Q1: Enzymes speed up the rate of metabolic reactions by lowering the activation energy.

When an enzyme binds to a substrate, it stresses and destabilizes the bond in the substrate.
The reaction rate is the amount of reaction over time. Some enzymes help to break down
large nutrient molecules, such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, into smaller molecules.
Physical factors include temperature, pressure, ionic strength, solvent polarity,
immobilization, substrate sequestration, and molecular crowding effects the enzyme's
activity.
Biological factors like presence of inhibitors effects the enzymes's activity.
Allosteric regulation (or allosteric control) is the regulation of an enzyme by binding an
effector molecule at a site other than the enzyme's active site. Allosteric sites allow effectors
to bind to the protein, often resulting in a conformational change involving protein dynamics.
Allosteric regulation occurs when an activator or inhibitor molecule binds at a specific
regulatory site on the enzyme and induces conformational or electrostatic changes that
either enhance or reduce enzyme activity. Not all enzymes possess sites for allosteric binding;
those that do are called allosteric enzymes. The allosteric inhibitor binds to an enzyme at a
site other than the active site. The shape of the active site is altered so that the enzyme can
no longer bind to its substrate. ... When an allosteric inhibitor binds to an enzyme, all active
sites on the protein subunits are changed slightly so that they work less well.
The site to which the effector binds is termed the allosteric site or regulatory site. Allosteric
sites allow effectors to bind to the protein, often resulting in a conformational change
involving protein dynamics. Effectors that enhance the protein's activity are referred to as
allosteric activators, whereas those that decrease the protein's activity are called allosteric
inhibitors.
Allosteric regulations are a natural example of control loops, such as feedback from
downstream products or feedforward from upstream substrates. Long-range allostery is
especially important in cell signaling. Allosteric regulation is also particularly important in the
cell's ability to adjust enzyme activity.

Q2. moderate temperature fluctuations on Earth, creating a favorable environment for life
(evaporation) cooling plants and people off with rain. The above-mentioned properties of
water will prevent the rapid changes in water temperature and thus it will have moderate
temperature fluctuations making it a favorable environment for both aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems. The process of evaporation will help in cooling plants and people off with rain.
The high specific heat of water (1 cal/g/ °C) allow the large water bodies to act as heat sink,
so that they can provide a stable temperature and environment for the ecosystem (desert vs
coast climate). Heat of vaporization is the amount of heat a liquid must absorb to have 1g
become gaseous and the high heat of vaporization will help to keep moderate climate,
stabilizes temperature and allow for evaporative cooling. The property of expansion upon
freezing is helpful to maintain aquatic ecosystem. The water is densest at 4 ° C. Expansion can
be seen when Hydrogen bonds gets further apart. This will allow the ice to float. The surface
layer of ice will insulate the liquid water below and it won’t allow it to freeze, thus allows the
life to exist below the frozen surface.
Q3-Oxidative Phosphorylation is the final stage in cellular respiration. It is an oxygen
requiring process which involves the creation of energy, in the form of ATP, through the
process of chemiosmosis. The main components of this process include an electron transport
chain, the coenzymes redNAD and redFAD and the enzyme ATP Synthase. After leaving the
Krebs cycle, the coenzymes redNAD and redFAD are transported to an electron transport
train located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. At the start of the chain, they
release hydrogen atoms to reform NAD and FAD. These hydrogen atoms then dissociate to
form a proton and a high energy electron. The high energy electron then enters the electron
transport chain. An electron transport chain is a series of 4 protein complexes, at which the
high energy electron engages in exothermic redox reactions as it travels across the chain. The
energy released from these reactions is used to actively transport protons across the inner
mitochondrial membrane into the intermembrane space. Here, the concentration of protons
increases quickly creating a steep concentration gradient. However, the inner mitochondrial
membrane is impermeable to protons so they must travel through the membrane via a
membrane protein, the enzyme ATP Synthase. This enzyme drives the formation of ATP. At
the end of the electron transport chain is a complex named Cytochrome C Oxidase. Here, an
oxygen atom combines with two hydrogen ions and electrons to form H2O, one of the
products of cellular respiration.
The function of ATP synthase is to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) in
the F1 sector. This is possible due to energy derived from a gradient of protons which cross
the inner mitochondrial membrane from the intermembrane space into the matrix through
the Fo portion of the enzyme. The proton gradient establishes a proton-motive force, which
has two components: a pH differential and an electrical membrane potential

Q4: Bioelectrogenesis is the generation of electricity by living organisms, a phenomenon that

belongs to the science of electrophysiology. The nerve impulse is a bioelectric event. In
biological cells, the Sodium-Potassium Exchanger maintains a voltage imbalance, or cell
potential difference, between the inside of the cell and its surroundings (see also ion
channel). Also called a pump, the exchanger is said to be "electrogenic," because it removes 3
sodium ions for every two ions of potassium it allows in. The process consumes metabolic
energy in the form of ATP. Plant cells also exhibit light-induced electrogenesis. Certain types
of bacteria are able to generate electric currents which are used in microbial fuel cells.
However the term usually refers to the electricity-generating ability that is in some aquatic
creatures, such as the electric eel and to a lesser extent the black ghost knifefish. Fish
exhibiting such bioelectrogenesis often also possess electroreceptive abilities (which are
more widespread) as part of an integrated electric system. Electrogenesis may be utilized for
electrolocation, self-defense, electrocommunication and sometimes the stunning of prey.

Q5.CEELULARE RESIPRATION :glucose and oxgen /photosynthesis:input:light and

output:chemical energy/photorespiration ‘;Hot, dry days RubISCO fixes O2 into RuBP &
releases CO2

Q6:
Carbon Fixation
In carbon fixation, a CO2 molecule from the atmosphere combines with a five-carbon
acceptor molecule called ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP).The resulting six-carbon
compound is then split into two molecules of the three-carbon compound, 3-phosphoglyceric
acid (3-PGA).
 This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase/oxygenase, also known as
RuBisCO. Due to the key role it plays in photosynthesis, RuBisCo is probably the most
abundant enzyme on Earth.

Reduction
In the second stage of the Calvin cycle, the 3-PGA molecules created through carbon fixation
are converted into molecules of a simple sugar – glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate (G3P).
This stage uses energy from ATP and NADPH created in the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis. In this way, the Calvin cycle becomes the way in which plants convert energy
from sunlight into long-term storage molecules, such as sugars. The energy from the ATP and
NADPH is transferred to the sugars.This step is called “reduction” because NADPH donates
electrons to the 3-phosphoglyceric acid molecules to create glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate. In
chemistry, the process of donating electrons is called “reduction,” while the process of taking
electrons is called “oxidation.”
Regeneration
Some glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate molecules go to make glucose, while others must be
recycled to regenerate the five-carbon RuBP compound that is used to accept new carbon
molecules. The regeneration process requires ATP. It is a complex process involving many
steps.
Because it takes six carbon molecules to make a glucose, this cycle must be repeated six times
to make a single molecule of glucose.To accomplish this equation, five out of six
glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate molecules that are created through the Calvin cycle are
regenerated to form RuBP molecules. The sixth exits the cycle to become one half of a
glucose molecule.
Q7
The ABO blood system has to do with the glycoproteins that are absent or present on the cell
surfaces of the red blood cells.There are three alleles. O, is the first, and does not cause the
production of a glycoprotein, A codes for the production and insertion into the membrane of
the "A" type and B codes for the production and insertion into the membrane of the "B"
type.Genetically, people can be homozygous for O. If they have the genotype AO or BO, the
glycoprotein indicated is expressed. Thus, a person with type A blood could be AA or AO, and
a person with type B blood could be BB or BO. If a person's genotype is AB, s/he expresses
both the A and the B type glycoprotein (so neither is dominant).
Q8,
1-Mitosis consists of one stage whereas meiosis consists of two stages.

2-Mitosis produces diploid cells (46 chromosomes) whereas meiosis produces haploid cells
(23 chromosomes).
3-Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells whereas meiosis produces four genetically
different daughter cells.

While mitosis, an asexual process, is required for the growth, development, and repair of a
cell, meiosis, a sexual process, creates genetic diversity through sexual reproduction. Mitosis
can occur in any organism, but meiosis only occurs in humans, animals, plants, and fungi.
Another difference between mitosis and meiosis is that the daughter cells produced by
mitosis are genetically identical, unlike the daughter cells produced by meiosis which are
genetically different. Crossing over, which is the process of the exchange of genetic material
between homologous chromosomes, only occurs in meiosis during prophase I, because
homologous chromosomes are not present in mitosis. In mitotic metaphase, individual
chromosomes composed of two identical sister chromatids line up in the middle of the cell,
but in metaphase I, homologous chromosome pairs, which consist of four genetically
different sister chromatids, line up in the middle of the cell.…