ECE 2508

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

TOPIC-2
FOUNDATIONS ON DIFFICULT SOILS
 Introduction

• In many areas of the word, certain soils

make the construction of foundations
difficult
• Examples of such soils are
o Collapsible soils: Excessive
settlement
o Expansive soils: Excessive heaving
o Sanitary land fills: Excessive
settlement
• Foundation Engineer must be able to
identify difficult soils when encountered
in the field
• Not all problems can be solved but
preventive measures can be taken to
reduce possibility of damage to
structures
 COLLAPSIBLE SOILS
• Collapsible soils are sometimes
referred to as metastable soils
• They are saturated soils that
undergo large change in volume
upon saturation
• Behavior of collapsible soils
under load is best explained by
typical void ratio-effective
pressure plot (e vs log σ’)
• a-b is determined from consolidation test of the
specimen at its natural moisture content
• At an effective stress σ’w the equilibrium void ratio is
e1.
• If water is introduced into the specimen for
saturation, the soil structure will collapse.
• After saturation, the equilibrium void ratio at the
same effective pressure l;evel; σ’w is e2.
• c-d is the branch of e-log σ’ under additional load
.sudden settlement.
• Foundations constructed on such soils may undergo
large and sudden settlement if the load under them
become saturated with an anticipated moisture.
• Moisture may come from
(a) Broken water pipes
(b) Leaky sewers
(c) Drainage from reservoir and swimming pool
(d) Slow increase in ground water
• Majority of collapsible soils are
aeoline (wind deposits) such as Loess deposits, aeoline
beaches and volcanic dusts deposits.
 Physical parameters for identification of collapsible soils
• Jennigs and Knight (1975) suggested procedure
for describing collapsible soils
• An undisturbed sample specimen is taken at its
natural moisture content a consolidation ring
• Steps load are applied to the specimen up to a
pressure level of σ’w =200kPa.
• At that pressure, the specimen is folded for
saturation and left for 24 hours.
• This test provided void ratios e1 and e2 .
The collapse potential is calculated as.

Criteria for Identification of Collapsing soils

 Physical parameters for identification of collapsible soils
Holtz and Hilf (1961) suggested that a loessal soil
that has a void ratio large enough to allow its
moisture content to exceed its liquid limit upon
situation is susceptible to collapse

• Plot of
proceeding
limiting value for
dry unit weight
against
corresponding
liquid limits.
• For any soil if
the natural dry
Average value of Gs=2.65, the limiting values of, unit weight falls
γd (maximum dry density)for various liquid limits below the limit
may be obtained as above limit, its likely to
collapse
Loessial soil likely to collapse
Procedure for calculating collapse settlement
Procedure for calculating collapse settlement
 Foundation Design in Soils Susceptible to Wetting
• For foundation design
purposes field test may be
conducted
• Load settlement relationship is
linear up to a certain critical
pressure σcr at which there is
sudden break down of soil
structure is more common in soils
having high natural moisture
content
• If enough precaution is not
taken to prevent moisture
from increasing under
structure, spread footing or
mat foundation may be built
on collapsible soils
• Foundation must be
proportioned so that critical
stress in the field is never
exceeded
• A factor of safety of 2.5 to
3.0 should be used to calculate
the allowable soil pressure Load settlement curve
 Important information on foundations on collapsible soils
• Continuous footing may be
safer than isolated foundation
over collapsible soils if they
can effectively minimize
differential settlement
• In construction of heavy
Continuous footing foundation
structures such as grain
elevators, over collapsible
soils, settlement up to 0.3 m
are sometimes allowed. Tilting
of the foundation will not
occur because no eccentric
loading
• Extreme caution should be
used when building soils in
collapsible soils if large
settlements are expected,
drilled shafts or pile
foundations should be
considered Collapse of grain elevator

Drilled shaft foundations

 Foundations on soils susceptible to wetting
If the upper soil is likely to get Dynamic compaction
wet and collapse sometimes after • It involved dropping heavy
construction of the foundation, loaded repeatedly on the
several techniques to avoid failure ground from a height of 8-
of the foundation may be 30 m
considered • The stress wave generated
by dropping weight help
Chemical Stabilization densify the soil
• If conditions are • Can improve soil up to 2 m
favorable,
foundation trenches
can be flooded with
solution of sodium
silicate and calcium
chloride to stabilize
soil chemically
• Soil will then behave Vibroflotation
like soft sandstone Vibroflotation is used
and resist saturation in free draining soils
upon saturation
• Method is effective
if solution can
penetrate to the
desired depth
 EXPANSIVE SOILS
• Many plastic clays swell considerably when water is
added to the and then shrink with the loss of water
• Foundation of such soils are subjected to high uplift
forces Cracks in
• These forces induces heaving, cracking and breaking the wall
for both foundation and slab on grade. due to
• The depth in a soil at which periodic change of heaving of
moisture occur is usually referred to as the active zone expansive
soils

Shrinkage
cracks of
the ground
surface in
clay

Definition of active zone

 Expansive soils

• The depth in a soil at which periodic change of

moisture occur is usually referred to as the active zone
• Active zone depth can easily be determined by
plotting liquidity index against the depth of the soil
mover several season as shown in the example below

LL= liquidity index

PL= Plastic limit
LL=liquid limit
w= Natural water content Example of active zone

• In order to study the magnitude of possible swell in

clay, simple laboratory oedometer can be conducted
on undisturbed specimen.
• Two common tests
(a) Unrestrained swell test
(b) Swell pressure Test
 Unrestrained swell test
• In the unrestrained swell test, the specimen is placed in the Certain correlation chats prepared by Vijayvergia
oedomter test under a small surcharge of about 6.9kPa. and Ghazzaly (1979) of free swell, natural water
• Water is then added to the specimen and the expansion content and liquid limit can be used to estimate free
of the volume of the specimen is measured until swell
equilibrium is reached
• The percentage of free swell may be expressed as the
ration

O’Neil and Poormoayed developed a relationship for free

surface swell from the chart by Vijayvergia and Ghazzaly
(1979)
 Swelling pressure test
Swelling pressure can be determined from
two different types of tests
(a) conventional consolidation test
(b) Constant volume test
Zero swell pressure from conventional
consolidation test
Conventional Consolidation Test
• The specimen is placed in oedometer
under a normal surcharge of about 6.9
kPa.
• Water is added to the specimen, allowing
it to swell and reach equilibrium position
after some time
• Subsequent loads are added in
convectional steps at the specimen
consolidates. The plot of specimen
deformation (δ) verses σ’ is as shown
• The δ vs σ’ line crosses the horizontal
line through the point of initial condition
• Pressure corresponding to the point of
intersection is the zero swell pressure σ’sw
 Swelling pressure test
Constant Volume Test
• Its conducted by taking a specimen in a consolidation
ring and applying a pressure equal to effective
overburden pressure, σ’o plus approximate surcharge
caused by the foundation (σ’s)
• Water is then added to the specimen. As the specimen
starts to swell, the pressure is applied in small
increments to prevent swelling
• Pressure is maintained until full swelling is developed
on the specimen at which time the total pressure is
Swell pressure from constant volume test

The constant volume can be used to determine

the surface heave, DS, for a foundation.

• A σ’sw of 20-30 kN/m2 is considered low, and σ’sw of

1500 to 200kN/m2 is considered to be high.
• After zero swell pressure is attained the soil can be
unloaded in steps to the final effective overburden
pressure, σ’o.
• Unloading process will cause the specimen to swell.
• The equilibrium swell for each pressure is recorded
• Variation of the swell, sw in percentage and the applied
pressure is as hown in the Figure.
 Example 1
A soil profile has an active zone of expansion of 2 m. The liquid limit average
moisture contents during construction season are 60% and 30% respectively.
Determine the free surface swell

∆SF=0.0033Zsw(free)
∆SF=0.0033 (2m)(1)(1000)=6.6 mm
 Example 2
An expansive soil profile has an active zone thickness of 5.2 m. A shallow foundation is to be constructed
1.2 m below the ground surface.
(a) Estimate the total possible swell under the foundation
(b) If the allowable total swell is 15 mm, what would be the necessary under undercut?

Swell under overburden and

Depth below ground
estimated foundation
surface (m )
surchage pressure,s w (1)(%)
1.2 3.00
2.2 2.00
3.2 1.20
4.2 0.55
5.2 0.00

(a) The area of the diagram will give the total swell
1 1 1 1 1
Δ𝑠𝑠 = 0 + 0.55 1 + 0.55 + 1.2 1 + 1.2 + 2.0 1 + 2.0 + 3.0 1 = 0.0525𝑚𝑚 = 52.2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
100 2 2 2 2

(b) The Total swell at various depth

Depth (m ) Total swell, ∆S (mm )

5.2 0.00
4.2 0+1/2(0.55+0)(1)(1/100)(1000)=2.75
3.2 0.00275+1/2(1.2+0.55)(1)(1/100)(1000)=11.5
2.2 0.0115+1/2(2+1.2)(1)(1/100)(1000)=27.5
1.2 0.0275+1/2(2+3)(1)(1/100)(1000)=52.5
 Classification of expansive soils based on Index Test

• Classification system for expansive soils are

based on the problem they create in the
construction of foundations.
• Table used an index free swell ratio to predict the
clay type, potential swell classification and
dominant clay material in a given soil.
 Foundation consideration for Expansive Soils

• If soil posses a marginal or high swell potential,

precautions needs to be taken which entails
(1) Replacing the expansive soil under foundation
(2) Changing the nature of the expansive soil by
compaction control, prewetting , installation of
moisture barriers or chemical stabilization
(3) Strengthening structures to withstand heave,
constructing structures that are flexible enough
to withstand the differential soil heave
• .
 Construction on expansive soils
The follow foundations are
recommended in collapsible
soils
(1) Use of waffle slabs: In this
type of construction, the
ribs holds the structural
load
(2) Belled drilled shafts with
suspended foundations
Replacing the expansive
soil under foundation Waffled slabs
(3) Changing the nature of the
expansive soil by
compaction control,
prewetting , installation of
moisture barriers or
chemical stabilization
(4) Strengthening structures to
withstand heave,
constructing structures
that are flexible enough to
withstand the differential
soil heave
• . Belled drilled shafts
 Construction on expansive soils
The uplift force, U, may be estimated as
φ’ps varies between 10° and 20°
The average value of zero
horizontal swell pressure must
be determine in the laboratory
In the absence of laboratory
results σ’swtan φ’ps may be
considered to be equal to the
undrained shear strength of the
soil

The belled portion of the shaft will act an

anchor to resist uplift force. Ignoring the
weight of the shaft, the net uplift load

Belled drilled shafts

Net uplift capacity
Bearing capacity factors
Shape, Depth and Inclination factors
Example 3