Chapter One

Conductors, Dielectrics, and

Capacitance

CE312
Third Year Class

By: Dr. Ali A. Al-Azza

Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

In this chapter we intend to look at the application of the laws and methods of the
previous chapters to some of the materials with which an engineer must work.

1.1 Current and Current Density:

Current I is defined as the movement of electric charges. The unit of current is the
Ampere (A), defined as a rate of movement of charge passing given reference point of
one Coulomb per second. Current density ( J̅ ) is a vector quantity, measured in ampere
per square meter [A/m2]. The increment of current ∆I crossing an incremental surface
∆S normal to the current density is:

∆I = J ∆S

In the case when the current density is not perpendicular to the surface,

∆I = J̅ . ∆S 1.1
And the total current is:

𝐼= J̅ . 𝑑S 1.2

1.1.1 Relation Between Current Density and Velocity of Volume Charge Density:

Consider the element of charge ∆𝑄 = 𝜌 ∆V = 𝜌 ∆𝑆∆𝐿 , as shown in Fig. 1.1a below.

Assume that the charge element is oriented with its edges parallel to the coordinate axes
and that it has only an 𝑥 component of velocity. In the time interval ∆𝑡, the element of
charge has moved a distance ∆𝑥 , as indicated in Fig. 1.1b. We have therefore moved a
charge ∆𝑄 = 𝜌 ∆𝑆 ∆𝑥 through a reference plane perpendicular to the direction of
motion in a time increment ∆𝑡, and the resulting current is

∆𝑄 ∆𝑥
∆𝐼 = = 𝜌 ∆𝑆
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
As we take the limit with respect to time, we have

∆𝐼 = 𝜌 ∆𝑆 𝑈

1
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

Fig. 5.1 An increment of charge, ∆𝑄 = 𝜌 ∆𝑆∆𝐿, which moves a distance ∆𝑥 in a

time ∆𝑡, produces a component of current density in the limit of 𝐽 = 𝜌 𝑈 .

Where 𝑈 represents the 𝑥 component of the velocity 𝑈. In terms of current density, we

find

𝐽 = 𝜌 𝑈

And in general

𝐽̅ = 𝜌 𝑈 1.3

This last result shows clearly that charge in motion constitutes a current. We call this
type of current a convection current, and 𝐽 ̅ or 𝜌 𝑈 is the convection current density.

Example 1.1:

Find the total current crossing a 1 [cm] length of the cylindrical surface, 𝜌 = 2 [mm], if
the expressions valid near this radius are:

1
cos 𝜙 𝐴
(𝒂) 𝐽 = 2 , −𝜋 < 𝜙 < 𝜋;
𝜌 𝑚

10 𝐶 𝑚
(𝒃) 𝜌 = , and 𝑈 = 3 ∗ 10 𝜌 .
𝜌 𝑚 𝑠

2
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

Solution:
∗ 1 1
cos 𝜙 sin 𝜙
(𝒂) 𝐼 = J.̅ 𝑑S = 2 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 = 2 │ ∗ 10 = 40 [𝑚𝐴]
𝜌 1
2
𝐴
(𝒃) 𝐽 = 𝜌 𝑈 = 3 ∗ 10 𝜌
𝑚
∗

𝐼= 3 ∗ 10 𝜌 𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 = 3 ∗ 10 ∗ 4 ∗ 10 ∗ 2𝜋 ∗ 10 = 0.754 [𝑚𝐴]

H.W.1:

Find the current crossing the portion of the 𝑦 = 0 plane defined by −0.1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0.1 [𝑚]
and −0.002 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 0.002 [𝑚] if 𝐽 ̅ = 10 |𝑥|𝑎𝑦 .

Ans.: 𝐼 = 4 [𝑚𝐴].

1.2 Continuity of Current:

The principle of conservation of charge states simply that; charges can be neither created
nor destroyed, although equal amounts of positive and negative charge may be
simultaneously created, obtained by separation, or lost by recombination.

The continuity equation follows from this principle when we consider any region
bounded by a closed surface. The current through the closed surface is:

𝐼= J.̅ 𝑑S

And this outward flow of positive charge must be balanced by a decrease of positive
charge (or perhaps an increase of negative charge) within the closed surface. If the
charge inside the closed surface is denoted by 𝑄 , then the rate of decrease is − and
the principle of conservation of charge requires:

3
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

𝑑𝑄
𝐼= J.̅ 𝑑S = − 1.4
𝑑𝑡
Eq. 1.4 is the integral form of the continuity equation, and the differential, or point form
is obtained by changing the surface integral to a volume integral by the divergence
theorem.

J.̅ 𝑑S = (∇. 𝐽)̅ 𝑑𝑣 Thus;

𝑑
(∇. 𝐽)̅ 𝑑𝑣 = − ρ 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡

If we agree to keep the surface constant, the derivative becomes a partial derivative and
may appear with in the integral,

𝜕ρ
(∇. 𝐽)̅ 𝑑𝑣 = − 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑡

For an incremental volume,

𝜕ρ
(∇. 𝐽)̅ ∆𝑣 = − ∆𝑣
𝜕𝑡
From which we have our point form of the continuity equation,

𝜕ρ 1.5
∇. 𝐽 ̅ = −
𝜕𝑡

Remembering the physical interpretation of divergence, this equation indicates that the
current, or charge per second, diverging from a small volume per unit volume is equal to
the time rate of decrease of charge per unit volume at every point.

4
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

Example 1.2: If 𝐽 ̅ = 𝑒 𝑎𝑟 . (a) Find the total current crossing the spherical
surface 𝑟 = 5 [𝑚] at 𝑡 = 1 [𝑠]. (b) Find 𝜌 if 𝜌 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = ∞. (c) Find 𝑈

Solution:

1 1
(𝒂) 𝐼 = J.̅ 𝑑S = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 = 𝑒 ∗ (4𝜋5 ) = 23.1 [𝐴].
𝑟 5

𝜕ρ 1 1 𝜕 1 1
(𝒃) ∵ ∇. 𝐽 ̅ = − ⟹ ∇. 𝑒 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑟 𝑒 = 𝑒
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
1 1
∴ 𝜌 =− 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 + 𝑘(𝑟)
𝑟 𝑟

∵ 𝜌 = 0 at 𝑡 = ∞ ⟹ 0 = 0 + 𝑘(𝑟) ⟹ 𝑘(𝑟) = 0
1 C
∴ 𝜌 = 𝑒
𝑟 𝑚
1
𝐽̅ 𝑒 𝑎𝑟 m
(𝐜) ∵ 𝐽 ̅ = 𝜌 𝑈 ⟹ 𝑈 = =𝑟 = 𝑟 𝑎𝑟
𝜌 1 s
𝑒
𝑟
1.3 Metallic Conductor:

Referring to the energy band representation of materials, we can distinguish three

groups:

1- Conductors: without energy-gap between conduction band and valance band.

2- Insulators (Dielectric): with large energy gap between conduction band and
valance band.
3- Semiconductors: with small energy-gap between conduction band and valance
band.

5
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

Let us first consider the conductor. Here the valance electrons, or conduction or free
electrons, move under the influence of an electric field with a field 𝐸 , an electron having
a charge 𝑄 = −𝑒 will experience force:

𝐹 = −𝑒 𝐸

In free space, the electron would accelerate and continuously increase its velocity (and
energy); in the crystalline material, the progress of the electron is impeded by continual
collisions with the thermally excited crystalline lattice structure, and a constant average
velocity is soon attained.

This velocity 𝑢 is termed the drift velocity, and it is linearly related to the electric field
intensity by the mobility of the electron in the given material. We designate mobility by
the symbol μ (mu), so that

𝑢 = −𝜇 𝐸 1.6
Where 𝑢 : drift velocity [m/s].

And 𝜇 is the mobility of an electron and is positive by definition. Typical values are
.
0.0012 for aluminum, 0.0032 for copper, and 0.0056 for silver.

Substituting (1.6) into Eq. (1.3), we obtain:

6
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

J̅ = −𝜌 𝜇 E 1.7
Where 𝜌 is the free-electron charge density, a negative value. The relationship between
J̅ and E for a metallic conductor, however, is also specified by the conductivity σ (sigma),

J̅ = 𝜎 E 1.8
℧
Where σ is measured in siemens per meter [S/m] or mho per meter[ ]; typical values (in
siemens per meter) are 3.82 × 10 for aluminum, 5.80 × 10 for copper, and
6.17 × 10 for silver. We call this equation the point form of Ohm’s law; we will look at
the more common form of Ohm’s law shortly. If we now combine Equations (1.7) and
(1.8), conductivity may be expressed in terms of the charge density and the electron
mobility,

𝜎 = −𝜌 𝜇 1.9
From the general integral relationship and from ohm’s law we may write the general
expression for resistance when the fields are nonuniform,

𝑉 − ∫ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 − ∫ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿
𝑅= = = 1.10
𝐼 ̅
∬ J. 𝑑𝑆 ̅ ∬ 𝜎𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆̅
When the fields are uniform:

𝑉 − ∫ 𝑑𝐿
𝑅= = 1.11
𝐼 𝜎 ∬ 𝑑𝑆
The application of Ohm’s law in point form to a macroscopic (visible to the naked eye)
region leads to a more familiar form. Initially, assume that 𝐽 and 𝐸 are uniform, as they
are in the cylindrical region shown in Figure below.

7
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

𝐼= J.̅ 𝑑𝑆̅ = J S And

𝑉 =− 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 = −𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 = −𝐸 . 𝐿 = 𝐸. 𝐿 or

𝑉 =𝐸𝐿 Thus,
𝐼 𝑉
𝐽= = 𝜎𝐸 = 𝜎
𝑆 𝐿
𝐿
𝑉= 𝐼 But
𝜎𝑆
𝑉=𝑅𝐼 {Ohm’s Law} 1.12
Where

𝐿 1.13
𝑅= [Ω]
𝜎𝑆

Example 1.3:

Find the magnitude of the electric field intensity in a sample of silver having 𝜎 =
℧
6.17 × 10 [ ] and 𝜇 = 0.0056 if:
.

(a) The drift velocity is 1 [mm/s]; (b) The current density is 107 [A/m2] ;

(c) The sample is a cube, 3 [mm] on a side, carrying a total current of 80 [A];

(d) The sample is a cube 3 [mm] on a side, having a potential difference of 0.5 [mV]
between opposite faces.

Solution:

𝑢 𝑉
(𝒂) 𝑢 = −𝜇 𝐸 ⟹ |𝐸 | = = 0.17857
𝜇 𝑚

8
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

𝐽 𝑉
(𝒃) 𝐽 ̅ = 𝜎𝐸 ⟹ |𝐸 | = = 0.16207 [ ]
𝜎 𝑚

𝐼 80 𝑀𝐴
(𝐜) 𝐼 = J.̅ 𝑑𝑆̅ = J S ⟹ 𝐽 = = = 8.88889
𝑆 (3 ∗ 10 ) 𝑚

𝐽 8.88889 ∗ 10 𝑉
∴ 𝐸 = |𝐸 | = = = 0.144066
𝜎 6.17 ∗ 10 𝑚
0.5 ∗ 10 𝑉
(𝒅) 𝑉 = 𝐿 |𝐸 | ⟹ |𝐸 | = = 0.166667
3 ∗ 10 𝑚
Example 1.4:

Two perfectly conducting spherical surfaces are located at 𝑟 = 2 and 𝑟 = 10 [𝑐𝑚]. The
total current passing radially outward through the medium between the spheres is 2.5 A.
(a) Find the voltage and resistance between the spheres, and 𝐸 in the region between
℧
the spheres, if a conducting material having 𝜎 = 0.02 is present for 2 < 𝑟 <
. ℧
10 [𝑐𝑚]. (b) Repeat if 𝜎 = for 2 < 𝑟 < 10 [𝑐𝑚]. (c) Show that integrating the
power dissipated per unit volume in part (b) over the volume gives the total dissipated
power.

Solution:

2.5 𝐴
(𝒂) 𝐼 = J.̅ 𝑑𝑆̅ ⟹ 2.5 = 𝐽 ∗ 4𝜋𝑟 ⟹ 𝐽 ̅ = 𝑎𝑟
4𝜋𝑟 𝑚

𝐽̅ 125 𝑉
∵ 𝐽 ̅ = 𝜎𝐸 ⟹ 𝐸 = = 𝑎𝑟
𝜎 4𝜋𝑟 𝑚
∗ ∗
125 125 1 1
𝑉 =− 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 = − 𝑑𝑟 = − = 397.887 [𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡]
4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋 2 ∗ 10 10

𝑉 397.887
𝑅= = = 159.1549 [Ω]
𝐼 2.5
9
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

𝐽 ̅ 625 𝑉
(𝒃) 𝐸 = = 𝑎𝑟
𝜎 𝜋𝑟 𝑚
∗ ∗
625 625
𝑉 =− 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 = − 𝑑𝑟 = ln 5 = 320.1875 [𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡]
𝜋𝑟 𝜋

𝑉 320.1875
𝑅= = = 128.075 [Ω]
𝐼 2.5
(c) Let p is the “power dissipated per unit volume”.

625 2.5 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡

∴𝑝 =𝐸 ∗𝐽 =
𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 𝑚
The total dissipated power:

1562.5
∴𝑃= 𝑝 𝑑𝑣 = 𝐸 . 𝐽 ̅ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
4𝜋 𝑟
∗

𝑑𝑟
= 39.578587 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝑟
∗

∴ 𝑃 = 39.578587 ∗ ln 5 ∗ 4𝜋 = 800.468748 [𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡]

∵𝑃=𝑉 ∗ 𝐼 = 320.1875 ∗ 2.5 = 800.468748 [𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡]

∴𝑃=𝑉 ∗𝐼 = 𝐸 ∗ 𝐽 𝑑𝑣

H.W.2:

The spherical surfaces, 𝑟 = 2 and 6 [𝑐𝑚], are perfectly conducting, and the region
℧
between them, is filled with a conducting material for which 𝜎 = 80 . If the current

density is 𝐽 ̅ = 𝑎𝑟 for 2 < 𝑟 < 6 [𝑐𝑚], find:

10
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

(a) The current flowing from one perfect conductor to the other;
(b) 𝐸 ;
(c) The potential difference between perfect conductors;
(d) The total power being dissipated in the conducting material;
(e) 𝑅.

Ans.: [(a) 40 [A]; (b) ; (c) 1.326 [Volt]; (d) 53.05 [watt]; (e) 0.033157 [Ω]

1.4 Conductor Properties and Boundary Conditions:

Consider the below figure which shows a Conductor-Free Space boundary with the
tangential and normal component of 𝐸 and 𝐷 on the free space side of the boundary.

Inside the conductor 𝐸 and 𝐷 = 0. The tangential field at the boundary may be
determined by applying the equation ∮ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 which is called the circulation around the
small closed path (a b c d). The integral must be broken up into four parts:

𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 = + + + =0 Or

1 1
𝐸 ∆𝑤 − 𝐸 , ∗ ∆ℎ + 𝐸 , ∗ ∆ℎ = 0
2 2

11
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

Remembering that, 𝐸 = 0, within the conductor. As we allow ∆ℎ to approach zero,

keeping ∆𝑤 small but finite, we get

𝐸 ∆𝑤 = 0 and therefore

𝐸 = 0 and also 𝐷 = 0.

Now to find the normal component of 𝐷 (𝐷 ), we choose a small cylinder the gaussian
surface, using Gauss’s law.

𝐷. 𝑑𝑆̅ = 𝑄 .

We integrate over the three distinct surfaces

+ + =𝑄 .

But ∬ = 0 ; because 𝐸 = 0 inside the conductor.

And ∬ = 0 because 𝐷 = 0 ; thus:

= 𝐷 ∆𝑆 = 𝑄 . Or

𝐷 ∆𝑆 = 𝜌 ∆𝑆, then:
𝜌
𝐷 = 𝜌 and 𝐸 =
𝜀

These are the desired boundary conditions for the conductor-free space boundary in
electrostatics,

𝐷 =𝐸 =0 1.14
𝐷 =𝜀 𝐸 =𝜌 1.15

12
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

To summarize the principles which apply to conductors in electrostatic fields, we may

state that:

1. The static electric field intensity inside a conductor is zero.

2. The static electric field intensity at the surface of a conductor is everywhere directed
normal to that surface.
3. The conductor surface is an equipotential surface.

Example 1.5:

Given the potential,

𝑉 = 100 (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) and a point
P(2,−1, 3) that is s pulated to lie on a
conductor-to-free-space boundary,
find 𝑉, 𝐸 , 𝐷, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌 at P, and also the
equation of the conductor surface.

Solution:

The potential at point P is

𝑉 = 100 [2 − (−1) ]
= 300 [𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡]

Because the conductor is an

equipotential surface, the potential at the entire surface must be 300 V. Moreover, if the
conductor is a solid object, then the potential everywhere in and on the conductor is 300
V, for 𝐸 = 0 within the conductor.

The equation representing the locus of all points having a potential of 300 [Volt] is:

300 = 100 (𝑥 − 𝑦 ) or 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3

This is therefore the equation of the conductor surface; it happens to be a hyperbolic

cylinder, as shown in Figure above. Let us assume arbitrarily that the solid conductor lies
13
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

above and to the right of the equipotential surface at point P, whereas free space is
down and to the left. Next, we find E by the gradient operation,

𝐸 = −100 ∇(𝑥 − 𝑦 ) = −200𝑥𝑎 𝑥 + 200𝑦𝑎 𝑦

At point P,

V
𝐸 = −400𝑎𝑥 − 200𝑎𝑦
m
Because 𝐷 = 𝜀 𝐸 , we have

nC
𝐷 = 8.854 ∗ 10 𝐸 = −3.54ax − 1.771ay
m
The field is directed downward and to the left at P; it is normal to the equipotential
surface. Therefore,

nC
𝐷 = |𝐷 | = 3.96
m

Thus, the surface charge density at P is 𝜌 , = 𝐷 = 3.96

Note that if we had taken the region to the left of the equipotential surface as the
conductor, the 𝐸 field would terminate on the surface charge and we would let

nC
𝜌 = −3.96
m
1.5 The Method of Image:

The uniqueness theorem states that a solution of an electrostatic problem satisfying its
boundary conditions is the Only Possible Solution, irrespective of the method by which
the solution is obtained. The solution obtained even by intelligent guessing is the only
correct solution. The importance of this theorem will be appreciated when the method
of Images introduced as below:

(A+) Two equal but opposite charges may be replaced by a single charge and a
conducting plane without affecting the fields above the V = 0 surface.
14
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

(B) A given charge configuration above an infinite conducting plane may be replaced by
the given charge configuration plus the image configuration, without the conducting
plane.

A useful analogy can be obtained by viewing the conducting surface as a mirror.

When looking into a mirror, we see an image looking in the opposite direction. If we
were to look at an angle into the mirror, so would the image be at an angle, looking at us.
We also note that the image itself does not exist: There is nothing behind the mirror.
Therefore, only the "solution" in front of the mirror is valid. You may think of it in this
sense: A light source in front of the mirror reflects off the mirror. Any object in front of
the mirror is lighted by two sources: one is the original source, the second is the
reflected light from the mirror. If we were to remove the mirror, the reflected light
would disappear. If we now place an identical source at the location of the image in the
15
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

mirror, the light distribution in the area in front of the mirror would be the same as if the
mirror were still there. Thus, the image is a convenient artifice.

From this simple analogy, we can write the following general properties for the method
of images:

(1) The image is the negative of the source. The magnitude of the image is the same as
the source.

(2) The geometry is reflected in the constant potential surface as in a mirror.

(3) The image and source are at the same distance from the mirror.

(4) Multiple sources produce multiple images, again like reflection in a mirror.

(5) Single or multiple point or distributed charges in front of multiple mirrors also
produce multiple images.

Example 1.6:

find the surface charge density at P(2, 5, 0) on the conducting plane 𝑧 = 0 if there is a
line charge of 30 [nC/m] located at 𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 3, as shown in Figure below (a).

Solution:

We remove the plane and install an image line charge of −30 [nC/m] at 𝑥 = 0, , 𝑧 = −3
as illustrated in Figure (b) above.

The field at P may now be obtained by superposition of the known fields of the line
charges. For a line charge:
16
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

𝜌
𝐸= 𝑎 Then
2𝜋𝜀 𝑅

𝑅 = (2 − 0)𝑎𝑥 + (0 − 3)𝑎𝑧

𝑅 = 2𝑎𝑥 − 3𝑎𝑧 , while

𝑅 = (2 − 0)𝑎𝑥 + (0 − (−3))𝑎𝑧

𝑅 = 2𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑧 . Thus, the individual fields are

𝜌 30 ∗ 10 2𝑎𝑥 − 3𝑎𝑧 𝑉
∴𝐸 = 𝑎 =
2𝜋𝜀 𝑅 2𝜋𝜀 √13 √13 𝑚

𝜌 −30 ∗ 10 2𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑧 𝑉

∴𝐸 = 𝑎 =
2𝜋𝜀 𝑅 2𝜋𝜀 √13 √13 𝑚

𝐸 =𝐸 +𝐸

−180 ∗ 10 𝑉
𝐸= 𝑎𝑧 = −249 𝑎𝑧
2𝜋𝜀 13 𝑚

This the field at (or just above) P in both the configurations of Fig. (a) and (b). It is
certainly satisfying to note that the field is normal to the conducting plane. Thus,

𝑛𝐶
𝐷 = 𝜀 𝐸 = −2.20𝑎𝑧
𝑚
And since this is directed toward the conducting plane, 𝜌 is negative and has a value:

𝜌 = −2.20 at P.

H.W.3:

A spherical cloud has a uniform negative charge density −𝜌 and is located above
ground, as shown in Figure below. The dimensions and charge density are shown in the

17
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

same figure:

(a) Calculate the electric field intensity

everywhere at ground level.

(b) What is the largest electric field

intensity at ground level? Where does it
occur?

(c) Calculate the charge density on the

ground.

Ans.: (a) 𝐸 (𝑥, 0, 𝑧) = 𝑎𝑦 , (b) 𝐸 (0,0,0) = 1.885 ∗

( )

10 𝜌 𝑎𝑦 , (c) 𝜌 =
( )

1.6 The Nature of Dielectric Materials:

The characteristic that all dielectric materials have in common, whether they are solid,
liquid, or gas, and whether or not they are crystalline in nature, is their ability to store
electric energy. This storage takes place by means of a shift in the relative positions of
the internal, bound positive and negative charges against the normal molecular and
atomic forces.

In polar molecules (like water), a permanent displacement

existing between the centers of “gravity” of the positive and
negative charges, and each pair of charges acts as a dipole.
Normally the dipoles are oriented in a random way
throughout the interior of the material, and the action of the

18
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

external field is to align these molecules, to some extent, in the same direction. A
sufficiently strong field may even produce an additional displacement between the
positive and negative charges.

A nonpolar molecule (hydrogen, oxygen) does not have this dipole arrangement until
after a field is applied. The negative and positive charges shift in opposite directions
against their mutual attraction and produce a dipole that is aligned with the electric field.

Either type of dipole may be described by its dipole moment 𝑝̅,

𝑝̅ = 𝑄𝑑̅ 1.17
Where 𝑄 is the positive one of the two bound charges composing the dipole, and 𝑑̅ is the
vector from the negative to the positive charge.

If there are 𝑛 dipoles per unit volume and we deal with a volume ∆𝑣, then there are 𝑛∆𝑣
dipoles, and the total dipole moment is obtained by the vector sum,
∆

𝑝̅ = 𝑝̅ [C. 𝑚] 1.18

We now define the polarization 𝑃 as the dipole moment per unit volume,
∆
1
𝑃 = lim 𝑝̅ [C/𝑚 ] 1.19
∆ → ∆𝑣

To be specific, assume that we have a dielectric containing nonpolar molecules. No

molecule has a dipole moment, and 𝑃 = 0 throughout the material. Somewhere in the
interior of the dielectric we select an incremental surface element ∆𝑆̅, as shown in the
figure below, and apply an electric field 𝐸 .

19
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

The application of an external field 𝐸 , normal to ∆𝑆̅ cause a separation 𝑑 of bound

charges: positive charge of +𝑄 move a distance in the direction of the field and
negative charge −𝑄 move an equal distance against the direction of the field.

Therefore, because there are n molecules/m3, the net total charge that crosses the
elemental surface in the direction of the field:

∆𝑄 = 𝑛 𝑄𝑑 ∆𝑆

Where the subscript on 𝑄 reminds us that we are dealing with a bound charge and not a
free charge. If the external field not normal to the surface ∆𝑆̅ the separation of the
bound charge in the direction of 𝑎 will be 𝑑̅ . 𝑎 then:

∆𝑄 = 𝑛 𝑄𝑑̅ . ∆𝑆𝑎 = 𝑛 𝑄𝑑̅ . ∆𝑆̅

In terms of the polarization, we have

∆𝑄 = 𝑃. ∆𝑆̅ Then,
∆𝑄
= 𝑃. 𝑎
∆𝑆
𝜌 = 𝑃. 𝑎 1.20
The net total bound charge is obtained through the integral

1.21
𝑄 =− 𝑃 . 𝑑𝑆̅

20
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

This last relationship has some resemblance to Gauss’s law, and we may now generalize
our definition of electric flux density so that it applies to media other than free space.
We first write Gauss’s law in terms of 𝜀 𝐸 and 𝑄 , the total enclosed charge, bound plus
free:.

1.22
𝑄 = 𝜀 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆̅

Where

𝑄 = 𝑄 + 𝑄

And 𝑄 is the total free charge enclosed by the surface 𝑆, and it is the most important
type of charge and will appear in Maxwell’s equations. Then,

𝑄 =𝑄 −𝑄 = (𝜀 𝐸 + 𝑃). 𝑑𝑆̅

𝐷 is now defined in more general terms than was done in Chapter 3,

𝐷 =𝜀 𝐸+𝑃 [C/𝑚 ] 1.23

And

𝑄= 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆̅ 1.24

Utilizing the several volume charge densities, we have

1.21
𝑄 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑣

1.26
𝑄= 𝜌 𝑑𝑣

1.27
𝑄 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑣

With the help of the divergence theorem, we may therefore transform Eqs. (21), (22),
and (24) into the equivalent divergence relationships,

21
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

∇. 𝑃 = −𝜌 1.28
∇. 𝜀 𝐸 = 𝜌 1.29
∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌 1.30
In order to make any real use of these new concepts, it is necessary to know the

relationship between the electric field intensity 𝐸 and the polarization 𝑃 that results.

In an isotropic material the vectors 𝐸 and 𝑃 are always parallel, regardless of the
orientation of the field. The linear relationship between 𝐸 and 𝑃 is:

𝑃=𝜒 𝜀 𝐸 [C/𝑚 ] 1.31

Where 𝜒 (chi) is a dimensionless quantity called the electric susceptibility of the
material. Using this relationship in equation 1.23 we have:

𝐷 = 𝜀 𝐸 + 𝜒 𝜀 𝐸 = (1 + 𝜒 )𝜀 𝐸

The expression within the parenthesis is now defined as:

𝜀 =𝜒 +1 1.32
This is another dimensionless quantity and it is known as the relative permittivity, or
dielectric constant of the material. Thus,

𝐷=𝜀 𝜀 𝐸=𝜀𝐸 1.33

Where

𝜀=𝜀 𝜀 1.34
And 𝜀 is the permittivity.

Example 1.7:

Two conducting concentric, cylindrical shells are separated by a dielectric of permittivity

𝜀. This is the common form of coaxial cables where the dielectric is the insulating
material between the two conductors. A total charge +𝑄 is distributed uniformly per
unit length of the inner shell (see Figure below). Calculate:

22
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

(a) The magnitude and direction of the polarization vector inside the dielectric.

(b) The polarization volume charge density in the dielectric.

(c) The polarization surface charge densities on the surfaces of the dielectric.

Solution:

(a) Let us first, calculate the electric field intensity 𝐸 for 𝑎 < 𝜌 < 𝑏, we use Gauss's law
to calculate the magnitude of the field. Using a cylindrical surface of length L and radius 𝜌
as shown in Figure below:

𝑄 𝑄 𝐶 𝑄 𝑉
2𝜋𝜌 𝐿 𝐷 = 𝑄 𝐿 ⟹ 𝐷 = ⟹ 𝐷= 𝑎𝜌 ⟹ 𝐸= 𝑎𝜌
2𝜋𝜌 2𝜋𝜌 𝑚 2𝜋𝜀𝜌 𝑚

𝐷 =𝜀 𝐸+𝑃
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝜀 𝐶
𝑃 =𝐷−𝜀 𝐸 = 𝑎𝜌 − 𝜀 𝑎𝜌 = 1− 𝑎𝜌
2𝜋𝜌 2𝜋𝜀𝜌 2𝜋𝜌 𝜀 𝑚

(𝐛) 𝜌 = −∇. 𝑃

1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝑄 𝜀
= 𝜌𝑃 = 𝜌 1− =0
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜌 2𝜋𝜌 𝜀

(c) On the inner surface, the direction of the normal is in the negative 𝑎𝜌 direction,
whereas on the outer surface, it is in the positive 𝑎𝜌 direction. Thus,

𝑄 𝜀 𝑄 𝜀
𝜌 │ = 𝑃. 𝑎 = 1− 𝑎𝜌. (−𝑎𝜌) = − 1−
2𝜋𝜌 𝜀 2𝜋𝑎 𝜀

23
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

𝑄 𝜀 𝑄 𝜀
𝜌 │ = 𝑃. 𝑎 = 1− 𝑎𝜌. (𝑎𝜌) = 1−
2𝜋𝜌 𝜀 2𝜋𝑏 𝜀

 Important:

(1) 𝜌 │ and 𝜌 │ are charge densities on the surface of the dielectric (not on the
conducting shells).

(2) If the dielectric is removed (replaced with free space), the polarization vector as well
as the surface and volume charge densities become zero since now 𝜀 = 𝜀

H.W. 4: The relative permittivity of atomic hydrogen is 1.000264 at standard

temperature and pressure. If there are 5.12 × 10 [atoms/m3 ] and a field E=103 [V/m]
is applied, find:

(a) 𝑃; (b) 𝑝; (c) The separation 𝑑 of the positive and negative charge.

Ans.: [ (a) 2.34 [pC/m2]; (b) 4.32 × 10 [C.m]; (c) 0.27 × 10 [m] ].

H.W. 5: In a dielectric material, 𝐸 = 5 and 𝑃 = (3𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 + 4𝑎𝑧) .

Calculate: (a) 𝜒 ; (b) 𝐸 ; (c) 𝐷.

Ans.: (a) 2.16; (b) 5𝑎𝑥 − 1.67𝑎𝑦 + 6.67𝑎𝑧 (c) 139.7 𝑎𝑥 − 46.6𝑎𝑦 + 186.3𝑎𝑧 [𝑝𝐶/
𝑚 ].

1.7 Boundary Conditions for Perfectly Dielectric Materials:

Let us first consider the interface between two dielectrics having permittivity 𝜀 and 𝜀
and occupying region 1 and 2 as shown in Figure below:

24
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

We first examine the tangential components by using

𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 = 0

Around the small closed path on the left, obtaining

𝐸 ∆𝑤 − 𝐸 ∆𝑤 = 0

The small contribution to the line integral by the normal component of 𝐸 along the
sections of the length ∆ℎ becomes negligible as ∆ℎ decrease and the closed path around
the surface. Immediately, then

𝐸 =𝐸 1.35
We have shown that the potential difference between any two points on the boundary
that are separated by a small distance ∆𝑤 is the same immediately above or below the
boundary. If the tangential electric field intensity is continue across the boundary, then
tangential 𝐷 is discontinuous, for

𝐷 𝐷
=𝐸 =𝐸 = Or
𝜀 𝜀
𝐷 𝜀
=
𝐷 𝜀 1.36
The boundary conditions on the normal components are found by applying Gauss’s law
to the small cylinder “pillbox” shown at the right in Figure above. The sides are again
very short, and the flux leaving the top and bottom surfaces is the difference

𝐷 ∆𝑆 − 𝐷 ∆𝑆 = ∆𝑄 = 𝜌 ∆𝑆

𝐷 −𝐷 =𝜌 1.37
Where 𝜌 is the free charge density placed deliberately at the boundary. It should be
borne in the mind that Eq. 1.37 is based on the assumption that 𝐷 is directed from
region 2 to region 1 and Eq. 1.37 must be applied accordingly. If no free charge exist at

25
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

the interface (i.e., charges are not deliberately placed there), 𝜌 = 0 and Eq. 1.37
becomes:

𝐷 =𝐷 1.38
The normal component of 𝐷 is continuous. It follows that

𝜀 𝐸 =𝜀 𝐸 1.39
And normal 𝐸 is discontinuous.

These conditions may be used to show the change in the vectors 𝐷 and 𝐸 at the surface.
Let 𝐷 (and 𝐸 ) make an angle 𝜃 with a normal to the surface as shown in the figure
below. Because the normal components of 𝐷 are continuous,

𝐷 = 𝐷 cos 𝜃 = 𝐷 cos 𝜃 = 𝐷 1.42

The ratio of the tangential components is given by the Eq. 1.36 as

𝐷 𝐷 sin 𝜃 𝜀
= = Or
𝐷 𝐷 sin 𝜃 𝜀

𝜀 𝐷 sin 𝜃 = 𝜀 𝐷 sin 𝜃 1.43

And the division of this equation by (1.42) gives

26
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

tan 𝜃 𝜀
= 1.44
tan 𝜃 𝜀
In this figure we have assumed that 𝜀 > 𝜀 , and therefore 𝜃 > 𝜃 .The direction of 𝐸
on each side of the boundary is identical with the direction of 𝐷, because 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸 .

The magnitude of 𝐷 in region 2 may be found from Eq. (1.42) and (1.43),

𝜀
𝐷 =𝐷 cos θ + sin θ 1.41
𝜀
And the magnitude of 𝐸 is

𝜀
𝐸 =𝐸 sin θ + cos θ 1.46
𝜀
An inspection of these equations shows that 𝐷 is larger in the region of larger
permittivity (unless θ1 = θ2 = 0◦ where the magnitude is unchanged) and that 𝐸 is larger in
the region of smaller permittivity (unless θ1 = θ2 = 90◦, where its magnitude is
unchanged).

Example 1.8:

Two extensive homogeneous isotropic dielectrics meet on plane 𝑍 = 0. For 𝑍 ≥ 0

𝜀 = 4 and for 𝑧 ≤ 0, 𝜀 = 3. A uniform electric field 𝐸 = 5𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑦 + 3𝑎𝑧

[KV/m] exists for 𝑍 ≥ 0. Find:

(a) 𝐸 for 𝑍 ≤ 0; (b) The angles 𝐸 and 𝐸 make with the interface.

Solution:

(a) Since 𝑎𝑧 is normal to the boundary plane, we obtain the normal component as

𝐾𝑉
𝐸 = (𝐸 . 𝑎𝑧) 𝑎𝑧 = 3 𝑎𝑧
𝑚
𝐾𝑉
𝐸 =𝐸 −𝐸 = 5𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑦
𝑚
27
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

𝐾𝑉
∴ 𝐸 = 𝐸 = 5𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑦 And
𝑚
𝜀
𝜀 𝐸 =𝜀 𝐸 ⟹ 𝐸 = 𝐸
𝜀
4 𝐾𝑉
∴ 𝐸 = 𝐸 ⟹ 𝐸 = 4 𝑎𝑧
3 𝑚
𝐾𝑉
∴ 𝐸 = 5𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑦 + 4𝑎𝑧
𝑚
3
(𝐛) ∵ 𝐸 . 𝑎𝑧 = |𝐸 | ∗ 1 ∗ cos 𝜃 ⟹ cos 𝜃 = ⟹ 𝜃 = 60.9°
√38
∴ 𝛼 = 90° − 𝜃 = 29.1°
4
𝐸 . 𝑎𝑧 = |𝐸 | ∗ 1 ∗ cos 𝜃 ⟹ cos 𝜃 = ⟹ 𝜃 = 53.4°
√45
∴ 𝛼 = 90° − 𝜃 = 36.6°

H.W.6:

The cylinder 𝜌 < 3, is a dielectric for which 𝜀 = 2. The region, 𝜌 > 3, is free space. If
𝐸 = 20𝑎𝑥 − 10𝑎𝑦 − 40𝑎𝑧 at 𝜌 = 3 , 𝜙 = 0, 𝑧 = 0, find 𝐸 at 𝜌 = 3 , 𝜙 = 0, 𝑧 = 0.

Ans.: 40𝑎𝑥 − 10𝑎𝑦 − 40𝑎𝑧

1.8 Capacitance:

Capacitance measures the capability of energy storage in electrical devices. It can be

deliberately designed for a specific purpose, or it may exist as an unavoidable by-product
of the device structure that one must live with. A capacitor is a device that stores energy;
energy thus stored can either be associated with accumulated charge or it can be related
to the stored electric field.

28
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

 Consider the two-conductor capacitor of figure below. The conductors are

maintained at a potential difference 𝑉 given by

𝑉 =𝑉 −𝑉 =− 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 1.49

Where 𝐸 the electric is filed existing between

the conductors and conductor 1 is assumed
to carry a positive charge. Note that the 𝐸
filed is always normal to the conducting
surface.

We define the capacitance C of the capacitor

as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge
on one of the plates to the potential difference between them; that is,

𝑄 ∯ 𝜀𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆̅
C= = 1.50
𝑉 − ∫ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿
The capacitance C is a physical property of the capacitor and independent of the
potential and total charge, for their ratio is constant and is measured in farads (F), where
a farad is defined as one coulomb per volt. Using eq. (1.50), C can be obtained for any
given two-conductor capacitance by following either of these methods:

1. Assuming 𝑄 and determining 𝑉 in terms of 𝑄 (involving Gauss's law). Or,

2. Assuming 𝑉 and determining 𝑄 in terms of 𝑉 (involving solving Laplace’s equation).

The former (first) method involves taking the following steps:

1. Choose a suitable coordinate system.

2. Let the two conducting plates carry charges + 𝑄 and − 𝑄.

3. Determine 𝐸 using Coulomb's or Gauss's law and find 𝑉 from 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿.

4. Finally, obtain C from C = 𝑄/𝑉.

29
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

1.8.1 Parallel-Plate Capacitor:

Consider the parallel-plate capacitor of Figure below. Suppose that each of the plates has
an area 𝑆 and they are separated by a distance d. We assume that plates 1 and 2,
respectively, carry charges + 𝑄 and − 𝑄
uniformly distributed on them so that

𝑄
𝜌 =
𝑆
If the space between the plates is filled with
a homogeneous dielectric with permittivity
𝜀 and we ignore flux fringing at the edges of
the plates, then:

𝐷 = −𝜌 𝑎𝑥 and 𝐸= (−𝑎𝑥)

𝑄 𝑉
= (−𝑎𝑥) Hence,
𝜀𝑆 𝑚

𝑄 𝑄
𝑉=− 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 = − − 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑 [𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡]
𝜀𝑆 𝜀𝑆

𝑄 𝜀𝑆
∴C= = [𝐹] 1.51
𝑉 𝑑
 As an example, consider a capacitor having a mica dielectric, 𝜀 = 6, a plate area
of 𝑆 = 0.01 [𝑚 ], and a separation of 𝑑 = 10 [𝑚]. Therefore,

𝜀𝑆 𝜀 𝜀 𝑆 8.854 ∗ 10 ∗ 6 ∗ 0.01
C= = = = 531.24 [𝑝𝐹]
𝑑 𝑑 10
Example 1.9:

Determine the capacitance of each of the following capacitors in the figure below.
Consider 𝜀 = 4, 𝜀 = 6, 𝑑 = 5 [𝑚𝑚], 𝑆 = 30 [𝑐𝑚 ].

30
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

Solution:

(a) Since 𝐷 and 𝐸 are normal to the dielectric interface, the capacitor in the figure (a)
above can be treated as consisting of two capacitors C1 and C2 in series:

𝜀 𝜀 𝑆 2𝜀 𝜀 𝑆
C = =
𝑑 𝑑
2
𝜀 𝜀 𝑆 2𝜀 𝜀 𝑆
C = =
𝑑 𝑑
2
The total capacitor C is given by:

C C 2𝜀 𝑆 𝜀 𝜀 8.854 ∗ 10 4∗6
C= = = 2∗ ∗ = 25.5 [𝑝𝐹]
C +C 𝑑 𝜀 +𝜀 5 ∗ 10 10

(b) In this case, 𝐷 and 𝐸 are parallel to the dielectric interface, we may treat the
capacitor as consisting of two capacitors C1 and C2 in parallel (the same voltage
across C1 and C2 ):

𝑆 𝑆
𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀
C = 2 =𝜀 𝜀 𝑆 C = 2 =𝜀 𝜀 𝑆
𝑑 2𝑑 𝑑 2𝑑
The total capacitor is:

𝜀 𝑆 8.854 ∗ 10 ∗ 30 ∗ 10
C=C +C = (𝜀 +𝜀 )= ∗ (4 + 6) = 26.56 [𝑝𝐹]
2𝑑 2 ∗ 5 ∗ 10

31
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

1.8.2 Coaxial Capacitor:

This is essentially a coaxial cable or coaxial cylindrical capacitor. Consider length 𝐿 of two
conductors of inner radius 𝑎 and outer radius 𝑏 (𝑏 > 𝑎) as shown in figure below. Let
the space between the conductors be filled with a homogeneous dielectric with
permittivity 𝜀. We assume that conductors 1 and 2 respectively carry +𝑄 and −𝑄
uniformly distributed on them. By applying Gauss’s law to an arbitrary Gaussian
cylindrical surface of radius 𝑎 < 𝜌 < 𝑏, we obtain:

𝑄 = ∯ 𝜀𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆̅ = 𝜀 𝐸 2𝜋𝜌 𝐿

𝑄 𝑉
Hence, 𝐸= 𝑎𝜌
2𝜋𝜀 𝜌 𝐿 𝑚

𝑄
And 𝑉 = − 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 = − 𝑎𝜌. 𝑑𝜌𝑎𝜌
2𝜋𝜀 𝜌 𝐿
𝑄 𝑏
= ln [𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡]
2𝜋𝜀𝐿 𝑎
Thus, the capacitance of a coaxial cylinder is given by

𝑄 2𝜋𝜀𝐿
C= = [𝐹] 1.52
𝑉 ln 𝑏
𝑎
And the capacitance per unit length is given by:

𝑄 2𝜋𝜀 F
C= = 1.53
𝑉 ln 𝑏 m
𝑎

Example 1.10:

A coaxial capacitor has dimensions 𝑎 = 3 [𝑚𝑚], 𝑏 = 12 [𝑚𝑚] and length of 1 [m]. The
region between the conducting cylinders contain three dielectrics: 𝜀 = 5, 3 < 𝜌 <
6 [𝑚𝑚], 𝜀 = 3 , 6 < 𝜌 < 9 [𝑚𝑚], 𝜀 = 1 , 9 < 𝜌 < 12 [𝑚𝑚]. Calculate C.

32
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

Solution:

We assume that the inner and outer conductors respectively carry +𝑄 and – 𝑄. By using
Gauss’s law, we get

𝑄=∫ ∫ 𝐷 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝜌 𝐿 𝐷 ⟹ 𝐷 = (𝐿 = 1 [𝑚])

𝑄 𝑉
∴𝐸 = , 3 < 𝜌 < 6 [𝑚𝑚]
2𝜋𝜀 𝜌 𝑚
𝑄 𝑉
𝐸 = , 6 < 𝜌 < 9 [𝑚𝑚]
2𝜋𝜀 𝜌 𝑚
𝑄 𝑉
𝐸 = , 9 < 𝜌 < 12 [𝑚𝑚]
2𝜋𝜀 𝜌 𝑚
∗ ∗ ∗
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
∴𝑉=− 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 = − 𝑑𝜌 − 𝑑𝜌 − 𝑑𝜌
2𝜋𝜀 𝜌 2𝜋𝜀 𝜌 2𝜋𝜀 𝜌
∗ ∗ ∗

𝑄 𝑄 9 𝑄 12
∴𝑉= ln 2 + ln + ln [𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡]
2𝜋𝜀 2𝜋𝜀 6 2𝜋𝜀 9
𝑄 2𝜋𝜀 2𝜋𝜀
∴𝐶= = = = 99.08 [𝑝𝐹]
𝑉 1 1 9 1 12 1 1 9 1 12
ln 2 + ln + ln ln 2 + ln + ln
𝜀 𝜀 6 𝜀 9 5 3 6 1 9

1.8.3 Spherical Capacitor:

This is the case of two concentric spherical conductors. Consider the inner sphere of
Radius 𝑎 and outer sphere of radius 𝑏 (𝑏 > 𝑎) which are separated by a dielectric
Medium with permittivity 𝜀 as shown in the figure below.

We assume charge +𝑄 and −𝑄 on inner and outer spheres

respectively. By applying

Gauss’s law to an arbitrary Gaussian spherical surface of radius

𝑟 (𝑎 < 𝑟 < 𝑏),

33
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

𝑄 𝑉
𝑄=𝜀 𝐸 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 ⟹ 𝐸= 𝑎𝑟
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑚

𝑄 𝑄 1 1
And 𝑉=− 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐿 = − 𝑎𝑟. 𝑑𝑟 𝑎𝑟 = − [𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡]
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀 𝑎 𝑏

𝑄 4𝜋𝜀
∴C= = [𝐹] 1.54
𝑉 1 1
−
𝑎 𝑏
If we allow the outer sphere to become infinitely large, we obtain the capacitance of an
isolated spherical conductor,

C = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑎 [𝐹] 1.55

Example 1.11:

A 5 [cm] radius copper sphere has a capacitance C . A uniform dielectric layer of

thickness 𝑑 is placed on the sphere. If 𝜀 = 3, determine 𝑑 such that the new

capacitance is 2C .

Solution:

By using equation 1.55, we get:

C = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑎 = 4𝜋𝜀 ∗ 5 ∗ 10 = 0.2𝜋 𝜀 [𝐹]

C = 2C = 0.4𝜋 𝜀 [𝐹]

By using equation 1.56, we get:

4𝜋𝜀
0.4𝜋 𝜀 = (𝑎 = 5 ∗ 10 , 𝑟 = 5 ∗ 10 + 𝑑, 𝜀 = 3)
1 1 1 1
+ −
𝑟 𝜀 𝑎 𝑟

1 1 1
∴ + 20 − = 10 ⟹ 𝑟 = 20 [𝑐𝑚]
𝑟 3 𝑟

∴ 𝑑 = 20 − 5 = 15 [cm]
34
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

H.W.7:

Two conducting spherical shells have radii of 𝑎 = 2 [𝑐𝑚] and 𝑏 = 5 [𝑐𝑚]. The interior is
a perfect dielectric for which 𝜀 = 10. (a) Find C. (b) A portion of the dielectric is now
removed so that 𝜀 = 1, 0 < 𝜃 < and 𝜀 = 10 , < 𝜃 < 𝜋. Find C.

Ans.: [ (a) 37.1 [pF]; (b) 34.9 [pF] ]

1.8.4: Capacitance of a Two-Wire Line:

We conclude this chapter with the problem of the two-wire line. The configuration
consists of two parallel conducting cylinders, each of circular cross section, and we will
find complete information about the electric field intensity, the potential field, the
surface-charge density distribution, and the capacitance.

This arrangement is an important type of transmission line, as is the coaxial cable.

We begin by investigating the potential field

of two infinite line charges.

The potential of a single line charge with zero

reference at a radius of R0 is

𝜌 𝑅
𝑉= ln
2𝜋𝜀 𝑅
The combined potential field in terms of the radial distances from the positive and
negative lines, R1 and R2, respectively,

𝜌 𝑅 𝑅 𝜌 𝑅 𝑅
𝑉= ln − ln = ln
2𝜋𝜀 𝑅 𝑅 2𝜋𝜀 𝑅 𝑅

we choose 𝑅 = 𝑅 , thus placing the zero reference at equal distances from each line.
This surface is the 𝑥 = 0 plane.

𝑅 = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑎𝑥 + (𝑦 − 0)𝑎𝑦

𝑅 = (𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑦

35
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

𝑅 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑎𝑥 + (𝑦 − 0)𝑎𝑦

𝑅 = (𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑦

𝜌 (𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑦 𝜌 (𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑦
∴𝑉= ln
(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑦
= ln 1.57
2𝜋𝜀 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑦
In order to recognize the equipotential surfaces, we will Choose an equipotential surface
V = V1, we define 𝐾 as a dimensionless parameter that is a function of the potential V1,

𝐾 =𝑒 /
so that: 1.58
(𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑦
𝐾 =
(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑦

After multiplying and collecting like powers we obtain:

𝐾 +1
𝑥 − 2 𝑎𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑎 =0
𝐾 −1

We next complete the square,

(𝐾 + 1)
Add and subtract 𝑎
(𝐾 − 1)

𝐾 +1 2𝑎 𝐾
𝑥−𝑎 +𝑦 =
𝐾 −1 𝐾 −1

This shows that the V = V1 equipotential surface is independent of 𝑧 (or is a cylinder) and
intersects the xy-plane in a circle of radius b,

𝑏= which is centered at 𝑥 = ℎ, 𝑦 = 0, where

𝐾 +1
ℎ=𝑎
𝐾 −1

36
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

 Now let us attack a physical problem by considering a zero-potential conducting

plane located at 𝑥 = 0, and a conducting cylinder of radius 𝑏 and potential 𝑉
with its axis located a distance ℎ from the plane.We solve the last two equations
for 𝑎 and 𝐾 in terms of the dimensions
𝑏 and ℎ,

𝑎= ℎ −𝑏 1.59
ℎ + √ℎ − 𝑏
𝐾 = 1.60
𝑏
But the potential of the cylinder is 𝑉 , so :
/
𝐾 =𝑒

4𝜋𝜀𝑉
∴ 𝜌 = 1.61
ln 𝐾
Thus, given ℎ, 𝑏, and 𝑉 , we may determine 𝑎, 𝜌 , and the parameter 𝐾 .

 The capacitance between the cylinder and plane is now available. For a length 𝐿 in
the 𝑧 direction, we have

𝑄 𝜌 𝐿 4𝜋𝜀𝐿 2𝜋𝜀𝐿
C= = = = or
𝑉 𝑉 ln 𝐾 ln 𝐾

2𝜋𝜀𝐿 2𝜋𝜀𝐿
C= = [𝐹]
(ℎ + √ℎ − 𝑏 ) ℎ 1.62
ln [ ] cosh
𝑏 𝑏

Example 1. 12:

The solid line in Figure below shows the cross section

of a cylinder of 5 [m] radius at a potential of 100
[Volt] in free space, with its axis 13 [m] distant from a
plane at zero potential.

37
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

Find the location of the equivalent line charge and its strength. Then for the
equipotential surface 50 [Volt] find the new values for 𝐾 , 𝑏 and ℎ. Finally, find 𝐸 , 𝐷 and
the maximum and minimum surface charge density on the conducting cylinder.

Solution: Thus, 𝑏 = 5, ℎ = 13, 𝑉 = 100

 The location of the equivalent line charge:

𝑎= ℎ −𝑏 = 13 − 5 = 12 [𝑚]

ℎ + √ℎ − 𝑏 13 + 12
𝐾 = = = 5 ⟹ 𝐾 = 25
𝑏 5
 The strength of the equivalent line charge:

4𝜋𝜀𝑉 4𝜋 ∗ 8.854 ∗ 10 ∗ 100 𝑛C

𝜌 = = = 3.46
ln 𝐾 ln 25 𝑚

 The capacitance between cylinder and plane

2𝜋𝜀 2𝜋𝜀 p𝐹
C= = = 34.6
ℎ 13 𝑚
cosh cosh
𝑏 5
 For the cylinder representing the 50 V equipotential surface we can find the new
values for 𝐾 , ℎ, and 𝑏:
/
𝐾 =𝑒 = 𝑒( ∗ . ∗ ∗ / . ∗ )
=5

Then the new radius

∗ ∗√
𝑏= = = 13.42 [𝑚], ℎ=𝑎 = 12 = 18 [𝑚]

This cylinder is shown in dotted line in the figure above.

 The electric field intensity can be found by taking the gradient of the potential
field,

38
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

𝜌 (𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑦
𝐸 = −∇𝑉 = −∇ ln
4𝜋𝜀 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑦

𝜌 2(𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑎 𝑦 2(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑎𝑦 𝑉

=− −
4𝜋𝜀 (𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑦 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑦 𝑚

𝜌 (𝑥 + 𝑎)𝑎𝑥 + 𝑦𝑎𝑦 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑎𝑥 + 𝑦𝑎𝑦 C

and 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸 = − −
2𝜋 (𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑦 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑦 𝑚

 If we evaluate 𝐷 at 𝑥 = ℎ − 𝑏, 𝑦 = 0, we may obtain 𝜌

∵ 𝜌 = 𝐷│ .𝑎

𝜌 = 𝐷. (−𝑎𝑥) = −𝐷 , ,

𝜌 ℎ−𝑏+𝑎 ℎ−𝑏−𝑎
= −
2𝜋 (ℎ − 𝑏 + 𝑎) (ℎ − 𝑏 − 𝑎)

3.46 ∗ 10 13 − 5 + 12 13 − 5 − 12
= −
2𝜋 (13 − 5 + 12) (13 − 5 − 12)

𝜌 = 0.165 Similarly,

𝜌 = 𝐷 . (𝑎𝑥) = 𝐷 , ,

3.46 ∗ 10 13 + 5 + 12 13 + 5 − 12
=− −
2𝜋 (30) (6)

𝜌 = 0.0734 Thus, 𝜌 = 2.25 𝜌

Return to the previous expression for the capacitance between the conducting cylinder
and the conducting plane:

2𝜋𝜀𝐿
C= [𝐹]
(ℎ + √ℎ − 𝑏 )
ln [ ]
𝑏
If we apply it to the case of a conductor for which 𝑏 ≪ ℎ

39
Chapter One Conductors, Dielectrics and Capacitance

ℎ + √ℎ − 𝑏 (ℎ + ℎ) 2ℎ
ln ≈ ln ≈ ln
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

2𝜋𝜀𝐿
C= [𝐹] where 𝑏 ≪ ℎ 1.63
2ℎ
ln
𝑏
The capacitance between two circular conductors separated by a distance 2ℎ is one-half
the capacitance given by Eqs. (62) or (63). This last answer is of interest because it gives
us an expression for the capacitance of a section of two-wire transmission line.

40