Comparison on bonds

Bond
Description Example Properties
Type

- High melting and boiling points

due to strong electrostatic
Electrons Sodium
Ionic forces<br>- Brittle crystals (ions
transfer from one chloride
Bond held in fixed positions)<br>-
atom to another. (NaCl)
Excellent conductors when
dissolved or molten

- Low melting and boiling points

Atoms share (weak intermolecular
Covalent Water
electrons to forces)<br>- Form molecules
Bond (H₂O)
achieve stability. (e.g., H₂, O₂)<br>- Poor
electrical conductivity

- Shiny luster (electron sea

Electrons move
Metallic reflects light)<br>- Malleable and
Metallic freely within a
sodium ductile (atoms can slide past each
Bond lattice of metal
(Na) other)<br>- Excellent conductors
atoms.
of electricity and heat

1. Ionic Bonds
Description

 Electron Transfer: Ionic bonds occur when atoms with significantly different
electronegativities interact.
 One atom (the donor) gives up electrons, becoming a cation (positively charged).
 The other atom (the acceptor) gains these electrons, becoming an anion (negatively
charged).

Example

 Sodium Chloride (NaCl):

o Sodium (Na) donates an electron to chlorine (Cl).
 o Na⁺ (cation) and Cl⁻ (anion) attract each other due to electrostatic forces.
o The resulting crystal lattice forms table salt.

Properties

 High Melting and Boiling Points:

o Strong electrostatic forces hold ions together.
o Requires substantial energy to break these bonds.
 Brittle Crystals:
o Ions remain fixed in positions.
o Shatters easily under stress.
 Conductivity:
o Conducts electricity when dissolved in water or molten.

2. Covalent Bonds
Description

 Electron Sharing: Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons to achieve stability.
 Common between nonmetals.

Example

 Water (H₂O):
o Oxygen (O) shares electrons with two hydrogen (H) atoms.
o Each H₂O molecule has a covalent bond.
o The shared electrons create a stable arrangement.

Properties

 Low Melting and Boiling Points:

o Weak intermolecular forces.
o Molecules break apart easily.
 Molecular Formation:
o Covalent bonds create molecules (e.g., H₂, O₂).
 Poor Electrical Conductivity:
o Electrons remain localized within molecules.

3. Metallic Bonds
Description

 Electron Sea: Metallic bonds occur within metals.

 Metal atoms lose outermost electrons, creating a “sea” of mobile electrons.
Example

 Metallic Sodium (Na):

o Sodium atoms lose electrons, becoming Na⁺ ions.
o The electron sea surrounds Na⁺ ions.
o Gives metallic sodium its unique properties.

Properties

 Shiny Luster:
o Electron sea reflects light.
 Malleability and Ductility:
o Atoms can slide past each other.
o Allows shaping and stretching.
 Excellent Conductors:
o Free electrons facilitate electrical and thermal conductivity.

Secondary or van der waals bonding

Secondary, van der Waals, or physical bonds are weak in comparison to the primary or chemical ones;
bonding energies are typically on the order of only 10 kJ/mol (0.1 eV/atom). Secondary bonding exists
between virtually all atoms or molecules. but its presence may be obscured if any of the three primary
bonding types is present. Secondary bonding is evidenced for the inert gases, which have stable electron
structures, and, in addition, between molecules in molecular structures that are covalently bonded

Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds (London Dispersion Forces)

Fluctuating induced dipole bonds, commonly known as London dispersion forces, play a
crucial role in intermolecular interactions. These forces arise due to the temporary fluctuations
in electron distributions within atoms and nonpolar molecules. Let’s delve into the fascinating
world of London dispersion forces:

1. Origins and Mechanism:

o Electron Fluctuations: The electron cloud around an atom or molecule is in
constant motion. These fluctuations create instantaneous electric fields that
neighboring atoms and molecules sense.
o Correlated Electron Adjustments: Nearby atoms respond by adjusting the
spatial distribution of their own electrons. The result is a correlated motion of
electrons, leading to the formation of instantaneous dipoles.
o Attraction: When these instantaneous dipoles interact across a vacuum, they
attract each other. This attraction is the essence of London dispersion forces.
2. Magnitude and Range:
o Weak but Cumulative: Individually, London dispersion forces are quite weak,
decreasing rapidly with separation. However, in condensed matter (liquids and
solids), their cumulative effect over the volume of materials is significant.
 oStrong in Bulk Solids and Liquids: Within organic molecules and between
them, London dispersion forces can be surprisingly strong. For instance,
hydrocarbons and waxes condense from the gas phase to the liquid or solid phase
due to these forces.
o Distance Dependence: The force per unit area between two bulk solids decreases
exponentially with separation distance.
3. Hydrocarbons and Symmetric Molecules:
o Non-Polar Systems: London dispersion forces are most evident in non-polar
systems lacking ionic bonds. Examples include hydrocarbons and highly
symmetric molecules like bromine (Br₂) and iodine (I₂).
o Liquification and Sublimation: These forces drive the liquification of oxygen
and nitrogen gases and contribute to sublimation heats in hydrocarbon crystals.
4. Hamaker Constant:
o Quantifying the Force: The magnitude of London dispersion forces is often
described using the Hamaker constant (symbolized as A). It accounts for both
non-retarded (close proximity) and retarded (finite time delay) interactions.
o Retardation Effects: For entities farther apart, the finite time required for
fluctuations to propagate from one atom to another necessitates the use of a
“retarded” Hamaker constant.

In summary, London dispersion forces, arising from the dance of electrons, connect seemingly
unrelated molecules and contribute to the rich tapestry of intermolecular interactions. Their
subtle influence shapes the behavior of matter, from the condensation of gases to the stability of
solids.

Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds

Polar molecule-induced dipole bonds, also known as dipole-induced dipole forces, are
fascinating intermolecular interactions that arise when a polar molecule interacts with a nonpolar
molecule or atom. Let’s explore the intricacies of these forces:

1. The Nature of Polar Molecules:

o Polarity: Polar molecules have an asymmetrical distribution of charge due to
differences in electronegativity between their constituent atoms.
o Dipole Moment: A polar molecule possesses a permanent dipole moment,
meaning it has a partial positive charge (δ⁺) and a partial negative charge (δ ⁻) at
different ends.
2. Dipole-Induced Dipole Interaction:
o Nonpolar Molecules and Atoms: Nonpolar molecules lack a permanent dipole
moment. However, when a polar molecule approaches a nonpolar molecule or
atom, it induces a temporary dipole in the nonpolar species.
o Electron Disruption: The polar molecule’s electric field disturbs the arrangement
of electrons in the nonpolar entity. As a result, the nonpolar molecule acquires a
partially positive charge on one side and a partially negative charge on the
other.
3. Strength and Range:
 oWeak but Ubiquitous: Dipole-induced dipole forces are relatively weak
compared to covalent bonds. However, they are present in all molecular
substances.
o Distance Dependence: The strength of these forces decreases with increasing
separation between molecules. They become significant when molecules are close
together, as in liquids and solids.
4. Examples and Applications:
o Van der Waals Forces: Dipole-induced dipole forces are part of the broader
category of Van der Waals forces.
o Solubility: These interactions influence solubility. Polar solvents can dissolve
nonpolar solutes due to dipole-induced dipole attractions.
o Physical Properties: The boiling points and melting points of molecular
substances are affected by these forces. Liquids boil when intermolecular forces
are overcome, and solids melt when molecules gain enough energy to break these
bonds.
5. Real-Life Scenarios:
o Hydrocarbons: In hydrocarbon compounds (such as alkanes), dipole-induced
dipole forces contribute to their physical properties.
o Nonpolar Gases: Even in nonpolar gases, these forces play a role at high
pressures.

In summary, polar molecule-induced dipole bonds bridge the gap between polar and nonpolar
species, creating subtle yet essential attractions. From dissolving solutes to shaping the behavior
of matter, these forces weave a delicate tapestry in the world of chemistry.

Permanent Dipole Bonds: Bridging Charges in the Molecular Realm

In the intricate dance of molecules, permanent dipole bonds play a vital role. These forces arise
due to the unequal sharing of electrons within certain covalent bonds. Let’s explore the
fascinating world of permanent dipoles:

1. Understanding Permanent Dipoles:

o Electronegativity Difference: When atoms with significantly different
electronegativities form a covalent bond, the shared electron pair leans toward the
more electronegative atom.
o Asymmetry: This unequal sharing results in a permanent separation of charge
within the molecule. One end becomes partially positive (δ⁺), while the other end
becomes partially negative (δ⁻).
2. Permanent Dipole-Dipole Interactions:
o Polar Molecules: Permanent dipole bonds occur between molecules that possess
permanent dipoles. These molecules typically contain electronegative atoms like
oxygen, nitrogen, or halogens.
o Mutual Attraction: Within a group of polar molecules, the δ⁺ end of one
molecule is attracted to the δ⁻ end of a neighboring molecule. These attractions
are permanent and contribute to the overall stability of the substance.
3. Boiling Points and Intermolecular Forces:
 o Higher Boiling Points: Permanent dipole bonds significantly impact physical
properties. Molecules with these bonds require more energy to break apart,
leading to higher boiling points.
o Comparison with Dispersion Forces: All molecules experience dispersion
forces, but comparing similar-mass compounds reveals the influence of
permanent dipoles. For instance:
 Alkanes: Alkanes (hydrocarbons) have only dispersion forces.
 Alkanals (Aldehydes): Alkanals, despite having similar mass to alkanes,
exhibit much higher boiling points. This difference arises from the
additional permanent dipole-dipole forces between the oxygen of the
carbonyl group and the carbon of the alkanal.
4. Real-Life Scenarios:
o Hydrogen Bonding: Permanent dipole bonds are a subset of intermolecular
forces, including hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bonding occurs when hydrogen is
bonded to highly electronegative atoms (like oxygen or nitrogen).
o Solubility: These interactions influence solubility patterns. Polar solvents can
dissolve polar solutes due to permanent dipole attractions.

In summary, permanent dipole bonds weave a delicate web, connecting atoms across space. They
shape the behavior of matter, from the boiling points of liquids to the stability of complex
molecules.

Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds (London Dispersion Forces), Polar Molecule-Induced

Dipole Bonds, and Permanent Dipole Bonds in a table format:

Fluctuating
Polar Molecule-
Induced Dipole Permanent
Property Induced Dipole
Bonds (London Dipole Bonds
Bonds
Dispersion Forces)

Temporary Polar molecules

Permanent
fluctuations in induce temporary
separation of
Nature of electron dipoles in
charge due to
Interaction distributions create nonpolar
unequal electron
instantaneous molecules or
sharing.
dipoles. atoms.

Weak
Relatively
Weak individually, individually, but
stronger; affects
Strength but cumulative in significant in
boiling points
bulk matter. condensed matter
significantly.
(liquids, solids).
 Fluctuating
Polar Molecule-
Induced Dipole Permanent
Property Induced Dipole
Bonds (London Dipole Bonds
Bonds
Dispersion Forces)

Effective at close
Decreases rapidly Effective at all
Range distances (liquids,
with separation. distances.
solids).

Interaction Alkanals (higher

Hydrocarbons,
between polar boiling points due
Examples waxes, organic
solvents and to oxygen-carbon
molecules.
nonpolar solutes. interaction).

Liquification of Solubility Hydrogen

Real-Life
gases, stability of patterns, physical bonding,
Applications
solids. properties. solubility.

These forces, whether fleeting or enduring, shape the behavior of matter and connect the
molecular world in intricate ways.