ECE 2508

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

TOPIC-1
GROUND IMPROVEMENT AND
MODIFICATION
 Soil Improvement and Ground Modification
• The soils at a construction site may
not always be totally suitable to
support structures
• Such as buildings, bridges and dams
• For example, in granular soils
deposits the insitu soil may be very
loose and indicate large elastic
settlement
• In such cases of loose soils, soils
needs to be densified to increase its
unit weight and shear strength
• Sometimes the top layer of the soil
are undesirable and must be
removed and replaced with better
soil on which structural foundation
can be built
• Soft saturated clays will experience
consolidation settlement. Special
soil-improvement techniques are
required to minimize settlement
 As suitable construction site become less
available, the need to utilize unsuitable or less
suitable site for construction increases
 Engineer may face increasing problems such as
(i) Bearing failure
(ii) Large total and differential settlement
(iii) Instability/ slope failure
(iv) Liquefaction
(v) Seepage problem
 Options available to deal with problematic
geomaterials and geotechnical conditions are
(a) Avoid the sites: Only if there is alternative
land
(b) Design superstructure accordingly: Load
transmitted below superstructure
(c) Remove and replace problematic geomaterials
(d) Improve geomaterials properties and geotechnical
conditions
 Problematic soils

Some of common ground improvement techniques are

(a) Shallow compaction and Deep compaction
(b) Over ever excavation and replacement
(c) Aggregate Piers
(d) Preloading and Vertical Drains
(e) Ground Reinforcement
 SHALLOW COMPACTION
 Prior to using any soil in for construction, compaction of
the soil is first achieved in the lab either using standard or
modified proctor hammer
 The curves of dry unit weight against moisture content are
plotted
 Optimum dry density and optimum water content for a
particular soil are defined from the compaction
 Field compaction density is defined as a percentage of the
laboratory maximum dry unit weight
 Compaction curves are always below the zero air void lines
which represents full saturation conditions

Main variables that affect compaction of soils are

(i) Type of soil being compacted
(ii) Method of compaction
(iii) Compactive effort
(iv) Moisture content of the soil being compacted
 Field Compaction
Compaction method has been used
to improve soil properties near
surface through densification
Conventional compaction is to use
rollers or plate compactors to repeatedly
apply static pressure, kneading action
or vibration ion ground surface to
densify soil material
Its effective in improving properties
of cohesionless soils
Application:
Conventional compaction has been used for earthworks such as
roads, embankment, dams, slopes wall, parking lots and sports
fields.
Advantages:
(i) Construction equipment readily available
(ii) Well established ground improvement method that has long
history
Disadvantage
(i) Depth of improvement is limited
(ii) Soil should be within moisture content close to the optimum
(iii) Its challenging to achieve uniform compaction for large area
 Field Compaction and specification

A number of variables may affect

field quality of the compacted
materials
Density requirements
(i) Moisture content during compaction
(i) Field compaction requirement is specified in term of the
(ii) Size or weight and the number of
relative density (RC)
passes with the equipment γ𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
(iii) Type of the compactor and 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = ,
γ𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
compaction method ,
(ii) Field specification for RC is usually 90-95% of the Maximum
(iv) Lift (layer) thickness
dry density.
(v) Uniformity of the borrow material
(iii) Field density can be determined using Rubber Balloon method,
Sand Cone Method and Nuclear Density Method
 Field Density Determination

EXAMPLE:
Afield sand cone test is performed on a layer of
compacted fill. The results of the cone test are shown
below. A laboratory proctor test determine that the fill
has a maximum dry density of 18.9 kN/m3.
Determine the relative compaction of the fill. Calculate the volume of the soil excavated from the hole
Unit weight of sand γsand=14.9k kN/m3 𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜−𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 −𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 0.074−0.047 −0.005 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Wt of sand to fill cone, Wcone=0.5kg=0.005kN Vhole = = =
γ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 14.9𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
Wt of jar+cone+sand (before test), 0.00148 𝑚𝑚3
Wo=7.5kg=0.074kN Calculate the dry unit weight of the soil excavated from the hole
Wt of jar+cone+sand (after test), 𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 0.029 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Wf=4.8kg=0.047kN γd= = (0.00148)(1+0.1) = 17.8𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/ 𝑚𝑚3
𝑉𝑉ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (1+𝑤𝑤)
Wt of moist soil excavated from hole,
W hole=3.0kg=0.029kN Calculate the relative density
Moisture content of the soil from hole (γ𝑑𝑑)𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 17.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
, w=10% RC = =
18.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 94%
(γ𝑑𝑑)𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Field Density Determination-Nuclear Density Method
 OVEREXCAVATIONS AND REPLACEMENT OF SOIL
• Over excavation and replacement is one of the traditional but
still commonly used method in practice
• It involves removal of problematic geomaterial and replacing it
with non problematic fill
• Replacing fills are often rock, gravel and sand
• Depending on geotechnical condition and depth of excavation,
the excavation may be vertical or incline
Application: This method can be used to
Suitability: For improving shallow
(i) Increase the bearing capacity: Replaced soil has higher friction
problematic soils such as loose sands and
silts, soft soils, expansive soils, collapsible angle. Bearing capacity factors are a function of φ
soils, liquefiable soils (ii) Reduce settlement: Soils with better compressibility properties
• It's used in the following conditions (iii) Eliminate expansion and shrinkage of soils
(a) Are of excavation is limited
(b) Depth of excavation is less than 3m
(c) No or limited temporary shoring or
dewatering is required Fill soils have a
(d) No existing structures is close to the higher young
overexcavated area modulus, Es hence
(e) Removal of soil is easily deposed or low settlement
reused
(f) Fill materials is readily available Replaced soils have higher friction
angle hence higher bearing capacity
 Over excavation and Replacement
Advantages EXAMPLE
• Cost effective Soil lithology at a construction site reveals 3 m thick loose silt stratum overlying 8 m thick
• Simple and reliable dense Sandy Gravel with Silt layer. The soil properties are as shown in Figure 1.
• Does not require Foundation column is to be founded at a depth of 0.5 m below the ground on the sand layer.
special contractor If the column transmits 100kN Load determine if soil replacement of the loose will be
except excavation and required if safe/ not safe against bearing capacity failure and the settlement of the
rollers foundation is limited to 20 mm.
Disadvantages: This P=100 kN
method may be
limited by
• Deep excavation Df=0.5 m
required
• High ground water B=1.0 m
Loose low plastic Silt
table
3m

Unit weight, γ=14 kN/m3

2.5 m

• Onsite or nearby Water content, w=15%

φ=17°
existing structures Es=1500kN/m2
• Limited space /
access for excavating
Very dense Sandy Gravel
equipment with Silt
Unit weight, γ=18 kN/m3
8m

Water content, w=12%

φ=39°
Es=25000kN/m2
 Bearing capacity Calculation
For conservative design ignore the shape, depth and inclination factors. Bearing capacity
failure if any will occur in the upper layer

qult= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 + 0.5γ𝑁𝑁γ

Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil

For φ=17°, Nc =77.50 , Nq =5.45, Nγ =2.18
qult= (0 ∗ 14.60) + (0.5 ∗ 14 ∗
5.45) + (0.5 ∗ 14 ∗ 1 ∗ 2.18)

qult= 45.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2

Allowable bearing capacity of the soil

𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 53.5
qall= = = 17.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 3

Foundation Pressure
𝑃𝑃 100𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
qmax= = = 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝐴 1.0𝑥𝑥𝑥.0

qall < q max hence foundation fails against bearing capacity

check
 Stress distribution and settlement
Calculated elastic settlement using Christian and Carrie
method (1979).

Depth below Height of the ES ∆σ= q o

B (m) D f (m) D f /B H /B A1 A2 S e (mm)
foundation (m) layer, H (m) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
0 to 2.5 2.5 1 0.5 0.5 2.5 0.95 0.5 1500 100.0 31.67

Calculated elastic settlement greater than the tolerable.

 Settlement
Dividing the soils into many layers gives more accurate
prediction of settlement. Assuming 2H: 1V triangular
distribution
𝑃𝑃
qo=
𝐵𝐵+𝑍𝑍 𝑥𝑥(𝐿𝐿+𝑍𝑍)

Depth below Height of the ES ∆σ= q o

Depth, Z (m) B (m) D f (m) D f /B H /B A1 A2 S e (mm)
foundation (m) layer, H (m) (kN/m ) (kN/m2)
2

0 to 0.5 0.5 0 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.95 0.25 1500 100.0 15.83
0.5 to 1 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.95 0.25 1500 44.4 7.04
1 to 1.5 0.5 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.95 0.25 1500 25.0 3.96
1.5 to 2 0.5 1.5 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.95 0.25 1500 32.0 5.07
2 to 2.5 0.5 2 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.95 0.25 1500 11.1 1.76
Total 33.65
 Bearing capacity: Over excavating and replacing
EXAMPLE
The Silt layer is excavated to 3 m below the ground and replaced with Sand with clay of unit weight of 17kN/ m2
compacted to 90% of the maximum dry density. If the friction angle φ=36 and Es=18000kN/m2, calculated
the bearing capacity and settlement resulting from the foundation load.
P=100 kN
For φ=36°, Nc =63.53 , Nq =47.16, Nγ =54.63
Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil
Df=0.5 m qult= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 + 0.5γ𝑁𝑁γ

B=1.0 m qult= (0 ∗ 63.53) + (0.5 ∗ 17 ∗ 47.16) +

Dense SAND with clay
3m

(0.5 ∗ 17 ∗ 1 ∗ 54.63)
2.5 m

Unit weight, γ=17 kN/m3

Water content, w=10%
φ=36° qult= 865.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
Es=1800kN/m2

Allowable bearing capacity of the soil

𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 865.2
Very dense Sandy Gravel
qall= = = 288.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 3
with Silt
Unit weight, γ=18 kN/m3
8m

Water content, w=12% Foundation Pressure

φ=39°
Es=25000kN/m2 𝑃𝑃 100𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
qmax= = = 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝐴 1.0𝑥𝑥𝑥.0

qall > q max hence foundation safe against bearing failure

 Settlement :Over excavating and replacing

𝑃𝑃
qo=
𝐵𝐵+𝑍𝑍 𝑥𝑥(𝐿𝐿+𝑍𝑍)

Depth below Height of the ES ∆σ= q o

B (m) D f (m) D f /B H /B A1 A2 S e (mm)
foundation (m) layer, H (m) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
0 to 2.5 2.5 1 0.5 0.5 2.5 0.95 0.5 18000 100.0 2.64
 VIBROFLOTATION
 Vibroflotation is a technique developed in
Germany in the 1930’s for insitu densification
of thick layers of loose granular soils.
 The process involves the use of a vibroflot.
 The entire compaction process can be divided
into four steps
 Step 1: The jet at the bottom of the vibroflot
is turned on, and the vibroflot is lowered into
the ground
 The water et creates a quick condition in the
soil which allows the vobroflot to sink
 Granular material is poured into the top of the
hole. The water from the lower jet is
transferred to the jet at the top of the vibrating
unit. This water carried the granular down the Vibroflotation unit
hole
 Step 4: The vibrating unit is gradually raised in
about 0.3 m and is left to vibrate for 30 secs at
a time. This process compacts the soil to the
desired unit weight. The success of densification of insitu soil depends
 Typically, the cylindrical zone of compaction on
has a radius of 2 m to 3 m depending on the  Grain size distribution of the soil
power of the vibroflot  nature of backfill used in the hole during
withdrawal period of the vibroflot
 Vibroflotation
• The range of particle size distribution of the
insitu soil marked Zone 1 are the most suitable for
compaction by vibroflotation
• Soils that’s contain excessive amounts of fine
sands, and silt particles are difficult to compact .
Such soils , considerable effort is needed to reach
proper relative density compaction
• Zone 2 is the approximate lower limit of grain
size distribution for compaction by vibroflotation.
• Soils deposits whose grain size fall in Zone 3
contains appreciable amounts of gravel, for those
Compaction by vibroflotation depends involves
soils the rate of probe penetration may be slow.
various probe spacing, depend on the zone of
Vibroflotation compaction is uneconomical.
compaction.
Cylindrical zone of compaction will have radius of
2m for 30 HP unit and 3 m for a 100HP unit
 Vibroflotation
The grain size distribution of the backfill Material is the factor than control densification. The quantity
called suitability rating is used to rate backfill material.

.
 BLASTING
• Blasting is technique that’s has been used successfully in many projects for densification of
granular soils
• The general soil grain size suitable for compaction by blasting are the same as those for
compaction by vibroflotation
• The process involves detonating an explosive charges such as 60% dynamite at a certain depth
below the ground surface in saturated soils.
• The lateral spacing of the charge varies from 3 to 9 m
• Three to five successful detonations are necessary to achieve the desire compaction
• Compaction of up to 18 m over a large area can easily be achieved using the process
• The explosive charges are placed at a depth equal to two-thirds of the thickness of the soil layer
desired to be compacted
• The sphere of influence of compaction by 60% dynamite charge is given as.
 PRECOMPRESSION
 When highly compressible material, normally
consolidated clay layer lie at a limited depth and large
consolidation settlement is expected, as a result of
large loads from structures, precompression may be
used to minimize post construction settlement
 The proposed load is ∆σ’(p) and the thickness of the
clay layer is H and σ’o is the initial overburden pressure
 The maximum primary consolidation settlement
caused by the load is

• Under surcharge of, ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f) of the

 If surcharge ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f) of is placed on the ground, degree of consolidation at a time t2 after
the primary consolidation settlement will be application of load is

 The total settlement Sc(p) would occur at time t2 which • Combining eauation (16.19 through 16.21)
is much shorter than t1. yields
 If temporary total surcharge of ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f) is
applied on the ground surface for t2 the settlement will
be equal to scp.
 At that time when the surchange is removed and a
structure with a permanent load ∆σ’(p) is built, no
appreciable settlement will occur.
 Degree of consolidation

• The magnitude of U for various combination of , ∆σ’(p)

/ σ’o and ∆σ’(f) / ∆σ’(p) .
• If the average degree of consolidation is used is used to
determined t2, some construction problem might
occur. The reason is that, after the removal of
surcharge and placement of structural load, the portion
of the clay close to the drainage surface will continue to
swell and the point close to the midplace will continue
to settle.
• A conservative approach to to determine U at the mid
point of of the consolidating layer as,
 Procedure for obtaining Precompression Parameters

• The values of ∆σ’(f) is known but t2 must be

obtained. In such a case, obtain σ’o , ∆σ’(p) and
solve for U using Eq. 16.22 or Fig. 16.17. For
this value of U, obtain Tv from Figure 16.19 then.

• For specified value of t2, ∆σ’(f) must be obtained.

In such a case, calculate Tv. Then using equation
16.19 to obtain the midplane consolidation, U.
With the estimated value of U, go to Figure
16.17 to get the required value of ∆σ’(f) / ∆σ’(p)
and then calculate ∆σ’(f)
EXAMPLE
 SAND DRAINS

• The use of sand drains is another way to

accelerate the consolidation settlement of soft
normally consolidated clay layers and achieve
preconsolidation before the construction of the
desired foundation
• Sand drains are constructed by drilling holes
through the clay in regular intervals
• The holes are the backfilled with sand
• The drilling and backfilling cam be achieved
though
(a) Rotary drilling the backfilling
(b) Drilling through continuous flight auger with hollow stem
and backfilling
(c) Driving hollow steel pipes
• After backfilling drilling hole with sand, the
surcharge load is applied at the ground surface
• The surcharge will increase the pore water
pressure. The excess pore water pressure in the
clay will dissipate by drainage both vertically and • The radius of the sand drain is rw
radially to the sand drains thereby accelerating the • The effective zone from which the radial
settlement. drainage will be directed towards the sand
drain is approximately cylindrical, with a
diameter, de
 SAND DRAINS
• The surcharge that is needed to be applied at the ground
surface and the length of time that it has to be maintained
can be calculated as

• Uv,r is the average degree of consolidation

• Both radial and vertical drainage contribute ton the
average degree of consolidation
• Uv,r can be determined for any time t2, the total surcharge
is ∆σ’(f) + ∆σ’(p) may be obtained from Figure 16.17.
• For a given surcharge and duration, the average degree of
consolidation due to drainage in drainage in vertical and
radial direction is
 Average degree of consolidation to radially drainage only

• rw is the radius of sand drain and is the re =

de /2 is the radius of the effective zone of
drainage
• During installation of the sand drain a
certain zone of clay surrounding them is
smeared (disturbed), thereby changing the
hydraulic conductivity of the clay
• rs is the radial distance from the center of
the sand drain to the farthest point of the
smear zone
• The average degree of consolidation is
determined from theory of equal strain
• Surchage can be applied as (a) continuously
(b) applied in the form of ramp
Average degree of consolidation to radially drainage only ( Instatenious surcharge)

• When the entire surcharge is

applied instateniously the average
degree of consolidation Ur is
 Average degree of consolidation to radially drainage only

Values of Ur
for various
value of Tr
and n
Average degree of consolidation to radially drainage only ( Ramp surcharge)

If surcharge is applied in form of a ramp and then there is no smear. then

Average degree of consolidation to vertical drainage only (Instantaneous Surcharge)
For instantaneous application of surcharge, the average degree of consolidation due to
vertical drain can be determined as
 Average degree of consolidation to vertical drainage only (Ramp Surcharge)
For ramp application of surcharge, the variation of Uv and Tv can be expressed as
Example
Example
 PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAINS(PVD)
• PVD are always laid in square-grid pattern
• The equivalent diameter of the patter is
• PVD also know as wick or strip drain have
been used to substitute the sand drains
• They are normally manufactured with a
corrugated or channeled synthetic core
enclosed with geosynthetics filter
• Installtion rate reported in literature is in
the order of 0.1 to 0.3 m/s
• PVD have been used to expedite
consolidation of low permeability soil
under surface surcharge
PVD
 Procedure for the design of PVD
The following is a step-by-step procedure for design of PVD
Step 1: Determine the time t2 available for consolidation process and the Uv,r required (Eq.16.24)

Step 2: Determine Ur at t2 due to vertical draianage from Eqn 16.25

Step 3 : Calculated dw from eqn 16.40

Step 4 : Determine (T r’)1 from Eqn 16.45 and 16.46

Step 5 : Determine (T r’) from Eqn 16.42

Step 6 : Determine (T r’) from Eqn 16.42

 Procedure for the design of PVD
The following is a step-by-step procedure for design of PVD
Step 7: Using Figure 16.28 and α’ determine n

Step 8: From equation 16.44

Step 9: Choose the drain spacing

 STONE COLUMNS ( AGGREGATE PIERS)

• A method used to increase bearing capacity

of shallow foundations on soft clay layers
• Generally consisted of wet jetting or
vibroflot into soft clay layer to make circular
hole that extend through clay to form clay
• Hole is then filled with imported gravel
• Gravel in the hole is gradually compacted as
vibrator is withdrawn
• The gravel used for the stone column has a
size range from 6 to 40 mm
• Stone columns have a diameter of 0.5 to
0.75 m and spaced at about 1.5 to 3 m • The are placement ratio of the stone Colum may be
center to center expressed as
• After construction of stone column, fill
should be placed over the ground surface
and compacted before the foundation is
constructed
• Stone columns tend to reduce settlement of
foundation at allowable loads
 Area Placement Ratio of Stone Columns

• The are placement ratio of the stone Colum may be

expressed as
 Stress Concentration Factor of Stone Columns

• When the uniform is applied on the area with stone column to induce settlement, stress
concentration occur due to change in stiffness between column and surrounding soil
• Stress concentration factor n is defined as
 Improvement by Stone Columns

• The improvement of soil owing to the stone column is expressed by comparing settlement
with and without stone column
 Load bearing capacity of stone columns

• when the L’length of the stone column less than 3D, failure
occurs by plunging similar to shout piles in soft clays
• For longer columns sufficient to prevent plunging the load
capacity is governed by ultimate radial confining stress and
the shear strength of the surrounding matrix soil. The failure
at ultimate load occur by bulging.
• The Ultimate bearing capacity of stone column is given by

Foundation constructed
measuring BxL in plan
over a grou pf stone
columns, thew ultimate
bearing capacity, qu is
expressed as
 Load bearing capacity of stone columns in groups

Foundation constructed measuring BxL

in plan over a group of stone columns,
thew ultimate bearing capacity, qu is
expressed as
Example
 SAND COMPACTION PILES

• Are similar to stone columns

• Can be used to improve stability, control
liquefaction and reduce settlement
• The can accelerate pore water dissipation
process hence time for consolidation
• Sand compaction piles are constructed by
driving hollow mandrel
• On partial withdrawal of the mandrel the
bottom doors open, sand is poured from the
top of mandrel and is compacted by applying
pressure as the mandrel is withdrawn
• The piles are usually 0.46 to 0.76 m in
diameter and are placed about 1.5 to 3 m
center to center
• The pattern layout are the same as that of
stone column
Compaction Energy