PSYCHOLOGY PAPER 3 STUDY GUIDE
QUESTION 1A AND 1C - RESEARCH METHODS
Lab Experiment
The researcher manipulates the independent
variable but conducts the experiment in a
controlled environment.
Quasi Experiment
Participants are grouped based on a
characteristic of interest, such as gender,
ethnicity, or scores on a depression scale.
Natural Experiment
Researchers find naturally occurring variables
and study them
Field Experiment
The researcher manipulates the independent
variable but conducts the experiment in a
real life environment
Correlation
Correlation is the measurement of how two
variables are related and to what extent they
are related
Covert Observation
Participants are not aware of being studied,
have no consent.
Overt Observation
Participants know they are being observed.
artificiality of the setting may cause unnatural
behaviour which wouldn’t reflect real life,
hence the reliability decreases.
due to being a standardised process, it’s
easier to replicate
reactions of test subjects may be more
genuine due to the non-artificial research
environment
lack of control over variables + cannot be
repeated - reliability cannot be checked
Can be used in situations where it may be
unethical to manipulate independent
variables
more expensive/time consuming than, for
example, lab experiments
More likely to reflect real life due to the
natural setting (supports reliability)
Less control over the extra variables that ​may
cause bias results.
useful for predicting variables + useful for
investigating variables that are impossible,
unethical or impractical to study otherwise
does not establish the cause and effect
between variables
They provide straightforward quantitative
comparisons allowing for both statistical
analysis and clarity of interpretation
Researcher can direct the study toward
specific directions, they can develop a theory
and refine sampling for the next phase of the
investigation.
Participants are unaware of being part of a
study and could be dishonest in justifying the
reason behind their presence
Observer can openly take notes, participants
are aware of observation.

Participant Observation
When the observer takes part in the situation
whilst doing research
Non-Participant Observation
When the researcher is not a part of the
study.
Structured Interview
an appropriate method when there is a need
to collect in-depth information on
people’s opinions, thoughts,
experiences, and feelings
Semi-Structured Interview
A research interview involves an interviewer,
who coordinates the process of the
conversation, and asks questions, and
an interviewee
Unstructured Interview
Case Study
qualitative method that consists of an
in-depth investigation on an individual a
group of people or an organization
Participants know that they’re being
observed so this may influence their
behaviour - the Hawthorne effect.
Shows 2 simple points of view (one for
observed and the researcher/participant)
Time consuming method
Allows researchers to see what’s going on
with their own eyes - easier to make
judgements and observe peoples’ behaviour.
Observer cannot interfere in the study, do not
have clarity about certain events on
activities, + cannot clear doubts by asking
various questions to the group members.
The researcher has to have a specific set of
questions laid out for the participants to
answer
Very controlled amount of data wanted, the
researcher cannot ask a question to one
person and not the other
Interviewer uses an interview guide that
usually lists themes to be pursued, but allows
for flexibility of approach.
Has a mixture of structured and
open-response questions.
No restricted questions, sensitive topics, ask
freely
You can talk differently to everyone (usually
about life stories, specific situations)
Allows for investigation of topics that can’t be
experiments or tested on.
Provides room to develop information on a
pre-existing theory/discovery
L: Difficult to see if related studies make up
one case study or are just dealing with the
same question (confounding variables)
QUESTION 1B - SAMPLING
Opportunity Non-probability sampling i.e. does not involve
random selection

Drawn from a convenient available population

and may not be representative of a
population outside of this.

Random A probability sample in which everyone in the

target population had the same probability of
being chosen

Increases population validity, b.c sample less

likely to be biased however if target
population contains a lot of different types of
people, random sampling could still generate
a biased sample

Self-selecting Non-probability - participants are volunteers

People that sign up are less likely to drop out

due to motivation, however it could lead to a
sample that is not representative of target
population

Purposive Non-probability - participants are selected

based on salient/unique characteristics
relevant to the research topic such as gender,
age, attitudes, social roles, or specific life
experiences

Stratified Probability - attempts to make a sample that

reflects the sub-groups within a target
population.

Can be helpful in finding people more

efficiently

Snowball Non-probability - used when you’re looking

for participants from a specific group which
would not respond to an ad in a paper

Helps find people more efficiently, and also

builds trust with researcher
QUESTION 2 - ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Ethical consideration Description

Informed consent When the participant is informed of the research before it takes
place

Debriefing The nature, results and conclusions of the research need to be

made available to participants as soon as possible

Confidentiality Research data will not be known to anyone outside the study.
This may also require the researcher to change minor details in
the report to avoid releasing identity of participant.

Anonymity Identity of the participants should not be known outside the

research team. → researcher does not know their info.

Protection of Researchers should take preventive action in all research to

participants from harm avoid physically, psychologically or sexually harm them.

Right to withdraw Participation is voluntary, they can leave any time they want

No fabrication of data Any errors should be later corrected

Deception is to be Info is withheld from the participant (or is directly lied to). When
Avoided deceived, participants should be informed about this at the
earliest possible opportunity

QUESTION 3

Internal validity Internal validity refers to the rigour of the study

and the extent to which the researcher took
alternative explanations into account.

Validity Validity is the degree to which the results

accurately reflect what the research is measuring.

Credibility This term is used in qualitative research to

indicate whether or not the findings of the study
are congruent
with the participants’ perceptions and
experiences.

~External Validity External validity is the extent to which the results

of a study can be generalized or transferred to
another sample or context.

Report
 - How primary and incidental results are reported
- Importance of considering risk and benefits of reporting to participants
- Case by case decision made by ethics committee

Apply
- Generalizability
- Limitations that could impact credibility/internal validity
- replicability/reliability