Table
3). The data from the individual surveys (Connard et al.,
1999; U.S. Geological Survey, 2002, 2006a, b) were merged
into a single, continuous data set with a grid cell size of 400 m
(Anderson et al., 2011) and were processed using industry-
standard techniques (Luyendyk, 1997). The resulting data set
covers approximately 82,500 km2 over four 1:250,000-scale
quadrangle map sheets (Taylor Mountains, Lake Clark,
Dillingham, and Iliamna).
The merged regional aeromagnetic data were further
processed utilizing the reduced-to-pole (RTP) transform
method (Baranov and Naudy, 1964; Blakely, 1995) to better
align magnetic anomalies with causative geology. The RTP
transformation is a technique that recalculates total magnetic
intensity data as if the inducing magnetic field had a 90° in-
clination, as is the case at the north magnetic pole. This oper-
ation removes the dependence of magnetic data on the mag-
netic inclination and thus minimizes anomaly asymmetry due
to magnetic inclination and locates anomalies above their
causative bodies. The RTP transformation was applied using
an inclination of 72.6° and declination of 18.5°. Because of
the relatively steep inclination of the magnetic field in south-
western Alaska, there is only minimal difference between the
observed magnetic anomaly and the RTP transformation.
The RTP transformation of the regional aeromagnetic data
shows a number of contrasting magnetic anomalies (Fig. 3).
The dominant magnetic trend is NE-SW, parallel to the major
TABLE 3. Survey Specifications for Regional- and District-Scale Aeromagnetic Data Sets
Survey Year Nominal height (m) Flight line spacing (m)
Taylor Mountains 2004 305
Lake Clark 1977 305
Dillingham 2005 305
Rio 2000 305
Iliamna 2000 305
Pebble 2007 60
1 IGRF = International Geomagnetic Reference Field
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ANDERSON ET AL.
crustal-scale faults and belts of exposed igneous rocks. The
patterns in the magnetic anomaly data generally correlate
with known lithotectonic terranes. The area between the
Lake Clark and Mulchatna faults is characterized by both
high and low magnitude magnetic anomalies within the sedi-
mentary rocks of the Kahiltna basin. The Togiak terrane is
magnetically similar to the Kahiltna basin and contains two
prominent magnetic highs. The igneous rocks to the south of
the Lake Clark fault are characterized by magnetic highs. To
the northwest of the Mulchatna fault, sedimentary rocks of
the Kuskokwim basin display broad, moderate magnitude
magnetic anomalies.
The Kahiltna basin shows a complex magnetic pattern. The
basin has a relatively low magnetic background with scat-
tered magnetic highs of various dimensions and amplitudes.
The broad magnetic low correlates with both sedimentary
rocks and some Cretaceous to Paleogene igneous rocks
(Figs. 1, 3). The broad magnetic low has been referred to as
the southern Alaska magnetic trough and interpreted to re-
flect Mesozoic sedimentary rocks (Saltus et al., 1999). In
sharp contrast, clusters of magnetic anomaly highs align
northeast-southwest along the Lake Clark fault. The Pebble
district is contained within one such high, where Cretaceous
to Paleogene igneous rocks crop out (Fig. 1), suggesting that
Cretaceous to Paleogene igneous rocks have both a low and
high magnetic signature. Southwest of the Pebble district,
clusters of magnetic highs are present beneath Quaternary
cover. These highs are composed of moderate- to high-am-
plitude and moderate- to long-wavelength anomalies. The
highs are ovoid in shape with axial dimensions of about 40 ×
30 km and long axes trending N-NE, and thus are transverse
to the Lake Clark fault. The highs are spaced between 20 and
60 km apart. Between the highs are low- to moderate-ampli-
tude, short-wavelength anomalies that are commonly associ-
ated with mapped Cretaceous to Paleogene igneous rocks. A
northeasterly linear trend of low- to moderate-amplitude,
short-wavelength magnetic high anomalies 10 to 20 km south
of the Mulchatna fault corresponds to the Chilikadrotna
Greenstones.
The Peninsular terrane is dominated by magnetic anomaly
highs. The magnetic highs have been referred to as the south-
ern Alaska magnetic high and interpreted to reflect arc-re-
lated rocks and their basement (Saltus et al., 1999, 2007). The
high-amplitude, short- to moderate-wavelength anomalies ex-
tend for more than 200 km along a NE-SW trend. The conti-
nuity of the magnetic highs is suggestive of a broad belt of
magnetite-rich rocks. Two N-NE–trending linear magnetic
lows are within the magnetic highs. The southeastern low
IGRF1 Area (km2) Reference
1600 2000 18,870 U.S. Geological Survey (2006a)
1600 1980 21,130 Connard et al. (1999)
1600 2000 20,716 U.S. Geological Survey (2006b)
1600 1995 9,553 U.S. Geological Survey (2002)
1600 1995 16,207 U.S. Geological Survey (2002)
200 2007 426 Unpublished
426
 AEROMAGNETIC DATA FROM THE PEBBLE PORPHYRY Cu-Au-Mo DEPOSIT, SW ALASKA 427

158°W 156°W 154°W

t
ul
fa Farewell terrane
Neacola
itna
ol lt
H
a fau Bonanza
atn Hills
Kuskokwim basin h
ulc
M
Shotgun s
one
e nst
Gre
tna
ka dro Kijik lt
C hili fau
la rk
eC
60°N

sin k
ba Fig. 8 La
na
h ilt
Ka
Togiak Pebble Iliamna
terrane
Kemuk

ne
e rra
a rt
ul

lt
Iliamna ns

au
i
en

yf
property P

Ba
Dillingham
59°N

n
Cook

ui
Br
Inlet
50 km

nT
108 168 207 241 264 283 301 318 332 347 359 371 381 402 458 531 618 729 916

FIG. 3. Map showing the RTP transformed aeromagnetic data. The Pebble deposit is located within a cluster of magnetic
anomaly highs. Similar clusters are found to the northeast and southwest along the crustal-scale Lake Clark fault. Dashed
white lines indicate lithotectonic terranes from Figure 1. Location for Figure 8 is shown.

correlates with steeply dipping sedimentary rocks along
the Bruin Bay fault. The northern low follows the contact
between Talkeetna arc rocks and younger volcano-plutonic
rocks, but does not show a direct correlation with mapped
rock types. A broad, long-wavelength magnetic anomaly high
is observed east of the Bruin Bay fault, suggesting a relatively
deep magnetic source related to the Talkeetna arc beneath
the Cook Inlet (Saltus et al., 2007).
The Kuskokwim basin is characterized by a broad, moder-
ate-amplitude, long-wavelength magnetic anomaly high. The
magnetic pattern suggests a relatively deep magnetic source.
The Kuskokwim basin also shows moderate-amplitude, mod-
erate-wavelength magnetic lows surrounded by moderate-
amplitude, short-wavelength magnetic highs, as is illustrated
by the gold-bearing Shotgun intrusive complex. Moderate-
amplitude, short-wavelength magnetic highs surrounded by
moderate-amplitude, short-wavelength magnetic lows are
found 40 km to the east and west of Shotgun. In both loca-
tions, there are limited exposures of Cretaceous to Paleogene
igneous rocks (Fig. 1). Also, 30 km to the south of Shotgun is
a high-amplitude, short- to moderate-wavelength magnetic
high that correlates with outcropping Cretaceous to Paleo-
gene igneous rocks. The Bonanza Hills produce a moderate-
amplitude, short-wavelength magnetic high surrounded by a
ring of magnetic lows.
The Togiak terrane is dominated by two prominent high-
amplitude, short- to moderate-wavelength high magnetic
anomalies (Fig. 3). One of the anomalies is caused by near-
surface magnetite-rich pyroxenite that has been drilled at the
Kemuk occurrence where laboratory results indicate that re-
manent magnetization predominates over induced (Humble
Oil Refining Company, 1959; Foley et al., 1997). The larger
anomaly 35 km to the southwest is inferred to be related to
~84 Ma biotite granite and syenite (Iriondo et al., 2003).
In addition to the RTP transformation, an upward continu-
ation transformation of the aeromagnetic data was performed
to calculate the magnetic field at an elevation higher than that
at which it was originally measured. This transformation at-
tenuates near-surface effects and accentuates the anomalies
from deeper magnetic sources (Kellogg, 1953; Blakely, 1995).
Thus, this transformation highlights the longer spatial wave-
length anomalies at the expense of the shorter wavelength
anomalies. The aeromagnetic data from southwestern Alaska
were upward continued from the nominal survey height of
305 to 10,000 m (Fig. 4).
The upward continued data from the Kahiltna basin show a
linear trend of magnetic anomaly highs that correlate with
known porphyry-style occurrences (Fig. 4; from southwest to
northeast: Iliamna, Pebble, Kijik, and Neacola). Intrusions at
Pebble and the Neacola prospect have similar Late Cretaceous

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 427

428 ANDERSON ET AL.

158°W 156°W 154°W

lt
fa
u 䊏 Farewell terrane 䊏
a 䊏 䊏Neacola
䊏 itn 䊏
ol lt 䊏
fau 䊏䊏䊏
H Bonanza
tna Hills 䊏
ha 䊏 䊏 䊏䊏
ulc
Kuskokwim basin M 䊏 䊏 䊏
䊏 䊏 䊏
Shotgun
䊏
䊏 䊏 䊏
䊏 䊏 Kijik
lt
䊏 䊏
䊏 au
sin rkf
ba la
60°N

tna C
il ke 䊏
䊏 䊏 Ka
h
Fig. 8 La

䊏 Pebble 䊏
䊏
Togiak 䊏䊏䊏 䊏 䊏 䊏
䊏 䊏 䊏 䊏 䊏
䊏䊏
terrane 䊏 䊏䊏䊏䊏 䊏
䊏
䊏 䊏 䊏
䊏 䊏 䊏 ne 䊏䊏 䊏
Kemuk 䊏䊏 Iliamna rra 䊏
䊏䊏
䊏䊏䊏䊏
䊏䊏 䊏 ar te
䊏
䊏 ul 䊏
䊏 i ns
n
Pe
䊏 䊏 䊏 䊏䊏 䊏䊏䊏
䊏 Iliamna 䊏

lt
䊏 䊏䊏

au
property

yf
䊏

Ba
Dillingham
59°N

n
ui
䊏

Br
50 km 䊏 䊏
䊏

nT
250 289 302 312 321 329 339 348 353 360 368 382 412 441 475 513 548 593 647

Radiometric Ages: 42 - 21 Ma 74 - 55 Ma 101 - 84 Ma 135 - 183 Ma

FIG. 4. Map showing aeromagnetic data upward continued to 10 km. Also shown are radiometric age dates (U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, 1999; Iriondo et al., 2003; Amato et al., 2007). Igneous rocks older than 84 Ma are associated with magnetic
anomaly highs, whereas younger rocks can be found on both magnetic anomaly highs and lows. Dashed white lines indicate
lithotectonic terranes from Figure 1. Location for Figure 8 is shown.

isotopic ages (Young et al., 1997; Lang et al., 2013). The up-
ward continued magnetic anomalies in the Peninsular terrane
correlate with igneous rocks of Jurassic age. South of the Lake
Clark fault, magnetic highs in the Peninsular terrane corre-
late with a cluster of intrusive rocks with ages similar to those
of the Pebble deposit. The magnetic anomalies in the
Kuskokwim basin and Togiak terrane are similar. The two
magnetic intrusive centers in the Togiak terrane have radio-
metric dates similar to the age of the Pebble deposit. The
magnetic anomaly 30 km to the south of Shotgun does not
have a known dated igneous rock. The 70 to 60 Ma intrusive
rocks associated with Shotgun and Bonanza Hills are not evi-
dent in the upward continued data, nor are many of the ig-
neous rocks in the Kuskokwim and Kahiltna basins with ra-
diometric dates between 74 and 55 Ma.
Aeromagnetic data from the Pebble district
A high-resolution aeromagnetic survey was flown over the
Pebble district in 2007 (Table 3). Flight lines were spaced 200
m apart at a nominal height of 60 m above the surface. The
data were processed using industry standard data processing
techniques (Luyendyk, 1997).
The RTP map of these data shows many moderate- to high-
amplitude, short-wavelength anomalies characteristic of near-
surface magnetic sources (Fig. 5). Superimposed on this
pattern are both moderate- and high-amplitude, long-wave-
length anomalies, suggestive of deeper magnetic sources. The
magnetic anomalies mostly trend north to northeast.
The NE-striking, high-amplitude (~3000 nT), long-wave-
length magnetic highs in the southwestern corner of the district
correlate with mapped basalt and gabbro units (Fig. 5). Simi-
lar amplitude anomalies are found on the northern side of the
Kaskanak batholith, where they also correlate with known ex-
posures of basalt and gabbro. Neither the basalt nor gabbro
units have reported magnetite content or magnetic susceptibil-
ities, but magnetic susceptibilities are inferred to be relatively
high (Table 2). The longer wavelength anomalies associated
with the mapped basalt may indicate the rocks are relatively
thick or underlain by gabbro. Both sets of anomalies are su-
perimposed on a moderate-amplitude (~800 nT), long-wave-
length magnetic high anomaly. This broad magnetic anomaly
correlates with mapped granodiorite within the Kaskanak
batholith. The granodiorite has up to 2% magnetite (Bouley
et al., 1995) and a magnetic susceptibility of about 30 × 10–3

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 AEROMAGNETIC DATA FROM THE PEBBLE PORPHYRY Cu-Au-Mo DEPOSIT, SW ALASKA 429

155°30'W 155°20'W 155°10'W

59°55'N
gabbros
en
r ab
st G
basalts Ea
A A’
it es
d ior
no
gra

s
nite
oxe
Kaskanak
monzonites

pyr
batholith B B’

䊉
ga
bb
ro
s
Koktuli
59°48'N

ba Mtn
sa 䊏
lts 䊏
䉱
䊏

5 km

nT
-925 -390 -294 -217 -151 -86 -32 17 73 136 207 286 379 481 586 700 828 1010 9100

Mineral Occurrence 䊏 Porphyry 䊉 Epithermal 䉱 Skarn Pebble

FIG. 5. Map showing RTP transformed aeromagnetic data for the Pebble district. The simplified geologic units from Fig-
ure 2 are outlined in black. The broad magnetic anomaly high on the west side of the district is associated with granodiorite
rocks in the Kaskanak batholith. Igneous rocks older than the Kaskanak batholith show up as magnetic highs, whereas
younger igneous rocks are both magnetic highs and lows. The magnetic highs associated with Tertiary igneous rocks have sig-
nificantly shorter wavelengths than the anomaly associated with the Kaskanak batholith. The Tertiary monzonite intrusions
produce magnetic lows. Also shown are the locations of the profiles depicted in Figures 6 (A-A') and 7 (B-B').

SI. The large magnetic low within the Kaskanak batholith cor-
relates well with known volcaniclastic rocks (Fig. 2), indicat-
ing they may be nonmagnetic.
The RTP data do not show a distinct magnetic anomaly
over the Pebble deposit (Fig. 5). Instead, the data show a
magnetic gradient from high to low (west to east) over the de-
posit. This may be due to an increase in hydrothermal mag-
netite content in the shallower western part of the deposit
(Lang et al., 2013). Magnetic susceptibility measurements in
drill holes indicate a slight increase in magnetite along an
east-to-west traverse across the deposit (Fig. 6). Alternatively,
the magnetic gradient may simply indicate that the granodi-
orite of the Kaskanak batholith deepens to the east as estab-
lished by drilling.
Zones with porphyry-style mineralization elsewhere in the
district display magnetic highs (Fig. 5). These magnetic
anomalies may be due to the presence of either hydrothermal
magnetite or relatively shallow underlying magnetic rocks.
The prominent high-amplitude, moderate-wavelength
magnetic high in the center of the district (Fig. 5) correlates
with a mapped biotite pyroxenite unit. The biotite pyroxenite
has >10% magnetite (Bouley et al., 1995; Lang et al., 2013)
and a magnetic susceptibility around 300 × 10–3 SI. The
anomaly is >8000 nT and more than an order of magnitude
larger than other anomalies in the district (Fig. 7). This mag-
netic anomaly extends ~2.5 km to the south and ~1.5 km to
the east of the pyroxenite outcrop, suggesting that the pyrox-
enite unit extends to the south and east under cover.
Moderate- to high-amplitude (~400 nT), short-wavelength
anomalies trend north to northeast through the district paral-
lel to the trend of the East Graben (Fig. 5). These anomalies
are similar to those generated above Tertiary volcanic rocks

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 429

430 ANDERSON ET AL.

A A A’
400
Long wavelength Short wavelength
200
nT

-200

Reduced-to-Pole
-400

B
2158000 N 2158000 N

A -277 A’
ft

+277 ft

2156000 N
Reduced-to-Pole

C A A’

300 m
East Graben
Ter
ti
Cre ary
tace
0m ous

Basalt
-300 m

19.5 Hydrothermal magnetite?

17.4
-600 m 15.4
13.3
11.3
9.2
-900 m 7.2
5.1
3.1
1.0
-1200 m
Susceptibility
10–3 SI

1396000 E 1398000 E 1400000 E 1402000 E 1404000 E 1406000 E 1408000 E 1410000 E 1412000 E

FIG. 6. Cross section A-A' through the Pebble deposit. A. Profile of the RTP data illustrating long- and short-wavelength
anomalies. B. Map view of the RTP data along the cross section. The resource outline is shown in white. Warm colors indi-
cate magnetic highs and cool colors reflect magnetic lows. C. Cross section showing magnetic susceptibility measurements
in drillcore. In general, the deposit shows low magnetic susceptibility. However, elevated values in the shallow west side of
the deposit suggest the presence of magnetite which may be contributing to the elevated RTP data. Tertiary volcanic rocks
show high magnetic susceptibilities within the East Graben that correlate with RTP anomalies. Also shown in C is a dashed
line indicating the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. See Figure 5 for section location.

B B’
8000

6000 Cretaceous Tertiary Tertiary

RTP (nT)

pyroxenites
Cretaceous

granodiorites basalts monzonites

4000 (Kaskanak batholith) (East Graben) (Koktuli Mountain)
2000

0
360000 365000 370000 375000 380000
Easting (meters)
FIG. 7. Magnetic field profile B-B' across the Pebble district. The amplitude of the magnetic field is dominated by py-
roxenite. The Cretaceous granodiorite produces more intense magnetic anomalies than the Tertiary monzonite. Tertiary
basalt produces short-wavelength magnetic high anomalies. See Figure 5 for profile location.

within the East Graben. Magnetic susceptibility measure-
ments of these volcanic rocks indicate that they are highly
magnetic, but they have limited spatial extent (Fig. 6). Simi-
lar magnetic anomalies to the north of Kaskanak batholith
and to the northeast of Koktuli Mountain suggest the pres-
ence of additional near-surface volcanic rocks.
A magnetic low spatially related to known outcrops of Ter-
tiary monzonite rocks overlies Koktuli Mountain (Figs. 5, 7)
and indicates that these rocks are less magnetic than the gra-
nodiorite of the Kaskanak batholith. Low-sulfidation epither-
mal style mineralized zones are found on the east side of Kok-
tuli Mountain. Hydrothermal alteration associated with the

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 430

 AEROMAGNETIC DATA FROM THE PEBBLE PORPHYRY Cu-Au-Mo DEPOSIT, SW ALASKA 431

mineralization may have been magnetite destructive, reduc-
ing the magnetization of the igneous rocks.
Discussion
The regional aeromagnetic data show that the Pebble dis-
trict lies within a cluster of magnetic anomaly highs. The dis-
trict-scale aeromagnetic data indicate that the magnetic highs
correlate with mapped biotite pyroxenite, granodiorite, gab-
bro, and basalt. The biotite pyroxenite and granodiorite rocks
have been dated between 98 and 89 Ma, which coincides with
the age of porphyry-style mineralization in the Pebble district
(Lang et al., 2013). The Jurassic-Cretaceous gabbro and
basalt units have not been dated, but field mapping indicates
that these rocks are older than the granodiorite rocks of the
Kaskanak batholith. Tertiary basalt within the East Graben
appears to be volumetrically minor compared to the granodi-
orite rocks. The Tertiary monzonite rocks near Koktuli Moun-
tain produce magnetic lows. Thus, the cluster of magnetic
highs in the regional RTP data indicates that geology similar
to that at Pebble extends under cover for an additional 30 km
northeast of the Pebble deposit (Fig. 3).
The aeromagnetic response to the rocks in the Shotgun and
Bonanza Hills areas differs from the cluster of magnetic highs
surrounding the Pebble deposit (Fig. 3). The Shotgun area
shows moderate-amplitude, moderate-wavelength magnetic
lows surrounded by moderate-amplitude, short-wavelength
magnetic highs. Such anomalies are commonly associated
with reduced intrusion-related gold systems where plutons
have low magnetic response, but are surrounded by magnetic
highs reflecting pyrrhotite in hornfels zones (Hart, 2007).
Magnetic susceptibility measurements and geochemical data
from the Shotgun intrusive complex suggest that the reduced
granitoids in the hornfelsed Kuskokwim Group rocks are il-
menite series (Rombach and Newberry, 2001).
The magnetic anomalies surrounding Bonanza Hills show
an annulus similar to that around Shotgun but the highs and
lows are reversed. Similar magnetic anomalies are found 40
km west and east of Shotgun. The magnetic anomalies sur-
rounding Bonanza Hills are further complicated by the anom-
alies associated with the nearby Chilikadrotna Greenstones.
More work is needed to fully understand these magnetic
anomalies, but it is clear they differ significantly from the
anomalies around Pebble.
Palinspastic restoration of Alaska places the igneous rocks
associated with the Pebble deposit and Neacola prospect
within a magmatic belt subparallel to a Late Cretaceous sub-
duction zone (Young et al., 1997). Hart et al. (2004) suggested
the presence of a magnetite-series magmatic belt between
the Pebble deposit and the Neacola prospect. The magnetic-
field data support the presence of such a magmatic belt and
suggest it is extensive, with a length of more than 400 km
(Fig. 4). The aeromagnetic data are interpreted to reflect the
location of magnetite-series intrusive rocks within this belt.
The regional aeromagnetic data include clusters of magnetic
highs similar to those at Pebble along a NE trend parallel to
the Lake Clark fault (Fig. 3). These clusters are most obvious
in the upwardly continued data (Fig. 4). In the Pebble district,
the upward continued anomaly is centered over the Kaskanak
batholith and the genetically related hydrothermal systems
are on the flanks (Fig. 8). The upward continuation anomalies
are suggestive of a relatively deep magnetic source (Blakely et
al., 1985; Ressel and Henry, 2006; Saltus et al., 2007). Alter-
natively, these anomalies could indicate the presence of volu-
minous, magnetic rocks at the surface, such as basalt flows, al-
though there is little geologic evidence to support this
possibility (Fig. 2). The upward continued magnetic anomaly
in the Pebble district is interpreted to reflect the granodiorite
rocks of the Kaskanak batholith. On the flanks of the anomaly

A 155°30'W 155°20'W 155°10'W

B 155°30'W 155°20'W 155°10'W
C 155°30'W 155°20'W 155°10'W

East Graben East Graben

59°55'N

59°55'N
59°55'N

East Graben
iltiht k

ol ak

ol ak
ool aka
thth aann

th an

th an
h

ith

ith
bbaa aasskk

ba ask

ba ask
KK

䊉 䊉 䊉
Koktuli Koktuli Koktuli
Mtn
59°48'N

59°48'N

Mtn
59°48'N

Mtn 䊏
䊏 䊏 䊏 䊏 䊏
䉱 䉱 䉱
䊏 䊏 䊏

5 km 5 km 5 km

FIG. 8. Comparison of the interpreted magnetic data sets over the Pebble district. Warm colors indicate magnetic highs
and cool colors reflect magnetic lows. A. District-scale RTP data showing that magnetic anomaly highs are largely over the
Kaskanak batholith. Also evident are basalts in the East Graben. Younger monzonite rocks on Koktuli Mountain are imaged
as a magnetic low. B. Zoomed in regional-scale RTP data showing that the Kaskanak batholith correlates with clusters of mag-
netic anomaly highs. In contrast are the magnetic anomaly lows on Koktuli Mountain. The graben basalts are evident but are
less resolved than in the district-scale data. C. Zoomed-in regional-scale upward continued data show that the anomaly is cen-
tered over the Kaskanak batholith and that the Cretaceous age hydrothermal systems are found on the flanks of the anomaly.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 431

432 ANDERSON ET AL.
and batholith are several genetically related porphyry de-
posits or occurrences (Pebble, 37, 308, 38, and 65 zones).
Porphyry deposits in other districts commonly are found in
clusters flanking a batholithic body (Seedorff et al., 2005).
The Kijik occurrence, 75 km to the northeast of the Pebble
district, is located on the edge of an upward continued anomaly.
The intrusive rocks at this occurrence have not been dated.
However, spatially associated with this anomaly are three
mafic to intermediate dikes with 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages from
hornblende between 101 and 97 Ma (Amato et al., 2007),
which are only slightly older than the igneous rocks at Pebble.
The geochemistry of these calc-alkaline dikes is similar to
both typical arc- and rift-related rocks. Whether mineraliza-
tion at Kijik is genetically related to these calc-alkaline rocks
is unknown, but the similar aged igneous rocks together with
the interpreted aeromagnetic signature make this area highly
prospective for porphyry-style deposits.
Approximately 80 km northeast of Kijik, and within another
upwardly continued anomaly, is the Neacola porphyry
prospect, with ~95 Ma K/Ar hornblende ages on associated
igneous rocks (Young et al., 1997). Like the Pebble district,
the Neacola hydrothermal system is located on the flanks of
an upward continued anomaly. Rocks with radiometric age
dates between 101 and 84 Ma, similar to the intrusive rocks
at Pebble, are exposed along the flanks of this anomaly.
Upward continued magnetic anomalies also extend to the
southwest of the Pebble deposit (Fig. 4) in an area dominated
by Quaternary surficial deposits (Fig. 1). A magnetic anomaly
90 km to the southwest of the Pebble district coincides with
porphyry-style mineralization at the Iliamna prospect that is of
uncertain age. This hydrothermal system is on the flanks of the
upward continued anomaly. The anomaly 40 km farther to the
southwest of the Iliamna prospect has not been investigated.
The granitic intrusive rocks at Shotgun and Bonanza Hills
have radiometric age dates between 70 and 64 Ma (Eakins et
al., 1978; Rombach and Newberry, 2001). These rocks do not
produce magnetic anomalies within the upward continued
data, suggesting they lack a relatively deep magnetic source.
Upward continued anomalies also are present off-strike of
the Lake Clark fault in the Togiak terrane and Kuskokwim
basin. The anomaly at Kemuk is associated with 86 Ma ultra-
mafic rocks. The anomaly 35 km to the southwest of Kemuk
has 84 Ma igneous rocks associated with it; however, little else
is known. The RTP data show the anomaly has a similar wave-
length to the magnetic anomaly over Kemuk; however, the
axial dimension of the anomaly is significantly longer. The
RTP data show several highs along the axis of the composite
anomaly, suggesting a series of magnetic sources along the
axis. The highs have similar dimensions to the Kemuk anom-
aly and may indicate additional Alaska-type ultramafic com-
plexes. Further work is needed to better understand this
complex anomaly. The magnetic anomaly 30 km to the south
of Shotgun is similar to the prominent magnetic anomaly over
Kemuk. Both anomalies are elongated along a north-south di-
rection approximately 15 km in size, and fringed by a mag-
netic low. Although speculative, the similarities suggest the
poorly understood magnetic anomaly to the south of Shotgun
may represent another Alaska-type ultramafic complex.
High-resolution aeromagnetic data from the Pebble district
indicate that the area contains a variety of igneous rocks with
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 432
different magnetic properties. The oldest rocks associated
with the Pebble age igneous event are 98 to 96 Ma biotite py-
roxenites. These rocks are strongly magnetic and form a high-
amplitude, moderate-wavelength magnetic high in the center
of the district. The youngest Cretaceous igneous rocks in the
Pebble area are the granodiorites of the Kaskanak batholith.
These rocks correlate with moderate-amplitude, long-wave-
length magnetic highs that are interpreted to be the main
source for the upward continued anomaly over the Pebble
district.
Porphyry deposits are associated with large volumes of hy-
drothermally altered rock (Lowell and Guilbert, 1970; Silli-
toe, 2010). Magnetite may be produced or destroyed during
alteration, thus making high-resolution aeromagnetic data a
potentially effective exploration tool. The high-resolution,
district-scale aeromagnetic data over the Pebble deposit do
not show a distinct magnetic high or low; however, other
hydrothermal systems in the district do correlate with mag-
netic highs. More work is needed to understand the magnetic
response of the hydrothermal systems in the district. In gen-
eral, RTP transformation of the high-resolution data appears
better suited for mapping igneous rocks, rather than zones of
hydrothermal alteration.
The geometry of the upward continued magnetic anom-
alies from the regional aeromagnetic data in the Pebble re-
gion is similar to clusters of porphyry copper centers along
the Domeyko fault system within the late Eocene to early
Oligocene porphyry copper belt of northern Chile (Fig. 9).
These clusters are spaced 20 to 100 km apart and are locally
5 to 30 km across (Sillitoe, 2010). The upwardly continued
magnetic anomalies in the Pebble area of southwestern Alaska
display similar spacing and dimensions. The Alaska anomalies
appear to be aligned along the Lake Clark fault system, which
may be analogous to the Domeyko fault system, an arc-paral-
lel, crustal-scale structure.
Large aeromagnetic anomalies along the Domeyko fault
system have been interpreted to reflect common parental in-
trusive complexes above which porphyry copper deposits
cluster (Behn et al., 2001). Goldfarb et al. (2013) suggest that
the Lake Clark fault system, which forms the boundary be-
tween the Peninsular terrane and Kahiltna basin, provided a
crustal-scale pathway for ascent and emplacement of subduc-
tion-related magmas during the Late Cretaceous. Such
crustal-scale structures are critical for the formation of por-
phyry copper systems (Richards, 2003). The upward contin-
ued magnetic anomalies in southwestern Alaska thus may
represent potential intrusions from which porphyry copper
systems evolved. The upward continued anomaly over the
Pebble district has five porphyry occurrences within it (Peb-
ble, 37, 308, 38, and 65 zones), suggesting multiple hydro-
thermal systems within a single upward continued anomaly.
Magmatic belts have been previously recognized in south-
western Alaska (Fig. 10). Wallace and Engebretson (1984)
and Moll-Stalcup (1994) defined three subparallel NE-strik-
ing magmatic belts: (1) the 74 to 55 Ma Alaska Range-Tal-
keetna Mountains belt, (2) the 76 to 60 Ma Kuskokwim
Mountains belt, and (3) the 66 to 47 Ma Yukon-Kanuti belt.
Petrological, geochemical, and isotopic studies indicate that
the igneous rocks in these belts are subduction related (Wallace
and Engbretson, 1984; Moll-Stalcup, 1994). The Kuskokwim
 AEROMAGNETIC DATA FROM THE PEBBLE PORPHYRY Cu-Au-Mo DEPOSIT, SW ALASKA 433

A
Northern Chile

Gaby Sur
Ujina Conchi
Chuquicamata
Collahuasi El Abra Minsa Mina
Quebrada Blanca Toki Esperanza
Domeyko fault system
Copaquire
Spence


50 km

B
Southwest Alaska

Neacola
Iliamna
property Pebble Kijik

Lake Clark fault

 50 km

FIG. 9. Spatial comparison of porphyry copper deposits in northern Chile and southwestern Alaska. Porphyry copper de-
posit clusters in northern Chile and upward continued anomalies in southwestern Alaska are outlined in black and overlain
on digital elevation models. The porphyry clusters in northern Chile have been attributed to a common parental intrusive
complex at depth that is imaged in magnetic anomalies (Behn et al., 2001). Both the clusters of porphyry deposits in Chile
and the upward continued anomalies in southwestern Alaska are concentrated along major, crustal-scale structures. Such
structures may provide pathways for intruding magmas associated with porphyry deposit formation.

Mountains belt largely coincides with the Kuskokwim mineral
belt (Bundtzen and Miller, 1997). The subduction-related
184 to 164 Ma Talkeetna arc is oriented parallel to these belts
(Reed and Lanphere, 1973; Reed et al., 1983; Rioux et al.,
2010). Isotopic dating indicates that the belts generally young
to the northwest, suggesting landward arc migration (Moll-
Stalcup, 1994; Rioux et al., 2010). The age of the intrusive
rocks associated with the Pebble deposit is outside the range
of ages of known magmatic arcs in the area (Fig. 10).
The upward continued magnetic anomalies along the Lake
Clark fault are interpreted to reflect a Late Cretaceous (101–
89 Ma) magnetite-series magmatic belt within which the Peb-
ble porphyry copper deposit formed (Fig. 10). The magnetic
signature of this belt differs significantly from the younger
magmatic belts; in particular, differing from the Late Creta-
ceous to early Tertiary precious metal-bearing Kuskokwim
Mountains belt where the plutonic rocks are largely ilmenite-
series (Bundtzen and Miller, 1997) and further illustrated at
the gold-bearing Shotgun intrusive complex. The Jurassic
plutonic rocks of the Talkeetna arc produce intense, relatively
continuous magnetic highs that are interpreted to reflect arc-
related rocks and their basement (Saltus et al., 1999, 2007).
The newly recognized belt of magnetic anomaly highs is in-
terpreted to reflect batholiths composed of magnetite-series
igneous rocks around which hydrothermal systems may have
developed, as illustrated by the Kaskanak batholith and the
multiple Late Cretaceous hydrothermal systems in the Peb-
ble district. At a broad scale, the inferred igneous rocks asso-
ciated with the magnetic anomalies support a landward
(northwest) subduction related arc migration. Because por-
phyry copper deposits are commonly found in linear, orogen-
parallel belts (Sillitoe and Perelló, 2005; Sillitoe, 2010), this
newly recognized belt of magnetic anomalies might represent
a highly prospective area for porphyry Cu exploration in the
northern North American Cordillera.
Conclusions
Large parts of southwestern Alaska that are extensively cov-
ered by Tertiary and Quaternary deposits are highly prospec-
tive for porphyry-style deposits similar to the giant Pebble
porphyry Cu-Au-Mo deposit. Regional- and deposit-scale
aeromagnetic data provide a means of looking through younger
cover rocks to delineate the distribution of magnetic igneous
rocks. Analysis of regional aeromagnetic data indicates that
the Pebble deposit is located within a cluster of magnetic
highs. Magnetically similar clusters, some that contain intru-
sive rocks with ages similar to those at Pebble, form a >400-
km-long belt extending to both the northeast and southwest
of Pebble. These clusters are concentrated along the crustal-
scale Lake Clark fault. Upward continuation analysis of these

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 433

434 ANDERSON ET AL.

60°N 165°W 160°W 65°N 155°W

165°W

Yukon-Kanuti (66 - 47 Ma)

Kuskokwim Mountains (76 - 60 Ma)

Shotgun

Kemuk Bonanza Hills

Pebble Neacola Alaska Range - Talkeetna
Kijik
160°W

Iliamna Mountains
property (74 - 55 Ma)
arc (184 - 164 Ma)
Talkeetna
Alaska

nlet
Cook I
Anchorage
Pebble
䉱

nt
te
ex


200 km

ap
m
nT
-143 -105 -84 -69 -56 -46 -37 -30 -23 -16 -8 0 12 25 38 56 80 120 194

FIG. 10. Map showing compilation of aeromagnetic data upward continued to 10 km (Saltus, unpub. data) and previously
recognized magmatic belts in southwestern Alaska (Reed and Lanphere, 1973; Wallace and Engebretson, 1984; Moll-Stal-
cup 1994; Bundtzen and Miller, 1997). The upward continued anomalies described here are subparallel to the known mag-
matic belts and are attributed to magnetite-series granitoids that are along the landward margin of the Jurassic Talkeetna arc.
The intense magnetic anomalies in the Talkeetna arc reflect island arc-related rocks and their basement and extend across
Cook Inlet (Saltus et al., 1999, 2007). The younger magmatic belts, most notably the Kuskokwim Mountains where plutonic
rocks are largely ilmenite-series, are not as evident in the upward continued data. The white polygon depicts the trend of the
upward continued anomalies in southwestern Alaska that may be intrusive centers of similar igneous rocks as found at the
Pebble deposit.

anomalies suggests that they are associated with relatively deep
magnetic sources, such as the Kaskanak batholith in the Peb-
ble district, and that hydrothermal systems are located on the
flanks of the anomalies. The geometry of the upward contin-
ued anomalies shows similarities to the late Eocene to early
Oligocene porphyry copper belt of northern Chile. The up-
ward continued anomalies are thus interpreted to reflect a
mainly buried, early Late Cretaceous magmatic arc (101–89
Ma) that is subparallel to younger Late Cretaceous to Paleo-
gene magmatic belts to the northwest (present-day coordi-
nates) and to an older Jurassic magmatic arc to the southeast.
The subparallel orientation of the early Late Cretaceous mag-
matic arc to the younger and older arcs, as well as a landward
(northwest) younging trend, indicates similar subduction
zone geometry. Thus, the upward continued anomalies may
represent subduction-related oxidized magmatism prior to
landward arc migration where the intrusions become more
reduced in character.
Acknowledgments
The Pebble Limited Partnership between Northern Dy-
nasty Mineral and Anglo American is thanked for access to
data and logistical support for field work. We are grateful to
James Lang for his comments on the igneous petrology and
geology of the Pebble deposit. Misac Nabighian is thanked
for his assistance with the aeromagnetic data processing and
reviews of the manuscript. Reviews by Dave John, Terry
Hoschke, Howard Golden, William Atkinson, Jr., and Rich
Goldfarb have substantially improved earlier versions of the
manuscript.

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 AEROMAGNETIC DATA FROM THE PEBBLE PORPHYRY Cu-Au-Mo DEPOSIT, SW ALASKA
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