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Compared with men who were less symmetrical, more symmetrical men tended to engage in
competition with the rival, such as by directly comparing themselves with and belittling him.
However, what is necessary for the development of language is not the input of some specific
language, but rather any kind of structured linguistic input. Proofread and edit your essay before
submission to eliminate all typo, grammatical, and factual errors. The individual strives to establish
meaningful relationships with significant others. The prevalence of extrapair mating in humans
suggests that both strategies may be pursued simultaneously: Resources may be extracted from one
high-investing male while extrapair matings are pursued with other males who display indicators of
high genetic quality (see earlier discussion of the function of female orgasm). The female participants
then rated the male interviewee’s attractiveness both as a potential long-term mate and as a short-
term mate. How are we to explain this extraordinary richness of life. The following section then
examines some of the key debates between. Hominid is the term given to a species in the family.
Another view relating to the role of sex in driving evolution relates to the fact that gametes undergo
meiosis and mitosis forms of cell division. Chester Barnard, who was president of New Jersey Bell
Telephone Company, introduced the idea of the informal organization — cliques (exclusive groups of
people) that naturally form within a company. Also, restate your thesis statement using different
words to make your paper sound integrated and logical. For example, consider that females of given
lizard species have a preference for males with an enlarged and elaborate head crest. Even if females
receive nothing more than sperm from their mates, they are likely to have healthier, more viable, and
more attractive offspring if they mate with the best quality males. Interestingly, scholar's discoveries
on evolution congregate or converge making it an argument in favor of his view. It is useful to
mention here that resistant mutants are often rendered less fit more than the “wild type.”. Our expert
writers know where and how to gather relevant information for any evolution topic. This implies that
Europeans were the first to speak, paint, carve, dress, weave and exchange goods. Their answer is
that people do not strive for self-esteem as some kind of end point or ultimate goal. Another
example is theory and research on father involvement and timing of daughters’ reproductive
development. By the end of the decade, he has controlled 90 per cent of the industry. It is also not
clear whether domain specificity is best characterized by way of specific computational mechanisms
or in terms of domain-specific bodies of mental representations (Samuels, 2000). The shift to
bipedalism was not simply a matter of changes in the anatomy of early hominids; it was also the
result of changes in behavioral proclivities and in the complex neural programs dedicated to the
balance and coordination required for upright walking. Arguments both for and against evolution can
be backed by strong science. Also it is argued that the development in the functioning of the hand
has had an impact on brain evolution. Nonevolutionary psychological explanations, by contrast,
generally focus on how traits work in terms of proximate social, developmental, cognitive, or neural
processes. This meta-analysis demonstrated a strong negative relationship between parasite load and
the expression of male secondary sexual characteristics. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory helped
managers visualize employee motivation. However, the theory that has received a lot of attention is
the evolution theory. Some examples of common research paper styles include.
Aristotle was the first biologist that identified humans as rational animals that have a distinctive
ability to reason and make judgments, due to which they are different from other animals.Cela-
Conde and Ayala assert in their book that all organisms tend to have common ancestors (1). In this
experiment of trial selection, brighter the male guppy is more likely he will be seen and eaten by the
predators. Chapter 3: Remnants-Vestiges, Embryos, and bad Design. These differences in what
Trivers (1972) has termed parental investment have wide-ranging ramifications for the evolution of
sex differences in body, mind, and behavior. Studies have shown that phylogenetic hypothesis based
on cranial and dental data is incompatible with molecular phylogenies; as such, phylogenetic
hypothesis on human evolution cannot be relied (Coyne, 2009). Second, the development of a
number of important middle-level evolutionary theories in the 1960s and 1970s, such as kin selection
theory (Hamilton, 1964), parental investment theory (Trivers, 1972), and reciprocal altruism (Trivers,
1971) provided the basis for important new programs of research in evolutionary biology and
psychology. Females who consistently choose the brightest, most ornamented males are likely to be
choosing mates who are in the best condition, which reflects the males’ underlying genetic quality.
This theory posits that individuals have evolved to be sensitive to specific features of their early
childhood environments, and that exposure to different early environments biases individuals toward
acquisition of different reproductive strategies. The second hypothesis suggests the opposite, but
only for females: Women married to men who are perceived as more attractive than the self will
relax their mate retention efforts. The man could potentially sire 100 children, whereas the woman
could potentially give birth to one or two. The polar bear’s thick coat arose through natural selection
because it served to ward off the bitter-cold arctic weather during the polar bear’s evolutionary
history. Some, like language, are firmly anchored in approximately the last 2 million years; others,
such as infant attachment, reflect a much lengthier evolutionary history (Hrdy, 1999). In the new
economic climate, managers of all types of organizations—political, educational, and
economic—were increasingly trying to find better ways to satisfy customers’ needs. For example, a
group of physicists who adopt a Newtonian metatheory may construct several competing middle-
level theories concerning a particular physical system, but none of these theories would violate
Newton’s laws of mechanics. The aforementioned forces have a close relationship with the aspect of
isolating mechanism whereby through natural means organisms are unable to breed. Each physicist
designs his or her middle-level theory to be consistent with the basic assumptions of the metatheory,
even if the middlelevel theories are inconsistent with each other. In many species of birds with
biparental care, males adjust their subsequent paternal investment (e.g., feeding of nestlings)
depending on their degree of paternity certainty as determined by such factors as time spent with the
mate and degree of extrapair matings in which she has engaged. One of the important challenges for
evolutionary psychology, therefore, lies in fleshing out the details of putative psychological
adaptations such as self-esteem. Bats also have specialized mechanisms that protect their ears while
they are emitting loud sounds, and their faces are shaped to enhance the detection of their returning
echoes. This can mean that skin start to age more quickly and making you. Common ancestry is
received positively by a majority within the scientific field (Coyne, 2009). Nevertheless, you can find
information on most of these topics from reliable sources. Usually, this should appear in the first or
second sentence of the paper. It resulted in changes in the joints, toes, arms, the spinal column, and
the pelvis. The critical role of natural selection is in this is also an undisputed fact. Natural selection
Is most easily described by how a species survives because of traits dictated by their surroundings.
Elton Mayo's contributions came as part of the Hawthorne studies, a series of experiments that
rigorously applied classical management theory only to reveal its shortcomings. Selfesteem, therefore,
functions to motivate individuals to pursue courses of action that can restore or improve their
acceptance by relevant others. Biologists have hypothesized that individuals with good genes are
better able to buffer themselves against these genetic and environmental insults and thus tend to be
more symmetrical. Many major economic, technical, and cultural changes were taking place at this
time.
Continuous natural selection results in the modification of forms and organs so that they perfectly
adapt to the new environments and habitats. In particular, the author explains various experiments
conducted in the laboratory, and that reveal the continuity of the modern evolutionary processes.
Here are some impressive and easy research paper topics to write an extraordinary paper. In contrast,
in species such as humans in which both males and females typically make high levels of investment
in offspring, sex differences in mating competition and behavior should be more muted. Darwin
pioneered the field of evolutionary theory in the mid-19th century. Youll also come across different
topics touching on various legal issues. Females, by contrast, are constrained by the number of eggs
that they can produce and (in species with parental care) the number of viable offspring that can be
raised. Later, Frank and his wife Lillian studied job motions using a motion-picture camera and a
split-second clock. As a result, she was a pioneer and often not taken seriously by management
scholars of her time. Indeed, researchers operating outside of the evolutionary umbrella had never
thought to look at the relation between fathers’role in the family and daughters’maturational tempo.
Under these conditions, males compete with each other for mating access to females and readily
pursue multiple mating opportunities. Evolutionary psychologists conceptualize sexual jealousy as a
biological adaptation designed by sexual selection to reduce paternity uncertainty and the threat of
relationship loss (e.g., Daly et al., 1982). Sexual jealousy should be a universal emotion that is
experienced in all cultures when a valued sexual relationship is threatened by a rival. We begin by
describing (a) the primary set of metatheoretical assumptions that are consensually held by
evolutionary scientists and (b) the special set of metatheoretical assumptions that distinguish
evolutionary psychology. After all, back on the Pleistocene savanna there were no fast food outlets,
plastic surgery, antibiotics, dating advertisements, jet airliners, and the like. Skin darkness, which
depends on the pigment melanin, is controlled by a number of poorly understood genes and is also
under evolutionary control. Suffering of women created the concept of feminism. This is also
exactly what one would anticipate as a result of a common origin (Coyne, 2009). Belsky, Steinberg,
and Draper (1991; see also Surbey, 1990) added to this theory the hypothesis that girls from
paternally deprived homes should also experience earlier pubertal maturation. Many major economic,
technical, and cultural changes were taking place at this time. He classified organisms in accordance
with their complexity of structure and function, or the “ladder of life” (Johnston, Ian, 1999).
Perhaps, you don’t even know where to start or write your essay without compromising on quality.
This chapter focuses on the origin of the species (Coyne, 2009). That way, you can grab your
reader’s attention and interest. Ultimately, anthropology has the means via its multiple disciplines, to
find the answers to the questions of human origin, human evolution, and how cultures, languages,
and religions, also, evolve over time. Unfortunately, some patients are not finishing their prescribed
antibiotics leaving bacteria alive In their bodies that are resistant to the drug. Research shows that
human brain has evolved rapidly in the last 10,000 years. One hallmark that a trait is the product of
natural selection is that it demonstrates adaptive complexity —that is, the trait is composed of a
number of interrelated parts or systems that operate in concert to generate effects that serve specific
functions (Dawkins, 1986; Pinker, 1997). The first hypothesis suggests that individuals (both women
and men) married to others who are perceived as more attractive than the self will devote more effort
to mate retention than will individuals married to others who are perceived as equally or less
attractive than the self. While scientists have uncovered a vast amount of certainties regarding
evolution, allow scientists to embark on explorations of theories and questions that remained elusive
even just ten years ago. By continuing we’ll assume you’re on board with our.
Lastly, the ones known as the modern humans are the species known as Homo sapiens, essay on
human evolution. For example, parental investment theory (Trivers, 1972) applies evolutionary
metatheory to the question of why, when, for what traits, and to what degree selection favors
differences between the sexes in reproductive strategies. Evolutionary psychology, as we have
introduced it in this research paper, can be viewed historically as part of a long tradition of attempts
to explain human psychological characteristics in evolutionary terms. The use of a coherent and
powerful set of middle-level theories, the focus on evolved domain-specific psychological
mechanisms, and a commitment to rigorous empirical testing, however, sets evolutionary psychology
(in some respects) apart from its predecessors. The period after the Civil War was marked by rapidly
increasing urbanization. Do pre-work: find reliable sources which are based on the evolution mater,
find the sphere which needs a better explanation, develops the room for your ideas by completing
the mind map. Its not difficult to find some decent American literature research paper topics.
Overall, the decade of 1860-1870 can be described as a turbulent one. The common ones include
genetic drift, mutations, natural selection and gene flow. We offer high-quality assignments for
reasonable rates. Therefore, through gene flow, a new population may arise or there might be
modification of an organism within a population. A recent meta-analysis of studies assessing parasite
load, immune function, and the expression of secondary sexual characteristics in a diverse array of
species has found that the fullest expression of sexually selected traits is positively related to immune
system functioning and negatively related to parasite load (Moller et al., 1999)—that is, the
brightest, largest, most ornamented individuals are also the ones with the smaller number of
parasites and the most robust immune systems. This change highlighted the benefits of 2 of our
greatest tools - adaptability and social cohesion. It follows, therefore, that for evolution to be factual
there should be indication for marsupial relocation from America through Antarctica to Australia.
Like modern humans, they had an upright posture, walked on two feet, and used hands to eat and to
defend themselves. It commences with the evolutionary costs of sex and depicts males as being the
underprivileged sex compared to the female sex. We use cookies to create the best experience for
you. The newest ideas for widening veins and arteries may not be the same materials used for
supporting organs. This category has some of the most controversial topics to explore when writing a
research paper. The EEAfor our species is sometimes loosely characterized as the Pleistocene—the
2-million-year period that our ancestors spent as hunter-gatherers in the African savanna, prior to the
emergence of agriculture some 10,000 years ago. Evolution by natural selection is based on four
components observed in the natural world. Contributors to this school of thought include Max
Weber, Henri Fayol, Mary Parker Follett, and Chester I. Barnard. These theorists studied the flow of
information within an organization and emphasized the importance of understanding how an
organization operated. The Red Queen hypothesis says that organisms need to evolve constantly in
order to survive. It is this feature of human cognitive organization that allows for the tremendous
flexibility and creativity of human thought processes (Browne, 1996). Share to Twitter Share to
Facebook Share to Pinterest. Access This Document Applying Evolutionary theory To Human
Behaviour: Past. Males with large crests increase their inclusive fitness by enhanced mating
opportunities and females advance their inclusive fitness because they are more likely to have male
offspring with the enlarged crest, who will in turn be more likely to succeed in mating contexts. In
contrast, in species such as humans in which both males and females typically make high levels of
investment in offspring, sex differences in mating competition and behavior should be more muted.
After the need is satisfied, however, it is no longer is a motivator. Aside from these, there are other
theories that scientists recognize, essay on human evolution, like the savannah hypothesis, the aridity
hypothesis, the turnover pulse hypothesis, and the Red Queen hypothesis. Dead Genes: Attention is
also focused on pseudogenes.
Total quality management (TQM) focuses on analyzing an organization’s input, conversion, and
output activities to increase product quality. The man could potentially sire 100 children, whereas the
woman could potentially give birth to one or two. In such species, males who invest paternally run
the risk of devoting time and energy to offspring who are not their own. Many mechanisms—such
as landscape preferences, sexual jealousy, and reasoning processes—may be domain-specific in the
sense of addressing specific adaptive problems, but they are neither clearly localized (neurally
speaking) nor especially autonomous from other systems. It seems most plausible to suggest that there
is a considerable degree of integration and interaction between different psychological mechanisms
(Karmiloff-Smith, 1992). A very interesting way to see evolution is how bacteria are evolving to
become resistant to modern antibiotics. Evolution is focused on the change of a certain species — in
this case, humans — goes through while natural selection refers to how organisms adapt to a change
in their environment. The general principles of genetical evolution drawn from modern evolutionary
theory, as outlined by W. D. Hamilton (1964) and instantiated in more contemporary so-called selfish
gene theories of genetic evolution via natural and sexual selection, provide a set of core
metatheoretical assumptions for answering these questions. Kesner and Olton describe anagenesis as
progress of the humankind in evolutionary context (15). Are cleaning chemicals a danger to people
who use them. Through genetic variation, human evolution essay, only the healthy organisms are able
to reproduce. Present and support your argument in the body paragraphs. Similarly, the
dopaminemediated reward mechanisms found in the mesolimbic system in the brain evolved to
provide a pleasurable reward in the presence of adaptively relevant stimuli like food or sex. Middle-
level theories elaborate the basic assumptions of the metatheory into a particular psychological
domain. In my view, such a change could not be possible within such a short span of time.
Unfortunately, some patients are not finishing their prescribed antibiotics leaving bacteria alive In
their bodies that are resistant to the drug. We use the term evolutionary psychological metatheory to
refer inclusively to this primary and special set of assumptions together. That two of the three
predictions garnered strong support provides indirect support for the hypothesis. Before this
landmark event, the fastest communication between the two continents had taken at least a week;
after the cable was laid, messages could be transmitted instantaneously. Third, many of the
adaptations that humans possess have their origins in time periods that substantially predate the
Pleistocene era. However, the runaway process has to begin with a preference that is usually based
on actual viability or is the result of sensory bias. That is, our hands today are more capable of fine-
grained motor skills and in response brain has developed abilities to motor these skills (Ruse, 2012).
One of the common misconceptions is that the modern man directly descended from an ancient line
of apes. In this research paper we have offered an introduction to some of the key ideas, issues, and
methods that guide applications of evolutionary theory to human cognition and behavior. The logic
behind this hypothesis is that individuals who are married to relatively attractive partners are at
greater risk of losing them. Access This Document Applying Evolutionary theory To Human
Behaviour: Past. In this section we review parental investment theory and good genes sexual
selection theory as exemplars of middle-level evolutionary theories. We recognize, of course, that
these sex roles are sometimes reversed. According to the theory, this understanding has the effect of
canalizing a developmental track that has predictable outcomes for girl’s reproductive behavior at
maturity. You human evolution essay free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to
write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. In the Middle Ages, Greek classical
learning was preserved by the Islamists and from here Christian thinkers, like Abelard and Aquinas
brought together the theories of Aristotle and Plato and used it to further the cause of natural
theology.