Multi-Store Memory Model:

Introduction:
The Multi-Store Memory Model, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968, suggests that
memory consists of three separate stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and
long-term memory (LTM). Each store plays a crucial role in the encoding, storage, and retrieval
of information.

Sensory Memory:

Definition: Sensory memory is the initial stage of memory where sensory information from the
environment is briefly registered.

Iconic Memory: The sensory memory responsible for visual information.

Echoic Memory: The sensory memory responsible for auditory information.

Duration: Lasts for a very short time (milliseconds to a few seconds).

Capacity: Large capacity, but only a small portion of sensory information is transferred to
STM.

Short term:

Definition: STM is the second stage of memory where information from sensory memory is
temporarily stored and processed.

Duration: Limited duration, typically around 15-30 seconds without rehearsal.

Capacity: Limited capacity, about 7 ± 2 items (Miller, 1956).

Encoding: Primarily acoustic encoding.

Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information to maintain it in STM.

Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units to enhance STM capacity.
 Definition: LTM is the third stage of memory where information is stored for long periods,
potentially indefinitely.

Duration: Relatively permanent storage.

Capacity: Theoretically unlimited capacity.

Encoding: Semantic encoding (meaning-based).

Retrieval: Information stored in LTM can be retrieved back into STM for conscious awareness.
Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval:

Serial Position Effect:

Primacy Effect: Tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list better than those in the
middle.
Recency Effect: Tendency to remember items at the end of a list better than those in the middle.

Evaluation:

Strengths: Provides a simple framework for understanding memory processes. Supported by a

substantial amount of experimental evidence.

Weaknesses: Oversimplified; does not account for the role of attention in memory formation.
Doesn't fully explain the complex nature of LTM.
Working Memory Model:

Introduction:
The Working Memory Model, proposed by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974, is a more detailed and
updated alternative to the Multi-Store Memory Model. It suggests that working memory consists
of multiple components that actively manipulate and process information, rather than simply
passively holding it like in the traditional STM concept.

Key Terms:

Central Executive:

Definition: The central executive is the component of working memory responsible for
controlling and coordinating cognitive processes.

Function: Allocates attention to different tasks, coordinates the activities of the other
subsystems, and regulates cognitive processes.

Limited Capacity: The central executive has limited capacity and is involved in higher-order
cognitive functions such as problem-solving and decision-making.

Phonological Loop:

Definition: The phonological loop is responsible for the temporary storage and rehearsal of
verbal information.

Phonological Store: Holds speech-based information for a brief period.

Articulatory Control Process: Responsible for the rehearsal of verbal information through
subvocal articulation (inner speech).
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad:

Definition: The visuospatial sketchpad is responsible for the temporary storage and
manipulation of visual and spatial information.

Visual Cache: Stores visual information.

Inner Scribe: Processes spatial and movement information.

Episodic Buffer:

Definition: The episodic buffer is a temporary storage system that integrates information from
the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory.

Integrates: Integrates information from different sources into coherent episodes or chunks.

Temporarily Holds: Temporarily holds information before it is transferred to long-term memory.

Dual Task Technique:

Experimental Method: Involves asking participants to perform two tasks simultaneously to

investigate the capacity and functioning of working memory.

Central Executive Load: Tasks that require more central executive resources result in poorer
performance on the secondary task.

Support for Model: Studies using the dual task technique support the existence and functioning
of the central executive and its limited capacity.

Role in Cognitive Processes:

Problem-Solving: Working memory plays a crucial role in problem-solving by holding relevant

information and manipulating it to arrive at solutions.

Decision-Making: It aids in decision-making by allowing individuals to evaluate different options

and outcomes.

Learning: Working memory facilitates learning by temporarily holding and integrating new
information with existing knowledge.
 THINKING AND DECISION-MAKING

Cognition:
● Definition: Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring, processing,
and storing information.
● Components: Includes perception, attention, memory, language, and problem-solving.

Reasoning:
● Definition: Reasoning involves the use of logic and critical thinking to draw conclusions
and make inferences based on available information.
● Deductive Reasoning: Drawing specific conclusions from general principles or premises.
● Inductive Reasoning: Inferring general principles or rules from specific observations or
instances.
Problem-solving:
● Definition: Problem-solving is the process of finding solutions to difficult or complex
issues.
● Steps: Problem-solving typically involves identifying the problem, generating potential
solutions, evaluating alternatives, and implementing the best course of action.
● Strategies: Strategies for problem-solving include trial and error, algorithms, heuristics,
and insight
Decision making:
● Definition: Decision-making is the process of selecting a course of action from multiple
alternatives.
● Rational Decision-Making: Decision-making based on careful evaluation of available
information and consideration of potential outcomes.
● Intuitive Decision-Making: Decision-making is based on gut feelings, instincts, or
intuition, often without conscious deliberation.
Heuristics:
● Definition: Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making
and problem-solving.
● Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of an event based on its availability in
memory.
● Representativeness Heuristic: Making judgments based on how closely a situation
resembles a typical prototype.
● Anchoring Heuristic: Making estimates or judgments based on an initial anchor point,
adjusting from that point as more information becomes available.

Cognitive Biases:
● Definition: Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from rationality in
judgment and decision-making.
● Confirmation Bias: Tendency to seek out information that confirms pre-existing beliefs or
hypotheses while ignoring contradictory evidence.
 SCHEMA THEORY

Schema theory, proposed by Bartlett in the 1930s and further developed by Piaget in the 1950s,
suggests that individuals organize knowledge and information into mental frameworks called
schemas. These schemas guide perception, interpretation, and memory processes by providing
a framework for understanding the world.

Schema:
A schema is a mental framework or cognitive structure that organizes and interprets information.
Schemas help individuals make sense of new experiences by providing a framework for
understanding and interpreting them. Schemas can be general (e.g., schemas for everyday
activities like eating breakfast) or specific (e.g., schemas for different types of restaurants).

Assimilation:
Assimilation is the process of incorporating new information or experiences into existing
schemas. An example may be a child who has a schema for birds and might assimilate a new
experience with a robin by categorizing it as a type of bird.

Accommodation:
Accommodation is the process of modifying existing schemas or creating new schemas to
incorporate new information or experiences that cannot be assimilated. For example, If a child's
schema for birds only includes flying animals, they may need to accommodate by creating a
new schema for penguins, which do not fly.

Schema Activation:
Schema activation occurs when a schema is brought to mind or applied to a particular situation.
Activated schemas influence perception, attention, interpretation, memory, and behavior.
When someone enters a classroom, their schema for classrooms may be activated, influencing
their expectations and behavior.

Cultural Schemas:
Cultural schemas are shared mental frameworks or understandings that are specific to a
particular culture. Cultural schemas shape perceptions, beliefs, values, and behaviors within a
cultural group. An example of this could be Cultural schemas for family roles, gender roles, and
social norms that vary across cultures and influence individuals' behaviors and interactions.
 RECONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY

Reconstructive memory, proposed by Bartlett in the 1930s and further developed by Loftus in
the 1970s, suggests that memory is not a perfect recording of past events but rather a
reconstruction influenced by various factors such as schemas, expectations, and post-event
information. This phenomenon has significant implications for eyewitness testimony, legal
proceedings, and our understanding of memory accuracy.

Memory Reconstruction:
Memory reconstruction refers to the process by which individuals recall past events by piecing
together fragments of memory and filling in gaps with existing knowledge, schemas, and
expectations. Reconstruction is influenced by factors such as schemas, emotions, cultural
background, and post-event information.

Schema-Driven Reconstruction:
Schemas influence memory reconstruction by shaping how individuals interpret and remember
information consistent with their existing mental frameworks. A person's schema for a restaurant
may lead them to reconstruct details of a dining experience to fit typical restaurant scenarios,
even if those details were not originally present.

Eyewitness Testimony:
Eyewitness testimony refers to the accounts given by individuals who have witnessed a crime or
event and are called upon to recall and describe what they saw. Reconstructive memory raises
concerns about the reliability of eyewitness testimony, as memory reconstruction can lead to
inaccuracies, distortions, and false memories.

Leading Questions:
The way questions are phrased during interviews or interrogations can influence memory
reconstruction and lead to inaccuracies in eyewitness testimony.

Misinformation Effect:
The misinformation effect occurs when exposure to misleading information alters individuals'
memory of an event, leading them to incorporate incorrect details into their recollections.
Loftus and Palmer (1974): In a classic study, participants were shown a video of a car accident
and then asked questions with leading information (e.g., "How fast were the cars going when
they smashed into each other?"). Those exposed to more intense verbs like "smashed"
estimated higher speeds, demonstrating the impact of misleading information on memory
reconstruction.
Source Monitoring:
Implanting False Memories:
False memories are memories of events that never actually occurred but are believed to be true
by the individual. Research by Loftus and colleagues has demonstrated that false memories can
be implanted through suggestive techniques such as guided imagery, leading questions, and
misinformation.