(Definitions and Formulae)

Year 2023-24

MATHEMATICS
CLASS: XII
Special Thanks to
Mr D.SREENIVASULU, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,B.Ed. PGT(MATHEMATICS), KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 1

 CLASS 12 : CBSE MATHEMATICS (2023-24)
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
➢ TYPES OF RELATIONS:
• EMPTY RELATION: A relation 𝑅 in a set 𝐴 is called empty relation, if no element of 𝐴 is
related to any element of 𝐴, i.e., 𝑅 = ∅ ⊂ 𝐴 × 𝐴.
• UNIVERSAL RELATION: A relation 𝑅 in a set 𝐴 is called universal relation, if each element of 𝐴 is
related to every element of 𝐴, i.e. , 𝑅 = 𝐴 × 𝐴.
• TRIVIAL RELATIONS: Both the empty relation and the universal relation are sometimes called trivial
relations.
• A relation R in a set A is called
a) Reflexive, if (𝑥, 𝑥) ∈ 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
b) Symmetric, 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (𝑦, 𝑥) ∈ 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴
c) Transitive, 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑦, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑅𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴
• EQUIVALENCE RELATION: 𝐴 relation 𝑅 in a set 𝐴 is said to be an equivalence relation if 𝑅 is
reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
➢ TYPES OF FUNCTIONS:
ONE-ONE (INJECTIVE) FUNCTION: A function ƒ: A→B is said to be one-one (or injective) , if the images of
distinct elements of A under the rule ƒ are distinct in B, i.e for every a, b € A,
a ≠ b than ƒ (a) ≠ ƒ(b) or we also say that ƒ(a) = ƒ(b) than a = b .

• ONTO (SURJECTIVE) FUNCTION : A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑋 → 𝑌 is said to be onto (or surjective), if every

element of 𝑌 is the image of some element of 𝑋 under f. i.e., for every 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌, there exists an
element 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑋 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.
NOTE: f : X → Y is onto if and only if Range of f = Codomain.
• BIJECTIVE FUNCTION: A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑋 → 𝑌 is said to be bijective, if 𝑓 is both oneone and onto.
• COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS: Let 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔 ∶ 𝐵 → 𝐶 be two functions. Then the composition of 𝑓
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔, denoted by 𝑔𝑜𝑓, is defined as the function 𝑔𝑜𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐶 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑔𝑜𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓
(𝑥)), ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
• INVERTIBLE FUNCTION : A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑋 → 𝑌 is defined to be invertible, if there exists a function 𝑔
∶ 𝑌 → 𝑋 such that 𝑔𝑜𝑓 = 𝐼𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑔 = 𝐼𝑦 (i.e 𝑔𝑜𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑓𝑜𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑦) The function 𝑔 is called the
inverse of 𝑓 and is denoted by 𝑓−1 NOTE: If 𝑓 is invertible, then 𝑓 must be one-one and onto and
conversely, if 𝑓 is one-one and onto, then 𝑓 must be invertible.

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 2

 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
➢ PRINCIPAL VALUE BRANCHES:

RANGE (Principal Value

FUNCTION DOMAIN Branch)

sin−1 𝑥 [−1, 1]

cos−1 𝑥 [−1, 1] [0, 𝜋]

tan−1 𝑥 R

cosec−1 𝑥 𝑅 − (−1,1)

sec−1 𝑥 𝑅 − (−1,1)

cot−1 𝑥 R (0, 𝜋)

➢ PROPERTIES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS:

• sin(sin−1 𝑥) = 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1]

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• sin−1(−𝑥) = − sin−1 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1]
• cosec−1(−𝑥) = − cosec−1 𝑥, |𝑥| ≥ 1
• tan−1(−𝑥) = − tan−1 𝑥 , 𝑥∈𝑅

• cos−1(−𝑥) = 𝜋 − cos−1 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1],

• sec−1(−𝑥) = 𝜋 − sec−1 𝑥, |𝑥| ≥ 1

• cot−1(−𝑥) = 𝜋 − cot−1 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

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SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 3

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MATRICES
➢ ORDER OF A MATRIX : A general matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 can be written as

= [𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖 = 1,2, … 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗 = 1,2, … 𝑛

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠 = 𝑛

➢ TYPES OF MATRICES:

• COLUMN MATRIX: A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column.

Examples:

• ROW MATRIX: A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row

Examples: 𝐴 = [14 26] 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 1 × 2

𝑩 = [0 √7 12] 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 1 × 3

• SQUARE MATRIX: A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns, is said
to be a square matrix.

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 4

 Examples:

• DIAGONAL MATRIX: A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛 is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non-

diagonal elements are zero

Example:
• SCALAR MATRIX : A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are equal

Example :
• IDENTITY MATRIX: A square matrix in which elements in the diagonal are all 1 and rest are all zero
is called an identity matrix.

Example : , generally it is denoted by I.

• ZERO MATRIX: A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero.

Examples : ,

➢ EQUALITY OF MATRICES: Two matrices 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛 are said to be equal if (i)

they are of the same order (ii) each element of 𝐴 is equal to

the corresponding element of 𝐵, that is 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗.

Example: Let , we say that 𝐴 = 𝐵

➢ OPERATION OF MATRICES:

• ADDITION OF MATRICES: Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛 be two matrices of the same order.

Then 𝐴 + 𝐵 is defined to be the matrix of order of 𝑚 × 𝑛 obtained by adding corresponding

elements of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

i.e 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 5

 • DIFFERENCE OF MATRICES: Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛 be two matrices of the same order.

Then 𝐴 − 𝐵 is defined to be the matrix of order of 𝑚 × 𝑛 obtained by subtracting corresponding

elements of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

i.e 𝐴 − 𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 − 𝑏𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛

• MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES: The product of two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 is defined if the number of

columns of 𝐴 is equal to the number of rows of 𝐵.

Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑗𝑘]𝑛×𝑝 . Then the product of the matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the matrix

𝐶 of order m × p. To get the (𝑖, 𝑘)𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑘 matrix 𝐶, we take the i th row of 𝐴 and 𝑘 th column of

𝐵, multiply them elementwise and take the sum of all these products. i.e

Example: Let

• MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX BY A SCALAR: Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛and 𝑘 is a scalar, then

𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘[𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛 = [𝑘. 𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛

Example:

➢ TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX: If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛 be an m × n matrix, then the matrix obtained by

interchanging the rows and columns of 𝐴 is called the transpose of 𝐴.

Transpose of the matrix 𝐴 is denoted by 𝐴′ or 𝐴T .

If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑚×𝑛, then 𝐴′ = [𝑎𝑗𝑖]𝑛×𝑚

Example:
➢ SYMMETRIC MATRIX: A square matrix If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗] is said to be symmetric if

𝑨′ = 𝑨, that is, [𝑎𝑖𝑗] =[𝑎𝑗𝑖] for all possible values of 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 6

 Example: .

➢ SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX: A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗] is said to be skew symmetric matrix if

A′ = – A, that is 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖 for all possible values of i and j and 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0 for all i.(all the diagonal

elements are zero).

➢ Example:

➢ INVERTIBLE MATRICES: If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists another square

matrix B of the same order m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is

called the inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by A– 1. In that case A is said to be invertible.

➢ PROPERTIES OF MATRICES:
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• Every square matrix can possible to express as the sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric

matrices.

, where is symmetric matrix and is

skew-symmetric matrices.

• Apply a sequence of row operation on A = IA till we get, I = BA. The matrix B will be the

inverse of A. Similarly, if we wish to find A–1 using column operations, then, write A = AI

and apply a sequence of column operations on A = AI till we get, I = AB. The matrix B will

be the inverse of A.

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 7

 • After applying one or more elementary row (column) operations on A = IA (A =

AI), if we obtain all zeros in one or more rows of the matrix A on L.H.S., then A –1 does not

exist.

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DETERMINANTS
➢ DETERMINANT:

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➢ MINORS: Minor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of a determinant is the determinant obtained by

deleting its ith row and jth column in which element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 lies. Minor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗

is denoted by 𝑀𝑖𝑗.

➢ CO-FACTORS: Cofactor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , denoted by 𝐴𝑖𝑗 is defined by 𝐴𝑖𝑗 =

(−1)𝑖+𝑗. 𝑀𝑖𝑗 , where 𝑀𝑖𝑗 is minor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗

➢ ADJOINT OF A MATRIX: The adjoint of a square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗] is defined as the transpose

of the matrix [𝐴𝑖𝑗] , where 𝐴𝑖𝑗 is the cofactor of the element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 . Adjoint of the matrix A is

denoted by adj A.

➢ INVERSE OF A MATRIX: Let A be a square matrix.

➢ SOLUTION OF SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS BY USING MATRIX METHOD:

Let the system of linear equations be

𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑏1𝑦 + 𝑐1𝑧 = 𝑑1
𝑎2𝑥 + 𝑏2𝑦 + 𝑐2𝑧 = 𝑑2
𝑎3𝑥 + 𝑏3𝑦 + 𝑐3𝑧 = 𝑑3
These equations can be written as
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥 𝑑1
[𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2] [𝑦] = [𝑑2]
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑑3

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 8

 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
𝑋 = 𝐴−1𝐵

• 𝐴−1𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠, 𝑖𝑓 |𝐴| ≠ 0 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒.

• 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠.

• 𝑖𝑓 |𝐴| = 0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐵.

• 𝐼𝑓 |𝐴| = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐵 ≠ 𝑂 , (O being zero matrix), then solution does not exist and the

system of equations is called inconsistent.

• 𝐼𝑓 |𝐴| = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐵 = 𝑂, then system may be either consistent or inconsistent

according as the system have either infinitely many solutions or no solution.

➢ IMPORTANT NOTES:

• The matrix A is singular if |𝐴| = 0

• |𝜆𝐴| = 𝜆𝑛|𝐴|,𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴
• 𝐴(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴) = (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐴 = |𝐴|𝐼
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• |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|
• (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1𝐴−1
• |𝐴−1| = |𝐴|−1
• |𝐴𝑇| = |𝐴|

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABLITY

CONTINUITY: Suppose f is a real function on a subset of the real numbers and let a be a point

in the domain of f. Then f is continuous at a i.e 𝐿𝐻𝐿 = 𝑅𝐻𝐿 = 𝑓(𝑎) lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Let

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 9

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• Product Rule:

• Quotient Rule:

• Chain Rule: Let

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• Logarithmic Differentiation: Let 𝑦 = [𝑢(𝑥)]𝑣(𝑥)

Note: In above all formulas, 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒙

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 10

 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
RATE OF CHANGE OF QUANTITIES

1) Area of circle (A) = 𝜋𝑟2

Rate of change of area =

2) Circumference of circle (C) = 2𝜋𝑟

Rate of change of Circumference =

3) Perimeter of a rectangle (P) = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦), where x = length , y = width

Rate of change of Perimeter

4) Area of rectangle (A) = 𝑥. 𝑦 , where x = length , y = width

Rate of change of area =

5) Volume of cube (V) =𝑥3, where x = edge of cube

Rate of change of Volume =

6) Surface area of cube (S) = 6𝑥2

Rate of change of Surface area =

7) Volume of sphere (V) =

Rate of change of Volume =

8) Surface area of Sphere (S) = 4𝜋𝑟2

Rate of change of Surface area =

9) Total cost = C(x), where C(x) isi Rupees of the production of x units Marginal cost

= 𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝑥

10) Total Revenue = R(x)

Marginal Revenue = 𝑑𝑅

𝑑𝑥

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 11

INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTION

➢ Let I be an interval contained in the domain of a real valued function f. Then f is said

to be

(i) increasing on I 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑦), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼.

(ii) strictly increasing on I 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑓(𝑦), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼 (iii) decreasing

on I 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑦), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼.

(iv) strictly decreasing on I 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑓(𝑦), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼

➢ (a) f is strictly increasing in (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓’(𝑥) > 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)

(b) f is strictly decreasing in (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝑖𝑓 𝑓’(𝑥) < 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)

➢ A function will be increasing or decreasing in R if it is so in every interval of R

➢ f is a constant function in [𝑎, 𝑏] 𝑖𝑓 𝑓’(𝑥) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎,𝑏)

MAXIMA AND MINIMA

First Derivative Test:

Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Let f be continuous at a critical point c in I.

Then

(i) If f ′(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, then c is a point
of local maxima and maximum value of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓( 𝑐) .
(ii) If f ′(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c, then c is
a point of local minima and minimum value of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓( 𝑐) .
(iii) If f ′(x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither a point of local
maxima nor a point of local minima. Infact, such a point is called point of inflexion.
Second Derivative Test
Let f be a function defined on an interval I and c ∈ I. Let f be twice differentiable at c. Then
(i) 𝑥 = 𝑐 is a point of local maxima if 𝑓 ′(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓 ″(𝑐) < 0 The values f (c) is local maximum
value of f .
(ii) (ii) x = c is a point of local minima if 𝑓 ′(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓 ″(𝑐) > 0 In this case, f (c) is local
minimum value of f .

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 12

 (iii) The test fails if 𝑓 ′(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓 ″(𝑐) = 0. In this case, we go back to the first derivative
test and find whether c is a point of maxima, minima or a point of inflexion.
Absolute maxima and absolute minima (maxima and minima in a closed interval)
• Given 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [𝑎, 𝑏]

• Find 𝑓’(𝑥)

• Let 𝑓’(𝑥) = 0

• Find critical values. (i.e find the values of x if 𝑓’(𝑥) = 0 ). say

𝑥 = 𝑥1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑥2

• Calculate 𝑓(𝑎), 𝑓(𝑥1), 𝑓(𝑥2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑏).

• Identify maxima and minima values of f(x).

INDEFINITE & DEFINITE INTEGRALS

(i) Integration by substitution

(ii) ) Application of trigonometric function in integrals
(iii) Integration of some particular function
(iv) Integration using Partial Fraction
(v) Integration by Parts
(vi)Some Special Integrals
(vii) Miscellaneous Questions
(i) Definite Integrals based upon types of indefinite integrals
(ii) Definite integrals as a limit of sum
(iii) Properties of definite Integrals
(iv) Integration of modulus function

I N T E G R A T I O N
FORMULAS
x n+1
 x dx = +c ; 2.  dx = x + c ;
n
1.
n +1
2
3
dx − 1
3.  x dx = x 2 + c ;
3
4.  x2 = x + c ;
dx
5.  = 2 x +c ; 6.  e x dx = e x + c ;
x
ax dx
7.  a x dx =
log a
+c; 8. x = log x + c
9.  sin xdx = − cos x + c ; 10.  cos xdx = sin x + c ;

11.  sec 2 xdx = tan x + c ; 12.  sec x. tan xdx = sec x + c ;

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 13

 13.  cos ecx. cot xdx = − cos ecx + c ; 14.  cos ec 2 xdx = − cot x + c
dx dx
15. 1− x 2
= sin −1 x + c = − cos−1 x + c ; 16. x x −1 2
= sec −1 x + c = − cos ec −1 x + c

dx
17.  = tan −1 x + c = − cot −1 x + c ; 18.  sec xdx = log sec x + tan x + c ;
1+ x 2

19.  cos ec xdx = log cos ecx − cot x + c ; 20.  tan xdx = log sec x + c
dx 1 a+x
21.  cot xdx = log sin x + c ; 22. a−x 22
=
2a
log
a−x
+c

dx 1 x−a dx 1 x
23. x = log +c; 24.  2 = tan −1 + c ;
−a2 2
2a x+a a +x 2
a a
dx x dx x
25.  = sec −1 + c 26.  = sin −1 + c ;
x x2 − a2 a a2 − x2 a
dx dx
27.  = log x + x 2 − a 2 + c ; 28.  = log x + a 2 + x 2 + c ;
x2 − a2 a +x 2 2

x a −x2 2 2
a x
29.  a 2 − x 2 dx =
2
+ sin −1 + c
2 a
x x −a 2 2
a 2
30.  x 2 − a 2 dx =
2
− log x + x 2 − a 2 + c ;
2
x x +a 2 2
a2
31.  x 2 + a 2 dx =
2
+ log x + x 2 + a 2 + c
2
32.  f ( x ).g ( x )dx = f ( x ).G ( x ) −  G (x ). f ( x )dx 1 I Inverse Trigonometry Functions
Here preference for first function in “BY PARTS” 2 L Logarithmic Functions
G(x) is integration of g(x) 3 A Algebraic Functions
4 T Trigonometric Functions
5 E Exponential Functions
Important conversions
1. tan 2 x = sec 2 x -1 2. cot 2 x = cosec 2 x -1 3. cos 2 mx =
(1 + cos 2mx ) 4. Sin 2 mx =
(1 − cos 2mx )
2 2
  mx mx
5. 1  Sin x = 1  cos  − x  6. 1+ cos m x = 2 cos2 7. 1- cos m x = 2 sin 2
2  2 2

Algebra of Integration
1.  ( f (x )  g ( x ))dx =  f (x )dx   g (x )dx 2.   f ( x )dx =   f ( x )dx

3.  f (ax)dx = F (x ) + c
1
a
4.  f (x + b)dx = F (x + b) + c .

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 14

 Types of integrations
1) In the integration if function have trigonometric ratio, logarithmic or exponential function in which the
index is f(x) put f (x) = t.
2) For  Sin n xdx /  Cos n xdx /  sin n x.Cos n xdx here m or n is odd integer. Separate Sin x / Cos x having
odd index and express the balance as 1-Cos 2 x / 1- Sin 2 x and Put Sin x / Cos x = t.
3) For  Sec n x.dx /  Co sec n x.dx with n positive even integer .Separate Sec 2 x / Co sec 2 x and express the
balance as 1 + tan 2 x / 1 + cot 2 x and put tan x / cot x = t.
dx
4) For  m n
with m + n = 2 k ,.Divide num. and deno. by Cos m+ n x and put tan x = t.
sin x. cos x
ax + b
5) For  (ax + b ). cx + d .dx OR  dx Express a x + b = A (c x + d) + B and find A, B by
n
cx + d
comparing
ax + b
6) For  (ax + b). cx 2 + dx + e .dx /  dx
cx 2 + dx + c
Express a x + b = A (c x 2 + d.x + e) + B and find A, B by comparing.
7) If degree of Num. is greater than that of Deno. ,First divide Num. by Deno. And express as mix Fraction.
dx
8)  , put x= t m.n 9.  e x ( f ( x) + f ( x) )dx = e x . f ( x) + c
n
x− x m

cos.x sin .x dx
10)  dx OR  dx Put x  a = t For  Divide Num. and Den.
cos(x  a) sin( x  a ) sin( x − a) sin( x − b)
dx
By sin (b-a ) and in Num. and express sin( b-a ) = sin[(x-a)-(x-b)] For  Divide
sin (x − a ) cos(x − b )
Num. and Den. By cos (b-a ) and express cos( b-a ) = cos[(x-a)-(x-b)]
11.  e sin bx.dx OR  e cos bx.dx integrate two times using “integrate by parts”
ax ax

dx dx
12.  Quadratic OR  Quadratic
Express Quadratic as perfect square.

x2 1
 x 4 + kx 2 + 1 dx , Divide Num. and Deno. by x and express the denominator as perfect square with
2
13.

sign opposite to that of num.

dx
 a. sin 2 x  b cos2 x  c ; Express c = c.1=c ( sin x + cos x ) and divide num.& denominator by Cos
2 2
14.
2
x and put tan x = t.
a sin x a cos x + b sin x a sin x + b cos x
15.  b sin x + c. cos x dx ,  c sin x + d cos x dx ,  d sin x + e cos x dx ; Put Num.= A (Den.)+B dy/dx (Den.)
dx dx
16.  x(x n + 1) ,multiply and divide by x
n −1
17.  , Put Linear = t
linear linear
dx dx
18.  Linear Qadratic , Put Linear = 1 / t 19.  ; Put Linear = t
Quadratic Linear

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 15

 INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTION
P ( x) A B P( x) A B C D
1. = + 2. = + + +
(x −  )(x −  ) (x −  ) (x −  ) (x −  ) (x −  ) (x −  ) ( x −  ) ( x −  ) ( x −  )
3 2 3

P ( x) Ax + B C P ( x) A B
= 2 + = 2 + 2
(x +  )(x −  ) (x +  ) (x −  )
3. 4.
2
( x + a)( x + b) x + a x + b
2 2

NOTE: Partial fraction can be applied only to proper fractions.

Intrigation as limit of sum:

b

 f ( x)dx = lim h [ f(a + h) + f (a + 2h) + ------------ + f (a + nh)]

a
h →0

n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)

(i) 1 + 2 + 3 + ---------- + n = ; 1 + 2 2 + 3 2 + -----------+ n 2 =
2 6

 n(n + 1)
2

13 + 2 3 + 3 3 + ------------ + n 3 =  
 2 
rn −1 eh −1
(ii) a + ar + ar 2 + ---------+ ar n = a iii) lim =1
r −1 h →0 h
Properties of definite intrigation:
a b a a a

1. 
a
f ( x).dx = 0 2. 
a
f ( x).dx = −  f ( x).dx
b
3. 
0
f ( x).dx =  f (a − x).dx
0
b c b

4.  f ( x).dx =  f ( x).dx +  f ( x).dx

a a c
Here a < c < b

5.  f ( x).dx =
−a
0 if f (− x) = − f ( x) i.e. f ( x) is odd function.

2.  f ( x).dx if f (− x) = f ( x) i.e. f ( x) is even function.

0
2a

6.  f ( x).dx =
0
0 if f ( 2a − x ) = − f ( x )

2.  f ( x).dx if f ( 2a − x ) = f ( x )
0
b b

7. 
a
f ( x).dx =  f ( z )dz
a

b b

8.  f ( x).dx =  f (a + b − x).dx
a a

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 16

 APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS

➢ CURVE –

➢ LINE

• CIRCLE

• PARABOLA

• ELLIPSE

STEPS

DRAW THE DIAGRAM

MAKE A SHADED REGION

FIND INTERSECTION POINTS

IDENTIFY THE LIMITS

WRITE THE INTEGRAL(S) FOR THE REGION

EVALUATE THE INTEGRAL

THE VALUE SHOULD BE POSITIVE

1)

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 17

 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Methods of solving First Order and First Degree Differential Equations

➢ Differential Equations with Variables seperables ➢

Homogeneous differential equations ➢ Linear differential
equations.

Differential Equations with Variables separables

• Let the differential equation be

then 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
then integrate on both sides ∫ 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

• Let the differential equation be then

then integrate on both sides

• Let the differential equation be then

then integrate on both sides

Homogeneous differential equations

❖ A function 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be homogeneous function of degree n if

𝐹(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆𝑛𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦)
❖ A differential equation of the form is saidto be homogeneous if F(x,y) is a
homogeneous function of degree zero
i.e. if 𝐹(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆0𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦)

Steps to solve the homogeneous differential equation of the type:

• Let 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥

•
• Substitute 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 and in
• Then use variables and separables in terms of 𝑦 and 𝑣 only

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 18

Steps to solve the homogeneous differential equation of the type:

• Let 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦

•
• Substitute and
• Then use variables and separables in terms of and only

Linear differential equation

Steps to solve the Linear differential equation of the type:

❖
❖
❖

Steps to solve the Linear differential equation of the type:

❖
❖ ❖

VECTORS
➢ Position vector of the point
➢
➢ Let then

➢ Unit vector of , is denoted by

➢ Let is said to be a unit vector if

➢ Projection of
➢

THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

❖ Direction cosines of a line are the cosines of the angles made by the line with the positive
directions of the coordinate axes.
Let a line making the angles with axis are repectively. Direction cosines
are

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 19

❖ If are the direction cosines of a line, then l2 + m2 +n2 = 1.
❖ Direction ratios of a line joining two points are

❖ If are the direction cosines and are the direction ratios of a line then

❖ Direction cosines of a line joining two points

2 2 2
where PQ= √ (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )

❖ Direction ratios of a line are the numbers which are proportional to the direction cosines of a line.
❖ Skew lines are lines in space which are neither parallel nor intersecting. They lie in different planes.
❖ Angle between skew lines is the angle between two intersecting lines drawn from any point
(preferably through the origin) parallel to each of the skew lines.
❖ If are the direction cosines of two lines; and is the acute angle between
the two lines; then
❖ If are the direction ratios of two lines and is the acute angle

between the two lines; then

❖ Vector equation of a line that passes through the given point whose position vector is and
parallel to a given vector .

❖ Equation of a line through a point and having direction cosines is

❖ The vector equation of a line which passes through two points whose position vectors are

❖ Cartesian equation of a line that passes through two points

❖ If is the acute angle between

❖ If are the equations of two lines, then the acute angle

between the two lines is given by .
❖ Shortest distance between two skew lines is the line segment perpendicular to both the lines.

❖ Shortest distance between

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 20

 ❖ Shortest distance between the lines:

❖ Distance between parallel lines

LINEAR PROGRAMMING
(i) LPP and its Mathematical Formulation

(ii) Graphical method of solving LPP (bounded and unbounded solutions)

**Solving linear programming problem using Corner Point Method. The method comprises of the following

1. Find the feasible region of the linear programming problem and determine
points(vertices) either by inspection or by solving the two equations of the lines intersecting at the point.
2. Evaluate the objective function Z=ax+ by at each corner point. Let M and m, respectively
denote the largest and smallest values of these points
.
3. (i) When the feasible region is bounded, M and m are the maximum and minimum values of Z.
(ii) In case, the feasible region is unbounded, we have:
4. (a) M is the maximum value of Z , if the open half plane determined by ax+ by >M has no point in
common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z has no maximum value.
(b) Similarly, m is the minimum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by ax+ by<m has no point in
common with the feasible region. Otherwise, Z has no minimum value.

PROBABILITY

Concepts
(i) Conditional Probability
(ii)Multiplication theorem on probability

(iii) Independent Events

(iv) Baye’s theorem, partition of sample space and Theorem of total probability

(v) Random variables & probability distribution

Mean & variance of random variables

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 21

(vi) Bernoulli,s trials and Binomial Distribution

SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS/CONCEPTS

** Sample Space and Events:
The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called the sample space of that experiment. It is usually
denoted by S. The elements of S are called events and a subset of S is called an event.
Ø (⊂ S) is called an impossible event and
S (⊂ S) is called a sure event.

** Probability of an Event.
(i) If E be the event associated with an experiment, then probability of E, denoted by P(E) is defined
as

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐸
P(E) = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑆

It being assumed that the outcomes of the experiment in reference are equally likely.

(ii) P(sure event or sample space) = P(S)=1

And P(impossible event) = P(ø)=0.

(iii) If 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 … … , 𝐸𝑘 are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events associated with an experiment
(i.e. if 𝐸1 ∪ 𝐸2 ∪ 𝐸3 ∪, , , ,∪ 𝐸𝑘 ) = S and
𝐸𝑖 ∩ 𝐸𝑗 = ∅ for i, j ∈ {1,2,3,…,k} i≠ 𝑗) then
P (𝐸1 ) + P (𝐸2 ) + P (𝐸3 ) + …. + P (𝐸𝑘 ) = 1.

(iv) P (E) + P(𝐸 𝑐 ) = 1

** If E and F are two events associated with the same sample space of a random experiment, the
conditional probability of the event E given that F has occurred, i.e. P(E|F) is given by P(E|F) =
P(E∩F)
provided P(F) ≠ 0
P(F)
** Multiplication rule of probability : P(E ∩ F) = P(E)P(F|E)
= P(F) P(E|F)
provided P(E) ≠ 0 and P(F)≠0.
** Independent Events : E and F are two events such that the probability of occurrence of one of
them is not affected by occurrence of the other.
Let E and F be two events associated with the same random experiment, then E and F are said to
be independent if P(E ∩ F) = P(E).P(F).

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 22

**Bayes Theorem : If 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , … … , 𝐸𝑛 are n non empty events which constitute a partition of sample
space S, i.e. 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , … … , 𝐸𝑛 are pairwise disjoint and 𝐸1 ∪ 𝐸2 ∪ … … ∪ 𝐸𝑛 = S and A is any event
of nonzero probability, then
P(Ei )P(A|Ei )
P(Ei|A) = ∑𝑛 for any i= 1,2,3,…., n
𝑗=1 P(Ei )P(A|Ei )

** The probability distribution of a random variable X is the system of numbers

X: x1 x2 …………….. xn
P(X) : p1 p2 …………….. pn
Where, ∑𝑛𝑖=1 pi = 1, i=1,1,2,….,

SANJEEV KUMAR (PGT MATHS KV 1 BATHINDA) Page 23