SOIL MECHANICS Handout 2021 COMPLETE

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
SOIL MECHANICS
CVE (203)
LECTURE NOTES
Joshua Jacob VORDOAGU FEBRUARY 2021

Soil Mechanics Lecture Notes
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF SOILS .................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 ORIGIN OF SOILS ............................................................................................................................................................3
1.2 MINERAL COMPOSITION OF SOILS .....................................................................................................................................3
1.3 SOIL TERMINOLOGY ........................................................................................................................................................4
1.4 SOILS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING .............................................................................................................................................4
1.4.1 Soil as a Foundation Material ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.4.2 Soil as a Construction Material ....................................................................................................................5
1.5 CIVIL ENGINEERING PROBLEMS AND COMPONENTS OF ITS SOLUTION .......................................................................................7
2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES .................................................................................... 10
2.1 SOIL CLASSIFICATION – IMPORTANCE ...............................................................................................................................10
2.2 THE CASSAGRANDE’S EXTENDED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM ....................................................................................................10
2.3 THE UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM .......................................................................................................................11
2.4 THE AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM .....................................................................................................................13
2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF A SOIL – PROCEDURE ..........................................................................................................................13
3.0 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS .......................................................................................................................... 24
3.1 INDEX PROPERTIES........................................................................................................................................................ 24
3.1.1 Particle Size Analysis ..................................................................................................................................24
3.1.1.1 Particle Separation by Sieve Analysis...................................................................................................................... 25
3.1.1.2 Particle Separation by Sedimentation .................................................................................................................... 25
3.1.1.3 Limitation of Stokes Law ......................................................................................................................................... 29
3.1.1.4 Features of the particle size distribution curve. ..................................................................................................... 30
3.1.2 Atterberg Limit Tests ..................................................................................................................................31
3.1.2.1 Shrinkage Limit ....................................................................................................................................................... 32
3.1.2.2 Liquid Limit ............................................................................................................................................................. 32
3.1.2.3 Plastic Limit ............................................................................................................................................................. 32
3.1.2.4 Plasticity Index PI .................................................................................................................................................... 32
3.1.2.5 Liquidity Index LI ..................................................................................................................................................... 32
3.1.2.6 Activity of Clay ........................................................................................................................................................ 32
3.2 PHASE RELATION PROPERTIES .........................................................................................................................................33
3.2.1 The soil Block Diagram ...............................................................................................................................33
3.2.2 Water Content (w, m).................................................................................................................................33
3.2.3 Bulk Density, Bulk Unit Weight...................................................................................................................33
3.2.4 Dry Density .................................................................................................................................................34
3.2.5 Specific Gravity ...........................................................................................................................................34
3.2.6 Void Ratio ...................................................................................................................................................34
3.2.7 Porosity ......................................................................................................................................................34
3.2.8 Degree of Saturation ..................................................................................................................................35
3.2.9 Air Void Content .........................................................................................................................................35
3.2.10 Permeability ...............................................................................................................................................35
3.2.11 Relationship between the properties .........................................................................................................35
3.3 SOIL IMPROVEMENT – COMPACTION ...............................................................................................................................36
3.3.1 Water Content – Dry Density Relationship ................................................................................................. 37
3.3.2 Laboratory Compaction Tests .................................................................................................................... 40
3.3.3 Properties of Compacted Soils ....................................................................................................................41
3.3.3.1 Non Cohesive Soils .................................................................................................................................................. 43
3.3.3.2 Cohesive Soils ......................................................................................................................................................... 43
3.3.4 Specification of Compaction and Control in the Field.................................................................................45
3.3.5 Comparison of Field and Laboratory Compaction ...................................................................................... 45
Joshua J. Vordoagu Page 1 of 62

4.0 GROUNDWATER .................................................................................................................................................. 48

4.1 OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER ................................................................................................................................... 48
4.2 TYPES OF GROUNDWATER..............................................................................................................................................48
4.2.1 Phreatic or gravitational water ..................................................................................................................48
4.2.2 Vadose water .............................................................................................................................................49
4.3 THE WATER TABLE OR THE PHREATIC SURFACE ..................................................................................................................49
4.4 CAPILLARY WATER .......................................................................................................................................................50
4.5 PRACTICAL USE OF THE KNOWLEDGE OF CAPILLARY RISE .......................................................................................................52
4.6 EFFECTS OF WATER IN SOIL ............................................................................................................................................52
4.6.1 Capillary Rise ..............................................................................................................................................52
4.6.2 Pore Pressure and Effective Stress .............................................................................................................52
4.6.3 Equilibrium Moisture Content ....................................................................................................................54
4.6.4 Frost Action ................................................................................................................................................ 54
4.6.5 Permeability and Seepage ..........................................................................................................................54
5.0 SITE INVESTIGATIONS: IN-SITU TESTING AND LABORATORY WORK ..................................................................... 56
5.1 SITE INVESTIGATION: SCOPE AND PURPOSE ....................................................................................................................... 56
5.1.1 Components of Site Investigation...............................................................................................................56
5.2 METHODS OF SITE EXPLORATION .....................................................................................................................................57
5.3 LABORATORY TESTING ...................................................................................................................................................58
5.3.1 Sampling.....................................................................................................................................................58
5.3.2 Laboratory Tests .........................................................................................................................................59
5.4 IN-SITU TESTING ..........................................................................................................................................................59
5.4.1 Core Cutter Test..........................................................................................................................................60
5.4.2 Sand replacement Test ...............................................................................................................................60

1.0 Origin and Composition of Soils

1.1 Origin of Soils
The term soil has varying meaning for different professionals and when in use in different
context. While to the geologist, soils refer to those of loose unconsolidated materials extending
from the surface to solid rock and they come about as result of weathering and disintegration
of rocks.
All soils originate from solid rocks, which may be igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks or
sedimentary rocks. Weathering processes that convert solid rock into soils takes place at or
near the earth’s surface. These complex processes are governed by the following factors:
a) Nature and composition of parent rock
b) Topographic and general terrain conditions such as degree of shelter or exposure,
density and type of vegetation and drainage
c) Length of time related to particular prevailing conditions
d) Climatic conditions (precipitation, temperature and humidity)
e) Mode and conditions of transport
f) Interference by other agencies such as cataclysmic storms, earthquakes and even action
of man.
1.2 Mineral Composition of Soils

The greater part of soils consists of inorganic mineral particles, water and air. A soil can
therefore be regarded as a 3-phase model of solid, liquid and gas. The gas is usually made up of
air and/or water vapour. The liquid component is made up of water with dissolved salts; the
most important dissolved salts being sulphates (very destructive to concrete).
The solid components of soils consist of rock fragments, mineral grains (primary rock minerals
and clay minerals) as well as organic matter.
Rock fragments are identifiable pieces of the parent rock containing several minerals. Rock
fragments as compared with mineral grains are fairly large, usually greater than 2 mm.
Mineral grains are separate particles of each particular mineral and range in size from gravel (2
mm) down to clay (less than 0.002 mm). Primary rock minerals are larger than 0.002 mm while
clay minerals which are mainly product from chemical weathering are less than 0.002 mm. The
three basic clay minerals are Kaolinite, Illite and Montmorillonite.
Organic matter originates from plant or animal remains and is a feature of topsoil. A water and
air form part of the soil composition and affects its engineering properties.

Soils may be regarded as coarse grained (>0.06 mm) or fine grained (<0.06 mm). Coarse grained
soils include sand and gravel while fine grained soils include (silt and clay)
1.3 Soil Terminology

The following are terms and definitions commonly encountered in reports textbooks, research
papers and other documents in engineering use and study of soils.
Rock: Hard rigid coherent deposit forming part of the earth’s crust. It may be of igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic origin. Engineering interpretation of rock includes the notion of
having to blast it for excavation.
Soil: Any loose material which can easily be dug and that is worked in, worked on or worked
with.
Organic Soil: This is a mixture of mineral grains and organic material in varying degrees of
decomposition. The presence of organic material tends to make the soil smoother to the touch,
exhibit dark colour and noticeable odour.
Peat: It is made up entirely of organic matter. It is very spongy, highly compressible and
combustible. Peat is very problematic from engineering point of view due to high
compressibility, void ratio, moisture content and acidity.
Residual Soils: These are weathered remains of rocks that have not experienced any
transportation. They are normally sandy or gravelly with high concentrations of oxides from
leaching processes. Examples are laterite, bauxite and china clay.
Alluvia Soils (Alluvium): These soil deposits from rivers and streams. They are characteristically
well sorted but can often occur in discontinuous or irregular formations
Cohesive Soils: These are soils containing sufficient amount of clay or silt particles to impart
significant plasticity and cohesion (strong internal attraction between clay particles).
Cohesionless Soils /Non Cohesive Soils: These are soils which do not exhibit plasticity or
cohesion. Examples are sand and gravel.
Boulder Clay: This is a soil of glacial origin and consisting of a wide range of particle sizes from
finely ground rock flour to boulders. It is also call till
Drift: Describe superficial unconsolidated deposits of recent origin, such as alluvium, glacial
moraine and boulder clay windblown sands, loess etc.-
1.4 Soils in Civil Engineering

A Civil Engineer may encounter soils in the following ways:
a) As a foundation material to support structures and embankments

b) As a construction material
c) As a safe and economical design of slopes and excavations
d) In building of structures to retain soils from excavations and underground openings
e) In special problems.
1.4.1 Soil as a Foundation Material
Civil Engineering structures such as bridges, roads, dams and buildings are founded on or in the
earth’s surface that is the soil. As such, the earth’s surface (the soils) is part of the foundation of
all these structures. A foundation of a structure is the material that provides satisfactory and
economical support for the structure and it includes both the soil under the structure as well as
any intervening load carrying member. Figure 1.1 below shows shallow and deep foundations
respectively.
Figure 1.1: Soil as a Foundation Material in – a) Shallow foundation, b) Deep foundation
For shallow foundations, competent soil is met at shallow depths. Deep foundations however
have competent material at deeper locations within the soil and therefore there is the need to
employ load carrying members such as caissons, piles and piers to transmit the load from the
structure to the competent soil further down.
1.4.2 Soil as a Construction Material

Soil is the most plentiful construction material usually available in-situ. Its use is involves
selection of appropriate type of soil, corresponding method of placement and control of the
actual placement. Soil is used as a construction material in projects such as construction of
earth dams, roads, tunnels, reclamation of works, embankments as well as for concrete works.
The influence of soils in structures such as slopes and excavations, earth retaining walls and
underground structures demand serious attention and study of soils.
Figure 1.2: Soil as a construction Material in – a) Road Pavement, b) Dam Construction

a) b)
Figure 1.3: Soil Use in Special Cases – a) Slope Stability analysis, b) Earth Retaining
Structure
1.5 Civil Engineering Problems and Components of its Solution

The approach and technique required to solve a soil engineering problem is dependent on the
type of problem and the relative importance of the constraints imposed. Examples of soil
engineering problems include:
a) Excavation problems.
b) Support of soil in slope stability
c) Flow of water in soils
d) Soil as support medium problems such as shear failure and compressibility (settlement).
e) Building with soils and
f) Classification of soils problem.
The successful solution of any soil engineering problem demands knowledge in soil mechanics
and engineering geology as a basis. Experience and some knowledge of economics are useful to
allow for the selection of the best solution from among a number of possible ones.
The chart in Figure 1.4 below illustrates the components in the solution of a soil engineering
problems.

Figure 1.4: Components of a Solution to Soil Engineering Problem

Exercises
Question 1:
Describe briefly the origins of soils and summarise the factors which control soil formation
Question 2:
Discuss the composition of soil in the context of building and civil engineering. What is the
significance of the absence and presence of notable mineral components?
Question 3:
Summarize the types of engineering problems associated with soils and discuss the nature of
possible constraints which may arise from soil properties and affect design and construction
decisions.

2.0 Classification of Soils for

Engineering Purposes
2.1 Soil Classification – Importance
Soil classification is the sorting of soils into groups such that soils in the same group exhibit
similar behaviour. The correlation of behaviours within a group in a soil classification system is
usually an empirical one developed through considerable experience. Certain advantages of soil
classification include
 Solving of simple foundation problems without the need for in-depth geotechnical
investigation and analysis.
 As a Guide to in depth geotechnical investigation where such in depth investigations are
required.
Index tests which are necessary to place the soil into a group must be simple. A soil
classification system which is of general use must be simple, precise and directly related to the
engineering properties of the soils. Due to the large variation of soils, it has not been possible
to create a universal soil classification system based on important index properties. Useful
systems based on one or two index properties have been devised. Several of the early common
textural classification systems include the following.
 The Bureau of Soils Classification System (1890-1895)
 The Atterberg Classification System (1905)
 The MIT Classification System (1931)
 The US Department of Agriculture Classification System, (1938)
 The AASHTO Classification System (1970)
 The Unified and ASTM Soil Classification System (1953 and 1967)
For engineering purposes however, the commonest soil classification systems are:
 The Cassagrande’s Extended Classification System
 The Unified Soil Classification System
 The AASHTO Soil Classification System
2.2 The Cassagrande’s Extended Classification System

In the Cassagrande System, each soil is allotted two letters: a prefix which gives the
predominant particle size, and a suffix which give further engineering properties.

Coarse grained soils are classified as either Gravels (G), when the predominant size is greater
than 2 mm or Sands (S), when the predominant size is less than 2 mm. The second letter (the
suffix) is allotted depending on the shape of the grading curve as explained below:
W This indicates a well graded material. The material contains particles spanning a wide
particle size distribution. The particles of smaller sizes fill the spaces between the larger
ones resulting in a dense mass of soil with high shear strength and low compressibility.
U implies a uniform material. The grains are of one size. This type of soil cannot be
compacted to a high density as a result of the single grain size and its shear strength is
also generally low.
P indicates poorly graded material. Poorly graded soils have gaps in the grading which
means that material of a given size is completely absent. In general, such a soil will not
compact very well. Shear strength of such a soil may be good but not as high as a well
graded soil
C implies a well graded material with some clay. This material is ideal as a fill material and
it can be closely compacted. The small proportion of clay acts as a binder thereby
providing a tough dense material with a high strength and low compressibility. It also
has low permeability since the clay portion blocks the pores between the coarse grains.
F this indicates a well graded material but with an excess of fines. If the fine material is
more than enough to fill the spaces between the larger particles, the larger particles are
no longer in contact with each other. The larger particles are therefore embedded in a
matrix of fine particles. The content of the fines define the properties of the soil matrix.
Fine grained soils are classified from the results of liquid and plastic limit tests which are
plotted on the Cassagrande’s plasticity chart. The first letter is derived from plasticity indices.
Soils with plasticity indices above the A-line are usually inorganic clays denoted by letter C.
plasticity values below the A-line indicates silts (M), or organic soils (O). The second letter
(suffix) is allotted on the basis of the liquid limit.
H High plasticity (LL>50%)
I intermediate plasticity (35 %< LL <50 %)
L Low plasticity (LL<35%)
Sands generally have LL<20%. For any given liquid limit, high plasticity is an indication of
toughness and high dry strength but low permeability.
2.3 The Unified Soil Classification System

This classification system was developed in the United States and has its roots in the
Cassagrande’s original system. It is therefore similar in many ways to the Cassagrande’s
Extended Soil Classification system. The Unified Soil Classification System places soils into

groups of coarse-grained, fine-grained and highly organic soils corresponding to the prefix
letters allotted as indicated below:
1. Coarse grained soils with more than 50% retained on the 75 µm sieve.
G Gravel provided more than half of the coarse fraction is in the gravel range. This implies
larger than 4.75 mm
S Sand provided less than half of the coarse fraction is in the gravel range. This implies
less than 50% of the coarse fraction is larger than 4.75 mm.
2. Fine grained soils (Less than 50% retained on the 75 µm sieve)

C inorganic clay (PI above the A-line and PI>7)
M Silt (PI below the A-line or PI<4
O Organic clay (PI below the A-line or PI<4)
3. Highly Organic Soils
Pt Peat (a very spongy, highly compressible and combustible soil made entirely out of
organic matter).
The suffix letters are selected as follows
1. Coarse grained soils having less than 5% passing the 75 µm sieve
a) W Well graded (Cu>4 for gravel or Cu>6 for sand: 1<Cc<3)
b) P Poorly graded (not meeting all the grading requirements of suffix W)
2. Coarse grained soils having more than 12% passing 75 µm sieve.
a) C With clay (PI above the A-line and PI>7)
b) M With silt (PI below the A-line or PI<4)
3. Fine grained soils
a) H High plasticity (LL>50%)
b) L Low plasticity (LL<50%)
c) Soils having between 5% and 12% passing the 75 µm sieve are given a dual
classification. (e.g. GW-GM). Soils having PI above the A-line and 4<PI<7 are given a
dual classification e.g. GC-GM, CL-ML
Requirements to classify a soil using the Unified Soil Classification System are the grain size
distribution, liquid limit and plastic limits. With these values, the soil can be classified using the
USCS Chart. The system is published as ASTM D 2487-85.

2.4 The AASHTO Soil Classification System

The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) system of
classification was first developed in the late 1920. It has since undergone several modifications
to the current version. Its popularity of use is mostly in the highway and transportation.
Parameters required for classification by the AASHTO system include the grading curve, the
liquid limit and the plastic limit values. To classify a soil under the AASHTO system, the values
obtained from the grading, liquid and plastic limit analysis are used in conjunction with the
AASHTO Classification Chart. The column that meets the values of the parameters is then the
designation or classification of the soil.
The AASHTO system consists of eight soil groups designated by the symbols A-1 to A-8,
corresponding to suitability of the material for use as a sub-grade material. It is believed that
the best suited soil for the sub-grade of a highway is a well graded material composed of largely
sand and gravel but also containing a small amount of excellent clay binder. Such a material is
therefore given the designation of A-1. The rest of the soils are grouped down from A-2 down
to A-7 according to decreasing stability and suitability for use as a sub-grade material. Highly
organic soils, the least suitable for use as a sub-grade material is therefore classified in category
A-8.
After a soil has been categorised using the chart, further description can be obtained using a
group index. The group index is calculated using the percentage of material passing the No. 200
sieve size (0.075 mm) as well as the liquid limit and the plasticity index. The group index is given
by the formula
Group index = (F − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL − 40)] + 0.01(F − 15)(PI − 10)

where
F = percentage of material passing the 0.075 mm sieve size (No. 200 sieve size)
LL = liquid limit value
PI = plasticity index (PI = LL – PL)
The rule of thumb gives the value of a soil to be used as sub-grade material to be inversely
proportional to the value of the group index. Thus the lower the value, the more suitable the
soil is as a sub-grade material.
The value obtained for the group index is rounded off to the nearest whole number and
appended in parenthesis to the group designation determined from the Chart. The value of the
group index is taken as zero if the computed value is either zero or negative. Another way of
calculating the group index is by the use of a nomograph.
2.5 Classification of a Soil – Procedure

Classification of soils generally starts in the field during site exploration. It is important that
adequate attempts are made during exploration to describe the nature and formation of all the
sub-surface materials encountered. Detailed classification usually follows after a series of

laboratory tests are conducted on samples taken from the site to determine the index
properties of the soils.
For the purpose of identification and classification in the field, a series of simple tests are
carried as follows:
Particle Size: Identify the main groups by visual examination and “feel”. Gravel particles (d > 2
mm) are clearly recognizable; sands (0.06 mm < d < 2 mm) have distinctive gritty feel between
the fingers; silts (0.002 mm < d < 0.06 mm) feels slightly abrasive but not gritty while clays (d <
0.002 mm) feel greasy.
Grading: The grading of a soil refers to the distribution of sizes; a well graded soil has a wide
distribution of particle sizes, while a poorly graded or uniform soil contains only a narrow range
of sizes. In the field, a field settling test is carried out for rapid estimate of the particle sizes. The
procedure involves filling a tall bottle or jar with soil and water. The mixture is shaken and the
bottle allowed to stand for a few minutes. The coarsest particles settle to the bottom first
followed by progressively smaller sizes. Examination of the nature and thickness of the layers of
sediment will yield approximate proportions of the size ranges.
If over 65% of the particles are greater than 0.06 mm, the soil is classed as coarse, that is either
Sand or Gravel. If over 35% of the particles are less than 0.06 mm, the soil is referred to as fine
that is silt or clay.
Other things to look for in the field include the structure and compactness of the soil and
whether the soil is intact or fissured, homogeneous or stratified.

Table 2.1: Unified Soil Classification System (Simplified)

Table 2.2: Unified Soil Classification System (Full)

Table 2.3: AASHTO Classification System

Table 2.4: Engineering Use Chart

Table 2.5: Typical Properties of Soil Classes under Unified Soil Classification System (Suitability for
Seepage control)

Embankments)
Foundations)


Exercises
Question 1:
Classify the following soils by the AASHTO classification system

SOIL
Description A B C D E
Percent finer than No. 10 83 100 48 90 100
sieve
sieve
sieve
Liquid Limit 20 70 - 37 42
Plasticity Index* 5 32 Non Plastic 12 23
*Plasticity for the minus 40 fraction
Question 2:
A soil has the following properties. Classify the soil using the Unified Soil Classification
System.
Passing No. 200 sieve = 30% LL =33%
Passing No. 4 Sieve = 70% PI = 12
Question 3:
A 3 stages particle size analysis was carried out in the laboratory on a sample of soil as
enumerated below. Original sample mass is 574.5 g.
Stage 1: Medium mesh sieving on 574.5 g
Stage 2: Fine mesh sieving on 168.2 g of material passing the 6.3 mm sieve size in Stage 1.
Stage 3: Sedimentation Analysis on 63.7 g of material passing the 0.075 mm sieve size in
Stage 2.
The table 2A below is the results obtained
i) Determine the percentage passing and plot the particle distribution curve
ii) Determine the grading characteristics (Effective size, Uniformity coefficient and
Coefficient of gradation)
iii) Classify the soil according to the Unified Soil Classification System
iv) Classify the soil according to AASHTO Soil classification system

Table 2A
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
Sieve Size Mass Retained
Sieve Size (mm) Mass Retained (g) Size (µm) % Coarser
(mm) (g)
14 2 5.0 3.5 40 13.1
10 5.6 3.35 11.5 20 16.9
6.3 11.9 2.0 26.0 10 25.4
1.18 27.2 6 12.0
0.600 14.1 2 20.8
0.425 4.0
0.300 3.3
0.212 3.1
0.150 2.1
0.075 7.6

3.0 Physical Properties of Soils

The basic physical properties of soils are the properties required to describe or define its
physical state. Since the soil is considered to be modeled as a three phase soil model, the
constituent phases (solid, liquid and gas) and their relationship between them in numerical
terms must be defined to describe the physical state of the soil.
3.1 Index Properties

Index properties are basically properties of soils that are employed in the characterization
and classification of the soils into the various engineering groups and classes for easy
identification and use. The tests developed for this purpose are called index property tests
and the most common index property tests being Particle Size Distribution Tests and
Atterberg Limit Tests.
3.1.1 Particle Size Analysis
The distribution of particles of various sizes in a soil is carried out by mechanical analysis.
For coarse grained soils, the particle size analysis is carried out by determining the weight
percentage of particles or grains retained on a set of sieve sizes. The finest sieve size
commonly used in the laboratory or in the field is the No. 200 (in both US and Britain) in
which the aperture is 0.075 mm. For this reason, 0.075 mm is accepted as the boundary
between coarse grained and fine grained soils.
A material may be said to be made up of boulders, cobbles, gravels, sand, silt or clay based
on the range of sizes of the particles. Table 3.1 below illustrates the system of classifying soil
particles on the basis of their size.
Table 3.1: Classification of Soil Particles on the Basis of Their Size
Designation Category Particle Size (mm)

Boulders >200
Coubles 60 – 200
Coarse 20 – 60
Gravels Medium 6 – 20
Fine 2–6
Coarse 0.6 – 2
Sand Medium 0.2 – 0.6
Fine 0.06 – 0.2
Coarse 0.02 – 0.06
Silt Medium 0.006 – 0.02
Fine 0.002 – 0.006
Clay <0.002

3.1.1.1 Particle Separation by Sieve Analysis
The particles greater than 75 µm (coarse grained soils) are separated by sieving. Usually the
material is treated to remove organic matter (using hydrogen peroxide, H 2O2) and
intergranular cement. The soil is then sieved thorough a set of sieves indicated in table 3.2
for both British and American sieve sizes. The material retained on each sieve is weighed
and the percentage passing each sieve calculated and then plotted on a semi-log graph.
Table 3.2: Commonly Used Sieve Sizes
3.1.1.2 Particle Separation by Sedimentation
The material passing the 75 µm sieve is considered too fine to further separate by sieving.
These fines as they are termed are further separated into different sizes by the process of
sedimentation. This process is also referred to as wet sieving. All wet methods of
mechanical analysis are based on Stoke’s Law.
Stokes Law states that the velocity at which a spherical particle will sink in a suspension due
to gravity is given by
ℎ 2 𝛾 −𝛾 1 𝛾 −𝛾
𝑣= = 𝑟 = 𝐷 (3.1)
𝑡 9 𝜂 18 𝜂
where

𝑣 = velocity of particle in the still fluid

ℎ = distance/ height / depth to which particle sank
𝑡 = time taken to sink to the depth of h
𝑟 = radius of particle and 𝐷 = diameter of particle r= .
𝛾 , 𝛾 = unit weight of particle and fluid respectively

𝜂 = viscosity of fluid.
The diameter of those particles that will have settled a given distance in a given time (t) may
be obtained by rearranging the above equation 3.1 to
.
18𝜂 ∙ ℎ
𝐷= (3.2)
(𝛾 − 𝛾 ) ∙ 𝑡
Usually, ℎ = 100𝑚𝑚 thus
.
1800𝜂
𝐷= (3.3)
(𝛾 − 𝛾 ) ∙ 𝑡
Thus samples taken at a depth of 100 mm at an elapsed time 𝑡 will not therefore include
particles of size greater than the diameter given in the above equation. The proportions of
particles smaller than 𝐷 in the suspension will however remain unchanged. This is
equivalent to dividing the sample on a sieve of mesh size D. The density of the suspension at
any depth is a measure of the quantity of soil smaller than the computed size. Thus by
taking density measurements at various times, the particle size distribution can be obtained.
The concentration of particles remaining in suspension at any level and at any time may be
determined by either:
a) The pipette method. This involves drawing 10 ml of sample from the suspension at a
depth of 100 mm at specified time, drying and determining weight of solid residue.
b) Hydrometer Method. This entails measuring the specific gravity of the suspension at
specific times using a hydrometer.
The Hydrometer Method:

The procedure is set out in BS 1377 Part 2: 1990 section 9.5.
A sample of soil of about 50 g is dispersed in about 1 litre of water and poured into a
standard sedimentation cylinder after initially treating the soil with a deflocculating agent
(Sodium Hexametaphosphate). The deflocculating agent ensures that the soil particles are
well dispersed and settle individually. After shaking the suspension vigorously, it is made to
stand on a horizontal surface. A special hydrometer is inserted into the suspension and
density readings are taken at various time intervals. Several corrections are applied and the
diameter of the soil particles is calculated from the formula

.
𝐻𝜂
𝐷=𝑐∙ (3.4)
(𝜌 − 1) ∙ 𝑡
where
𝐻 = effective depth at which density of suspension is measured (mm)
𝑡 = elapsed time (min)
𝜌 = density of particle
𝜂 = viscosity of water at the test temperature in (m.pa.s),.
𝑐= = 0.005531, a constant
( × . × )
The value of D may either be calculated or read from a nomograph. The table below
illustrates typical headings for a hydrometer test data.
Table 3.3: Hydrometer Test Data Heading
𝑡 = elapsed time from the start of sedimentation (in min)

𝑇 = the temperature of the suspension at that time (in °C)
𝜂 = viscosity of water at the test temperature in (m.pa.s),.
𝑅 = hydrometer reading at the upper rim of the meniscus, consisting of the decimal part
only with the decimal point moved three places to the right. For example, a hydrometer
reading of 1.0425 would be recorded as an value of 42.5
𝐶 = meniscus correction
𝐻 = effective depth at which density of suspension is measured (mm)
𝐷 = equivalent particle diameter (in mm)
𝑅 = hydrometer reading at the upper rim of the meniscus in the dispersant solution in
distilled water (in mm)
𝐾 = percentage by mass of particles less than D
𝑅 = modified hydrometer reading (in mm)
𝑀 = temperature correction to hydrometer reading for hydrometer calibrated at 20°C
given by:

𝑀 = −1.4664 − 0.0342𝑇 + 0.00537𝑇 (3.5)

Typical calibration curves for viscosity and temperature as well as for 𝐻 against 𝑅 are
shown below:
Figure 3.1: Charts showing relationship of Temperature against Viscosity and H r

against Rh
Temperature and viscosity assume an exponential decay relationship given by:
𝜂
= 0.289
( . )
+ 0.7797𝑒 . (3.6)
Each hydrometer has relationship between 𝐻 r and 𝑅 . A typical relationship between 𝐻
and 𝑅 for a specific hydrometer widely used is
𝐻
= 200.6 − 3.95𝑅 (3.7)
And the meniscus correction for the same hydrometer is given as 𝐶 = 0.5
The temperature and temperature correction to be applied is also given by the graph below.
Application of these relationships and corrections gives the equivalent particle diameter D
from the equations (3.2 – 3.4) earlier stated.
The percentage by mass, K of particle smaller than the equivalent particle diameter D (mm)
is calculated from the relation below:

100𝜌
𝐾=
(𝜌 − 1)𝑚
−𝑅 (3.8)
Where 𝑚 is the mass (g) of sample used and 𝑅 is the modified hydrometer reading.
The results of the particle size analysis are usually presented as a particle distribution curve
on a semi-log scale. The shape of the grading curve is useful to classify coarse grained soils
and to make an estimate of their engineering properties.
Figure 3.2: A typical grading curve
3.1.1.3 Limitation of Stokes Law
Stokes law makes certain assumptions which are stated below:

a) The particles are spherical
b) The particles are much larger than molecular sizes
c) The flow around the particles is laminar.
Assumptions (a) and (b) are not valid for soil particles. Non spherical shape of soil particles
induces more drag and therefore slows down the velocity of the particles. The same effect
applies to molecular interference. The particle size calculated from the Stokes law actually

represents an equivalent spherical diameter. Incomplete dispersion of the soil particles also
introduces errors in the sedimentation process but the results are found sufficiently
accurate for use.
Again, for fine grained soils, the chemical activity determined by the mineral type rather
than the grading is practical in determining the engineering property. Determining the
approximate proportions of fine medium and coarse silt and clay is usually sufficient and
this is provided for by the sedimentation analysis.
3.1.1.4 Features of the particle size distribution curve.
The grading curve is a graphical representation of the particle size distribution and is
therefore useful in itself as a means of describing the soil. It is therefore important to
include it laboratory and similar reports. Figure 3.3 shows representative grading curves.
Curve A represents poorly graded medium Sand. Curve B indicates a well graded Gravel
Sand. Curve C indicates a well graded material which is predominantly sand but with
significant silt fraction of about 20%. Thus this soil could be described as very silty Sand. On
the other hand, curve D represents very sandy Silt while curve E illustrates a typical silty
Clay.
Figure 3.3: Representative Grading Curves

Certain geometric values known as the grading characteristics are the important features of
the particle size distribution curve. These important features are derived from the following
characteristic sizes:
𝐷 Maximum size of the smallest 10% of the sample


Grading characteristics are
Effective Size=𝐷 mm
Uniformity Coefficient, C =
Coefficient of curvature, C =
×
The coefficient of uniformity expresses the uniformity of the distribution. Both 𝐶 and 𝐶
will be unity for a single sized soil. A soil having a 𝐶 of less than 3 is considered uniform. In
well graded materials, 𝐶 of greater than 5 and 𝐶 less than 2 are noted. Soil permeability
and capillarity are engineering properties of soil related to the effective size (𝐷 ).
Coefficient of curvature 𝐶 less than 1 or greater than 3 indicates poorly graded materials.
3.1.2 Atterberg Limit Tests
For very fine grained soils in which clay minerals are predominant, particle size distribution
gives very little information about the engineering properties. Therefore, the Atterberg
limits are used to give further information about the engineering properties. The limits are
based on the concept that a fine-grained soil can exist in any of the four states (solid state,
semi solid state, plastic state and liquid state) depending upon its water content. A soil can
thus be solid when dry. Upon addition of water it proceeds through semi-solid state, the
plastic state and finally the liquid state. Volumetric changes occur upon addition of water to
the soil and these are illustrated in figure 3.4 below.
Figure 3.4: Illustration of Atterberg limits

3.1.2.1 Shrinkage Limit
The shrinkage limit defines the water content below which no further volumetric change
takes place as the soil is dried. In other words, the shrinkage limit is the water content which
when exceeded causes the soil to move from solid state to the semi solid state.
3.1.2.2 Liquid Limit
This is the minimum water content at which the soil flows under a specified small force. The
test condition specifies the small force. It can be determined either by cone penetrometer
method or by the use of the Cassangrande’s apparatus. For the Cassagrade’s method, the
liquid limit is defined as the water content at which 25 blows closes the groove made for a
length of 13 mm. The test is normally carried out over a range of water contents and the
number of blows plotted against the water content. The 25 blows is then traced to the
corresponding water content.
3.1.2.3 Plastic Limit
The water content at which plastic deformation can be initiated defines the plastic limit of
the soil. It is the water content at which the soil can be rolled into a thread which is 3 mm
thick.
3.1.2.4 Plasticity Index PI
This is the range of water content for which the soil remains in the plastic condition. PI = LL
– PL
3.1.2.5 Liquidity Index LI
Liquidity index indicates the nearness of a natural soil to its liquid limit. Liquidity index is
–
given as where wn is the natural water content of the soil.
3.1.2.6 Activity of Clay
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 =
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 0.002𝑚𝑚
It gives an indication of the amount of clay in the soil.

3.2 Phase Relation Properties
3.2.1 The soil Block Diagram
Soil consists of three phases: solid particles, water and air.
Figure 3.5: Three Phases Soil Block Diagram
3.2.2 Water Content (w, m)
The ratio of mass of water to the mass of solids is termed the moisture content or the water
content of the soil.
(𝑤, 𝑚) = = = =
The standard method of determining the water content is to dry the soil to a constant
weight in an oven maintained at 105°C – 110°C.
3.2.3 Bulk Density, Bulk Unit Weight
It is the total mass of soil per unit volume. It is also referred to as the bulk unit weight.
(𝛾 )=
Sand replacement method is used to determine the in-situ bulk density of non cohesive
soils. For cohesive soils, the core-cutter method is used.

3.2.4 Dry Density
The dry density is defined as the mass of solid materials per unit volume of soil.
𝛾 = = = − =𝛾 − ==> 𝛾 =
3.2.5 Specific Gravity
𝐺𝑠 =
Most common primary soil minerals have specific gravity in the rage of 2.55 to 2.75 with a
mean value of 2.65. Clay minerals have slightly higher values. Higher values generally
denote the presence of iron containing minerals
3.2.6 Void Ratio
𝑒= =
3.2.7 Porosity
Porosity is the amount of void or space through which water can flow or fill
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑉
𝑛= =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉
Porosity and void ratio are related as follows
𝑒= = = = =
==> 𝑒 =

3.2.8 Degree of Saturation
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉
𝑆 = = × 100%
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑉
3.2.9 Air Void Content
𝜒= =
3.2.10 Permeability
Permeability also referred to as hydraulic conductivity is defined as the capacity of a soil to

allow water to pass through it. The coefficient of permeability (k) is also defined as the flow
velocity produced by a hydraulic gradient of unity. It is dependent on factors such as
 The porosity or void ratio of the soil (the greater n or e, the greater k)
 Degree of saturation / presence of air
3.2.11 Relationship between the properties
Figure 3.6: Soil Block Diagram Illustrating the Sr, e, w, Gs relationship
From the soil block diagram in figure 3.6 above, Sr, e, w and Gs are related by the following
equation
𝑊 =𝐺 𝛾
𝑊 = 𝑒𝑆 𝛾

𝑒𝑆 𝛾 𝑒𝑆
𝑤= =
𝐺 𝛾 𝐺
When Sr=100%, VA=0 and bulk unit weight becomes saturated bulk unit weight.
3.3 Soil Improvement – Compaction

From the geotechnical viewpoint, the solution to an inadequate soil at a site could be one of
the following three methods
a) Avoid the potential problem
b) Adapt the design to the site conditions
c) Stabilize or improve the soil.
Soil improvement also known as soil stabilization refers to the alteration of any property of
the soil to improve its engineering performance. The most important method of soil
improvement is Densification (increasing the density of the soil). Densification can be
achieved by
 Preloading
 Dewatering and
 Compaction
The process of compaction results in an increase in soil density, with a consequent reduction
of air-void volume but without change in volume of water. Compaction thus produces a soil
mass with controlled engineering properties. The amount of densification achievable during
compaction depends on
 The amount of energy used in the compaction
 The manner in which the energy is applied (that is whether static, dynamic or
vibratory)
 The water content and
 The nature and type of soil involved
As a result different compaction equipment are suitable for different soils. Table 3.4 details
the suitability of different compaction equipments for different soils.
The objectives of soil compaction are thus:
a) To reduce the void ratio and thus the permeability of the soil (in effect also
controlling the water absorption and subsequent changes in the moisture content)
b) To increase the shear strength and therefore the bearing capacity of the soil
c) To make the soil less susceptible to subsequent volume changes and therefore the
tendency to settlement under load or under the influence of vibration.

3.3.1 Water Content – Dry Density Relationship
The level of compaction is conveniently measured using the dry density, which is also
related to the moisture content of the soil. When water is added to a dry soil, films of
adsorbed water form around the soil particles. As the adsorbed water films increase in
thickness, the particles become lubricated and tend to pack more closely together resulting
in increasing density of the soil mass. At a certain point of addition of more water, the
adsorbed films begin to push the particles apart so that the density decreases with
increasing water content. The maximum dry density is therefore attained at a particular
moisture content referred to as the optimum moisture content (OMC). Figure 3.7 illustrates
the dry density and moisture content relationship. Figures 3.8 and 3.9 illustrates typical
water content – dry density relationship for Cohesionless soils and Cohesive soils
respectively for two compaction efforts E1 and E2 respectively.
Table 3.4: Suitability of Compaction Plant

Equipment Type Suitability
Rollers Smooth – wheeled For all soil types except wet clay
and uniformly graded sand
Pneumatic – tyred Most soil types particularly wet
cohesive soils
Sheep – foot Cohesive soils not wet
Scrappers and heavy excavation Most soil types when no

machinery including track – laying specialized compaction plant is
plant available
Rammers Dropping Weight For Small jobs e.g. trenches
Vibrators Vibratory Rollers For Granular soils
Vibrating plate For Most soil types

Figure 3.7: Dry Density and Moisture Content Relationship
Figure 3.8: Typical Water Content – Dry Density Relationship for Cohesionless Soils for
Two Compaction Efforts E1 and E2 Respectively.

Figure 3.9: Typical Water Content – Dry Density Relationship for Cohesive Soils for
Two Compaction Efforts E1 and E2 Respectively.
The method of test entails placing of the soil in appropriate mould in either three or five
layers, each of which is subjected to a specified amount of compaction energy. After
compacting the final layer, the bulk density of the soil compacted in the mould is
determined. A sample is also taken for moisture content determination. The soil is then
removed from the mould, remixed with further addition of water and the test process is
repeated for about five times.
From the values of bulk density and moisture content obtained for the various tests, the dry
density is determined from the equation:
𝜌 =
A graph of dry density is plotted against moisture content and the maximum dry density
(MDD) and the optimum moisture content (OMC) is obtained from the graph for a particular
compaction effort.
The maximum possible dry density at a given moisture content is called the saturation dry
density. This occurs when the soil has zero air voids, Av = 0. For Av > 0, the maximum
attainable dry density is given by the formula:
∙
𝜌 = ∙
(1 − 𝐴 )
The above equation is obtained by considering the soil block diagram in figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10: Soil Block Diagram
Total volume, V =V +V +V
Substituting from the block diagram gives
𝑉 =𝐴 ∙𝑉+𝑚∙𝐺 𝑉 +𝑉
𝑉−𝐴 ∙𝑉 = 𝑚∙𝐺 𝑉 +𝑉
𝑉(1 − 𝐴 ) = 𝑉 ∙ (1 + 𝑚 ∙ 𝐺 )
( )
=
( ∙ )
∙
But ρ =
∙ ∙( )
Thus ρ =𝜌 ∙𝐺 ∙ =
( ∙ )
3.3.2 Laboratory Compaction Tests
Compaction in the laboratory serves essentially two purposes namely

a) It helps to obtain data for the earth structure such as the strength, deformability,
permeability and tendency to crack. It is essential that the test is a true
representative of the field conditions for such properties to be accurately
determined. This means that the soil tested in the laboratory must have the same
mechanical properties as the one compacted in the field
b) Laboratory compaction also helps in field quality control. In such circumstances, the
test is only a comparative index of the laboratory and field unit weights or densities.
It is essential that such tests are easily reproducible.

Laboratory compaction tests can be characterized into three groups

 Dynamic or Impact Load tests (a hammer or weight is dropped a specified number of
times)
 Static load tests (soil is subjected to static force of a given magnitude)
 Vibratory /Special tests (soil may be vibrated or pushed a specified number of times
with a tamper of specific stress)
The most common compaction tests in the laboratory are the dynamic tests. The
standardized dynamic tests include
 Standard Proctor
 Standard AASHTO
 Modified AASHTO
 British Standard Test (BS 1377)
Table 3.5 enumerates some dynamic laboratory tests with their mould dimensions
3.3.3 Properties of Compacted Soils
As stated earlier, the amount of densification achievable during compaction depends on

 The amount of energy used in the compaction
 The manner in which the energy is applied (that is whether static, dynamic or
vibratory)
 The water content and
 The nature and type of soil involved
Figure 3.11 illustrates effects on the achieved density for two different compaction efforts
whilst figure 3.12 explains typical achievable dry densities for different types of soils at same
compaction effort.

Figure 3.11: Effects of Different Compaction Efforts on Dry Density and Moisture
Content Curve
Figure 3.12: Effects of Different Soil Types on Dry Density and Moisture Content Curve

Table 3.5: Dynamic Compaction Tests

No. of
Mould Blows per Hammer Hammer
Layers Designation
Dimenson (mm) Layer (No.) Mass (kg) Drop (mm)
(No.)
Standard
101.6Øx114 3 25 2.5 305
AASHTO
Modified
152Øx177.8 5 55 4.54 457
AASHTO
101.6Øx127 3 25 2.5 305 PROCTOR
101.6Øx127 5 25 4.54 305 GHANA
3.3.3.1 Non Cohesive Soils
The engineering properties of cohesionless soils are a function of the relative density (Dr)
𝐷 = × 100%
= × × 100%
3.3.3.2 Cohesive Soils
The water content during compaction can influence the structure of clay soils to have a
significant effect on the strength, permeability and compressibility of the resulting soil mass.
Figure 3.11 illustrates a cohesive soil where points A and B are at the same dry density, but
different water contents and different structures.
Structure: Soil A on the dry side has flocculent structure that is few but larger voids but soil
B has a dispersed structure. This clearly shows that the water content at which a soil is
compacted have an influence on the soil structure even though same density may be
achieved.
Permeability: Wet side compaction reduces significantly the coefficient of permeability of
the soil considering same dry density. Again, flocculent structure (dry side compaction) has
few but larger pore spaces for flow to take place whereas the reverse is true for the wet
side.
Strength and Compressibility: Wet side compaction yields a flexible material of low
strength. Dry side compaction yields a brittle structure of low compressibility. For an earth
dam, wet side compaction of the dam core produces an impervious barrier to water flow
which can yield without cracking as the dam deforms. Effect of water content on strength
and compressibility of a compacted soil is shown in Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.11: Wet Side and Dry Side Compaction of a Cohesive Soil
Figure 3.12: Stress – Strain Relationship for Wet Side and Dry Side Compaction

3.3.4 Specification of Compaction and Control in the Field
Compaction specification in the field is generally of two types:

Performance type specification: The specification tells the contractor what must be
achieved. Either the relative compaction for cohesive soils or relative density for non
cohesive soils or the maximum acceptable air void content is specified. The acceptable
range of moisture content is also specified. To ensure compliance with the specification,
both the dry density and the water content tests are conducted during the construction (5-
10 in-situ tests on the average)
Relative compaction RC is given as
𝑅𝐶 (%) = × 100
( )
Work type specification: The specification tells the contractor what to do and how to do it.
The consulting engineer specifies the type of compaction equipment, the water content, the
number of passes of the compaction equipment and the maximum lift of loose material. The
contractor is relieved of any responsibility of ensuring that the desired maximum density is
achieved as long as he complies with the specification.
Control of compaction in the field is carried by in-situ tests such as using the core cutter
method or the sand replacement method among others.
3.3.5 Comparison of Field and Laboratory Compaction
The unit weight and water content relationships in the laboratory may bear little direct
relationship to the actual filed compaction characteristics of most soils, mainly due to the
following amongst others.
 laboratory compaction effort is usually different from that used in the field
 particle size distribution of material in the field and in the laboratory may be
different. For example particles greater than 20mm are removed for the modified
AASHTO test
 rigid moulds in the laboratory impose strict lateral confinement whilst a certain
degree of lateral movement exists in the field.
These notwithstanding, laboratory tests are still useful as stated in section 3.3.2

Exercises
Question 1:
For a soil specimen, given that
 The moist mass of soil specimen is 20.7kg
 Specimen’s volume measured before drying is 0.011m3
 Specimen’s dried mass is 16.3kg
 Specific gravity of solids is 2.68
Determine
i) Void ratio
ii) Degree of saturation
iii) Wet unit mass and dry unit mass
iv) Wet unit weight and dry unit weight
Question 2:
Given that for an undisturbed sample,
 Void ratio = 0.78,
 Water content = 12%
 Specific gravity of solids = 2.68.
Determine
i) The wet unit weight
ii) Dry unit weight
iii) Degree of saturation
iv) Porosity
Question 3:
a) Define the following soil properties
i) Liquid limit, Plastic limit and Plasticity Index
ii) Water Content, Bulk Density and Dry Density
iii) Void ratio, Porosity and Degree of Saturation
b) The following results (table 3A) were obtained from a compaction test in the
laboratory using the 2.5kg Rammer in a standard Proctor test

Table 3A
Mass of mould
and Wet soil 2791 2937 3038 3050 3022 2985
(g)
Moisture
8.4 10.6 12.9 14.4 16.6 18.6
Content (%)
Weight of mould = 1050 g. Mould diameter = 10.16 cm. Mould height = 12.70 cm
Specific gravity of soil = 2.68
i) Determine the dry density corresponding to each moisture content
ii) Plot the dry density against the moisture content
iii) Determine the optimum moisture content and the maximum dry density
iv) Plot also on your graph the 5% air void
v) Calculate the air-void ratio, void ratio and degree of saturation at the optimum
moisture content
c) It is specified that 98% of MDD obtained in question 3b above is achieved in the field
for sub base compaction of a particular road. You are the supervisor of the project
and you are required to conduct a test to check that the contractor complies with
the compaction specifications in the contract. Explain one test that you will carry out
as a control measure to check whether the contractor is following specifications.

4.0 Groundwater
4.1 Occurrence of Groundwater
Not more than 1 percent of the earth’s water occurs as liquid fresh water associated with land
masses. The rest exists as saline water in the oceans and seas or vapor in the atmosphere.
The source is the hydrological cycle (rainfall, infiltration, percolation, surface runoff, evapo-
transpiration and flow). Under the influence of gravity, land based water flows forming
streams, rivers and lakes on the surface and groundwater within the soils and earth crust. The
depth of percolation is highly dependent on the porous nature of the rocks.
Figure 4.1: The Water Cycle and Ground Water Flow
4.2 Types of Groundwater

Groundwater in soil may be one of two types:
4.2.1 Phreatic or gravitational water
As part of the water cycle, precipitation and surface runoff may infiltrate the earth’s surface.
The infiltrated water may further percolate into deeper zones. As a result of the infiltration
and percolation, the voids between the soil particles will fill with water until a zone of
saturation is established below the ground level. The phreatic or gravitational water is the
groundwater found in this saturated zone. Phreatic water is subject to gravitational forces,
tends to flow laterally and has internal pore pressure greater than atmospheric pressure.

4.2.2 Vadose water
This is the groundwater found in the unsaturated zone of the soil above the water table. It
may be transient percolating water which is moving down to join the phreatic water below
the water table or as capillary water held above the water table by surface tension forces.
Vadose water has internal pore pressure less than atmospheric pressure.
4.3 The Water Table or the Phreatic Surface

The upper surface of the saturated zone is called the water table or the phreatic surface. It is
the level at which the pore water pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure. For
unconfined bodies of groundwater, the phreatic surface corresponds to the free water
surface as found in lakes and rivers. A perched water table occurs where ground water is
above relatively impermeable soils such as clays. (Figure 4.2)
Figure 4.2: Normal and Perched Water Tables
Figure 4.3: Artesian and Sub – artesian Conditions of Groundwater
Piezometric surface level is a term for describing the water table of a well or pipe sunk into a
stratum of high permeability termed an aquifer (bearing water) which is confined above and
below by strata of low permeability also termed aquicludes (confining water). The

piezometric surface can be above or below ground level. Artesian conditions are said to exist
if the piezometric surface is above the ground level whereas sub-artesian conditions are said
to exist if the piezometric surface is between the ground level and the aquifer. In a normal
well, the water table (piezometric surface) is within aquifer. See Figure 4.3.
4.4 Capillary Water

This is the water held above the water table by surface tension which is the attractive force
exerted at the interface or surface between materials in different physical states for examples
liquid /gas, solid/liquid. Water is attracted towards a solid interface because of the greater
density and therefore greater attraction of the solid. This results in a rise of water in the pores
of the soil as a result of capillary action. The level of rise is termed capillary rise and is
dependent on the grain size and therefore the pore size. Capillary rise can be determined
experimentally. Maximum capillary rise in water can be given by the formula
ℎ =
∙
Where C is a value between 10 and 40 mm and D 10= effective size from grading analysis,
e=void ratio
Under normal circumstances, the soil will only be saturated up to a level called the capillary
saturation level (hcs). Figure (4.5) shows the approximate relationship between capillary rise
Effective size in different soil types.
Four groundwater zones can therefore be identified under the ground surface as shown in
Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.4: Illustration of Capillary Rise– (a) in a Tube (b) Details at surface of
Tube

Figure 4.5: Capillary Rise in Different Soil Types
Figure 4.6: Zones of Groundwater

4.5 Practical use of the knowledge of capillary rise

When planning and designing a structure, care must be taken not to place the foundation
within the capillary rise zone of the area especially in temperate regions. If this cannot be
prevented, following measures could be employed to mitigate the negative effects of capillary
rise
Coarse materials such as gravels and coarse sand which breaks the capillary rise should be
introduced.
Further compaction and soil improvement methods are employed.
4.6 Effects of Water in Soil

As indicated in chapter three, a soil is modeled as a 3 phase model of solid particles, water
and gas. Water is therefore an integral part of the soil. Effects of water on soils must therefore
be considered in the analysis of soils. Soil properties such as shear strength, permeability and
swell/shrinkage are significantly affected when saturated. Generally, soil tends to lose
strength and swell on addition of water.
4.6.1 Capillary Rise
Capillary action of water in soils is dealt with in section 4.4 and 4.5. In fine grained soils
especially clays, consideration of capillary action is of great important because its influence
on the reaction between soil water and foundation structure
4.6.2 Pore Pressure and Effective Stress
The presence of water pore water in the soil affects the way the soil carries and transmits
load or force applied to it. When a load is applied to a soil that is saturated with pore water,
the pore pressure is immediately increased. The pore pressure is then dissipated by the flow
of water into the adjoining soil voids resulting in the transfer of the load to the granular soil
fabric. At any particular point in time therefore, the total stress is made up of two
components: the pore pressure and the effective stress.
Pore pressure is the pressure in the water in the pores or void spaces which exist between
and around the mineral grains. At the water table, the water pressure (pore pressure) is the
same as the atmospheric pressure. Above the water table, the pore pressure is negative but
considered as zero in simplified engineering calculations. Below the water table, pore
pressure is positive and is calculated, provided there is no seepage, as follows:
𝑢 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = ɣℎ
where:
𝑢 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 = 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒;
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦;

ℎ = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
ɣ = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Pore pressure is able to transmit normal stress but not shear stress hence the name neutral
pressure.
Effective stress is the stress transmitted through the soil fabric via grain to grain contact. It is
this stress which is effective in controlling volume change deformation and shear strength of
the soil hence the name effective stress. Effective stress can be obtained by the formula:
𝜎 =𝜎−𝑢
where
𝜎 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 = 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

In soils, stress is normally the overburden pressure. Total stress at a particular depth is the
product of the unit weight of the soil and the depth of point being considered from the
surface. Both total stress and effective stress are given by the following formulae:
Case 1: No ground water
At point Z, Stress σ=σ =γ∙z

Case 2: Ground water level at surface of soil layer
At point Z,
Total Stress σ=γ ∙z

Effective Stress σ =γ ∙z =σ−u
Case 3: Ground water level within soil layer at a depth h above point Z
At point Z,
Total Stress σ = γ ∙ (z − h) + γ ∙h
Effective Stress σ = γ ∙ (z − h) + γ ∙ h = σ − u
Where
𝛾 = Unit weight of soil where there is no water table or above the water table.
𝛾 = Saturated unit weight of soil (below water table)
𝛾 = Effective unit weight of soil (below water table)

4.6.3 Equilibrium Moisture Content
Equilibrium conditions are reached within a soil when constant conditions of stress and
drainage are maintained. The moisture content of the soil at equilibrium conditions is referred
to as the equilibrium moisture content (emc). A change in conditions of stress or drainage of
a saturated soil results in a volume change that is equal to the volume of water added or
removed. As a result, swelling and shrinkage may occur under structures such as foundations
and road pavements.
4.6.4 Frost Action
Frost action involves frost heave, thawing effects and frost susceptibility.
Frost heave is the vertical surface expansion due to freezing of water in the soil.
Thawing effects are induced when a frozen layer containing ice lenses thaw rapidly resulting
in excess moisture in the soil. Excess moisture brings about a reduction in soil strength and
integrity.
Frost susceptibility of soils is greater in fine grained soils such as silts and clays and lesser in
coarse grained soils such as sands and gravels. This is because in coarse grained soils,
expansion can take place in the voids and therefore overall volume change is negligible.
4.6.5 Permeability and Seepage
Permeability, also called the hydraulic conductivity is the capacity of soils to allow water to
pass through. An indication of permeability is given by the coefficient of permeability k. (m/s)
and is defined as the flow velocity produced by a hydraulic gradient of unity.
The movement of water through a soil mass is termed seepage.
Both permeability and seepage of soils is influence by the water content and the type of soil.
Permeability and seepage tends to be high for coarse grained soils and low values are
observed for very fine grained soils.

Exercises
Question 1:
Explain the differences between phreatic and vadose groundwater
Question 2:
Calculate the approximate value for the maximum capillary rise in a soil having the following
properties:
e=0.8; effective size, D10=0.052 mm; (assume C=25)
Question 3:
Define the terms total stress, effective stress and pore pressure and state the relationship
that exists between them.
Question 4:
On a certain site, a surface layer of sandy gravel is 8m thick and this overlies a 6m layer of
clay. The 6m layer of clay is in turn underlain by an impermeable rock. Calculate and Draw
up the total and effective stress profiles down to the bottom of the clay layer for the
following conditions:
i) Water table at the ground surface
ii) Water table at the gravel/clay interface
Unit weights:
Sandy Gravel (saturated) 22 kN/m3
Sandy Gravel (unsaturated) 17 kN/m3
Clay (saturated) 19.5 kN/m3
Clay (unsaturated) 16.5 kN/m3

5.0 Site investigations: in-situ

testing and laboratory work
5.1 Site Investigation: Scope and Purpose
An essential preliminary to the design and construction of a civil engineering project is a
thorough and comprehensive site investigation. The necessity of site investigation for any
project cannot be over-emphasized. The scope of the investigation is influenced by the size
and type of project.
According to the BS 5930:1981, objectives of site investigations are as follows:
a) To assess the general suitability of the site and its environs for the proposed works
b) To enable an adequate and economic design to be prepared, including the design of
temporary works
c) To plan the best method of construction to foresee and provide against difficulties
and delays that may arise during construction due to ground and other local
conditions
d) To determine the changes that may arise in the ground and environmental
conditions, either naturally or as result of the works and the effect of such changes
on the works, on adjacent works, and on the environment in general.
e) Where alternatives exist, to advise on the relative suitability of different sites or
different parts of the same.
Site investigations are also necessary when
 reporting on the safety of existing works,
 planning of alteration to existing works
 investigating occurrences of failure and
 looking for sources of constructional material
Essentially, most of the investigation needs be completed prior to the design stage of the
project. This is because information from the site investigation is usually essential for
effective design work. Some overlap may occur and for moderate to large projects, the
whole investigation and design may be broken down in stages.
5.1.1 Components of Site Investigation
Desk Study: Essentially the collection of a wide variety of information relating to the site
such as maps, drawings, details of existing or historic development, local information,
geological maps, memoirs, records, details of utilities, services, restrictions, rights of way,
ownership of adjacent property, aerial photographs etc.

Site Reconnaissance: Basically an early examination of the site by appropriate experts

such as geologist, land surveyor, soils engineer, hydrologist. Information is collected on the
overall site layout, topography, basic geology, details of access, entry and height
restrictions. Local conditions such as climate, stream flows, groundwater conditions and site
utilization in regards to weather and time of year is examined. Photographic records should
be kept where necessary.
Detailed Site Exploration and Sampling: This involves detailed investigation of the
geology and sub-surface conditions using techniques such as surface surveys, trial pits,
headings, boreholes, soundings, and geophysical methods as may be appropriate. It also
includes survey of groundwater conditions over a significant period of time which may even
extend after the completion of the works as well as examination of existing and adjacent
structures for signs of cracking, settlement, location of underground structures, cavities,
buried pipes, services. Provision of samples for further examination and testing in the
laboratory is an essential aspect of this phase.
Laboratory Testing of Samples: Tests on disturbed and undisturbed samples for
classification and other quality properties such as permeability, strength and durability.
In-situ Testing: These are tests carried out on the site either prior to or during the
construction process. Examples include shear vane test, standard penetration, cone
penetration, plate bearing, displacement observations, etc
Reporting of Results: Details of geological study, results of borings, comments and
recommendations regarding design and construction of the proposed works,
recommendation for further investigations and ongoing or post completion monitoring are
presented as a report.
5.2 Methods of Site exploration

Methods or techniques of site exploration are chosen in consideration of four main factors
a) Geological nature of the site: Clay soils may require sinking of boreholes. In sandy
soils, lined boreholes with special sampling equipment may be preferred. Trial pits
are only practicable in firm or compact soils or soft rocks above the water table.
b) Topographical nature of the site: The type of terrain and access to the site are
important because of movement of exploration equipment. In hilly or steeply
inclined sites, headings driven almost horizontally may be more convenient and
practicable than vertical borings.
c) Type of information required: The usual information required by both the
designer and the constructor is the nature and sequence of the sub-surface rocks
and soils. Specialist information such as details of joint geometry, groundwater
flows, location of previous failure surfaces etc requires specialist equipment and
expertise.
d) Cost and time: The deeper the exploration, the more costly and time consuming the
exploration becomes.

Some methods or techniques of site exploration include:

 Trial Pits
 Headings
 Hand Auger
 Percussion Rig Boring
 Rotary Augers
 Core Drilling
5.3 Laboratory Testing
5.3.1 Sampling
There are two main categories of soil samples:

a) Undisturbed Samples
b) Disturbed Samples
In undisturbed samples, the moisture content and structure of the soil in-situ is preserved as
far as possible, so that the sample taken truly represents the site conditions. Undisturbed
samples are required for determination of properties such as shear strength, consolidation
and permeability. Suitable percussion or coring methods are useful methods for obtaining
undisturbed samples of soils.
Disturbed samples are collected as drillings or digs proceed. Where possible, attempts are
made to preserve the in-situ moisture content. Disturbed samples can be used for soil
identification and classification tests as well as quality tests.
5.3.1.1 Sample Disturbance
It is practically impossible to obtain a 100% undisturbed sample especially from moderate to

deep holes. The process of boring, driving the coring tool, raising and withdrawing the
coring tool and extruding sample from the coring tool all work together to introduce some
disturbance. Furthermore, samples taken from holes may tend to swell as a consequence of
stress relief. It is imperative therefore that care is taken during sampling in order not to
introduce unnecessary disturbance. Samples should be taken only from newly-drilled or
newly-extended holes with care take to avoid contact with water. When samples are
brought to the surface, they must immediately be labeled and the ends sealed with wax and
capped to avoid loss of moisture. The samples must be stored away from extreme heat, cold
or vibration. Soft silt and clays of low plasticity are particularly sensitive to sampling
disturbance. Sampling disturbance may be reduced by using an appropriate type of sample
tube.

Types of soil samplers include open-drive sampler, thin walled sampler, split barrel sampler,
piston sampler and Swedish foil sampler.
5.3.2 Laboratory Tests
Laboratory tests are conducted on disturbed and undisturbed samples for classification and
other quality properties such as permeability, shear strength, compressibility, consolidation
and durability as well as tests on construction materials such as California Bearing Ration
(CBR) test, and tests on groundwater, chemical and petrographic analyses. .
Some laboratory tests include
 Grading test
 Atterberg limits test
 Triaxial test
 Direct shear test
 Consolidation test
 Permeability tests
 Compaction tests
 Specific gravity tests
 Moisture content determination tests
 California Bearing Ratio Test
5.4 In-situ Testing

In soft sensitive silts and clays and some coarse Cohesionless soils, it is difficult to obtain
good undisturbed samples. It is difficult also to accurately model in the laboratory truly
representative conditions of structure and/or pore pressure under certain site conditions.
As a result, a number of relatively simple in-situ testing procedures have been devised to
enable good estimates of soil properties to be made under actual site conditions. Although
in in-situ testing, the degree of accuracy and control is possibly lower than what would be
expected in the laboratory, it is often compensated for by the large number of tests carried
out as well as exact conditions on site being replicated in the test.
A list of important in-situ tests and the intended property to measure is given in table 5.1.

5.4.1 Core Cutter Test
The core cutter test is fully detailed in BS 1377. The purpose of the test is to determine the
bulk density of soil that has been placed by compaction, or of natural soil. After measuring
the moisture content, the dry density can then be calculated. The apparatus consists of steel
cylinder of internal diameter 100 mm and length 130 mm machined to a cutting edge at one
end. The cutter is knocked into the ground using a specially designed rammer, after which it
is dug out. The ends of the soil are struck off to level and it is weighed. This test is usually
suitable for fine grained soils.
5.4.2 Sand replacement Test
Another method for determining soil density in the field is the sand replacement method
also detailed in BS 1377. A cylindrical hole approximately 100 mm in diameter and depth
150 mm is dug out through a hole in a special tray. The excavated material is carefully
weighed and moisture content determined. The sand pouring cylinder is placed over the
hole and sand of known density is run out to fill it. The volume of sand filling the hole is
taken as the volume of the dug-out hole. Two sizes of sand pouring cylinders are available
for soils of fine-medium grain size and coarse grain size.
Table 5.1: In-situ Tests and Properties Measured

Required to Measure Test Required to Measure
Core Cutter
Soil Density
Sand replacement
Standard Penetration
Relative Density
Cone Penetration
Shear Strength
Shear Vane
Pressurementer
California Bearing Ratio Compressibility
Allowable Bearing Capacity Plate Bearing
Pile Bearing
Drainage Pattern Groundwater Level
Pore Pressure
In – situ Stress Piezometer
Pumping Test permeability
Other in-situ tests are listed below:

 Standard penetration test
 Cone penetration test

 Shear Vane Test

 Plate bearing test
 California Bearing Ratio Test
 Pile loading test
 Pressuremeter test

Exercises
Question 1
Explain the components of site investigation
Question 2
What factors must be considered in choosing a method for site exploration? Name five
methods of site exploration
Question 3
What factors are important in taking a soil sample for testing in the laboratory? Compare
the two types of samples in soil mechanics
Question 4
Name six types of laboratory tests on soils and give the type of sample which can be used
for the tests
Question 5
i) Name four in-situ tests that can be conducted in the field.
ii) Describe the sand replacement test method and mention the soil property this
test is used to measure.

SOIL MECHANICS Handout 2021 COMPLETE

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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Joshua Jacob VORDOAGU FEBRUARY 2021

Joshua J. Vordoagu Page 1 of 62

4.0 GROUNDWATER .................................................................................................................................................. 48

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1.0 Origin and Composition of Soils

1.2 Mineral Composition of Soils

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1.3 Soil Terminology

1.4 Soils in Civil Engineering

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1.4.1 Soil as a Foundation Material

Figure 1.1: Soil as a Foundation Material in – a) Shallow foundation, b) Deep foundation

1.4.2 Soil as a Construction Material

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Figure 1.2: Soil as a construction Material in – a) Road Pavement, b) Dam Construction

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1.5 Civil Engineering Problems and Components of its Solution

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Figure 1.4: Components of a Solution to Soil Engineering Problem

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2.0 Classification of Soils for

2.2 The Cassagrande’s Extended Classification System

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2.3 The Unified Soil Classification System

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2. Fine grained soils (Less than 50% retained on the 75 µm sieve)

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2.4 The AASHTO Soil Classification System

Group index = (F − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL − 40)] + 0.01(F − 15)(PI − 10)

2.5 Classification of a Soil – Procedure

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Table 2.1: Unified Soil Classification System (Simplified)

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Table 2.2: Unified Soil Classification System (Full)

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Table 2.3: AASHTO Classification System

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Table 2.4: Engineering Use Chart

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Classify the following soils by the AASHTO classification system

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3.0 Physical Properties of Soils

3.1 Index Properties

3.1.1 Particle Size Analysis

Table 3.1: Classification of Soil Particles on the Basis of Their Size

Designation Category Particle Size (mm)

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3.1.1.1 Particle Separation by Sieve Analysis

Table 3.2: Commonly Used Sieve Sizes

3.1.1.2 Particle Separation by Sedimentation

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𝑣 = velocity of particle in the still fluid

𝑟 = radius of particle and 𝐷 = diameter of particle r= .

𝛾 , 𝛾 = unit weight of particle and fluid respectively

The Hydrometer Method:

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