CHEMICAL BONDING

Learning Outcomes
✓Describe different types of bonding using ‘dot-and-cross’ (Lewis
structure) diagrams, including:
• Ionic bonding

Copyright 1998 by John Wiley and Sons Inc. All rights reserved. Image from: www.chegg.com

• Covalent bonding

Image from: http://www.chemistryrules.me.uk/middle/bondstruct.htm 2

Learning Outcomes
• Coordinate (dative covalent) bonding

Image from: https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/C/coordinate_bond.html

• Metallic bonding

3
Image from: https://byjus.com/chemistry/metallic-bonds/
Learning Outcomes
✓Explain the shapes and bond angles in molecules

Image from: https://chem.libretexts.org

✓Describe intermolecular forces based on permanent / temporary

induced dipoles and hydrogen bonding

Image from: Pinterest

✓Describe the effect of different types of bonding on the physical

properties of substances 4
 CHEMICAL BONDS

Interatomic bonds Intermolecular bonds

Covalent bond Dative bond

Hydrogen bond
Ionic bond
Van der Waals forces

Instantaneous dipole induced dipole

force / London force / dispersion force

Dipole-dipole force /
Permanent dipole
5
 https://legacy.chemgym.net

Ionic bonding

• Positive ions are formed when an atom loses one or more

electrons: e.g. metal atoms

• Negative ions are formed when an atom gains one or more

electrons: e.g. non-metal atoms

Chemistry for the IB Diploma, Hodder Education 6

Ionic bonding

• Magnesium oxide

Mg 2•8•2 𝑀𝑔2+ 2•8

O 2•6 𝑂2− 2•8

• Calcium chloride

Cl 2•8•7 𝐶𝑙 − 2•8•8

Ca 2•8•8•2 𝐶𝑎2+ 2•8•8

Cl 2•8•7 𝐶𝑙 − 2•8•8

7
Question

Draw dot-and-cross diagrams for the ions in the following ionic

compounds. Show only the outer electron shells.

I. Potassium chloride, 𝐾𝐶𝑙

II. Sodium oxide, 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂

III. Calcium oxide, 𝐶𝑎𝑂

IV. Magnesium chloride, 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2

8
Solution
I. Potassium chloride, 𝐾𝐶𝑙

II. Sodium oxide, 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂

III. Calcium oxide, 𝐶𝑎𝑂

IV. Magnesium chloride, 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2

9
 Covalent bonding
Hydrogen

Single covalent bonds

• When two non-metal atoms Image from: https://sites.google.com

combine, they share one, or

Hydrogen chloride
more pairs of electrons

• A shared pair of electrons is

called a single covalent bond
Image from: http://www.chemistryrules.me.uk

Ammonia
Methane

Image from: https://www.meritnation.com

10
Image from: https://slideplayer.com/slide/6241975/
Some exceptions
Boron trifluoride

electron deficient

Sulfur hexafluoride

expanded octet

Image from: http://www.chemhume.co.uk/AS%20AQA%20CHEM/Physical/1.3%20Bonding.pdf

Question

Draw dot-and-cross diagrams for the following covalently

bonded molecules. Show only the outer electron shells.

I. Tetrachloromethane, 𝐶𝐶𝑙4

II. Bromine, 𝐵𝑟2

III. Beryllium chloride, 𝐵𝑒𝐶𝑙2

IV. Phosphorus(V) chloride, 𝑃𝐶𝑙5

12
 Solution
I. Tetrachloromethane, 𝐶𝐶𝑙4 III. Beryllium chloride, 𝐵𝑒𝐶𝑙2

IV. Phosphorus(V) chloride, 𝑃𝐶𝑙5

II. Bromine, 𝐵𝑟2

13
 Covalent bonding
Ethene
Multiple covalent bonds

• Some atoms can bond

together by sharing two pairs
of electrons

• We called this a double Image from: http://igcsechemistryrevision15.blogspot.com

covalent bond
Carbon dioxide
Oxygen

14
Image from: https://www.tuttee.co/blog/chem-
Image from: https://igcse-chemistry-2017.blogspot.com covalent-bonding
Covalent bonding

Multiple covalent bonds

• Atoms can also bond together by sharing three pairs of

electrons

• We called this a triple covalent bond

Nitrogen

15
Image from: http://igcsechemistryrevision15.blogspot.com
Question

Draw dot-and-cross diagrams for the following covalently

bonded molecule. Show only the outer electron shells.

Carbon disulfide, 𝐶𝑆2

16
Ionic or covalent bonds?

17
Coordinate bonding

• For dative covalent bonding we need:

o One atom having a lone pair of electrons
o A second atom having an unfilled orbital to accept the
lone pair; an electron-deficient compound

• Dative bonds are involved in the formation of transition

metal complex ions; often part of organic reaction
mechanisms

18
Examples

19
Chemistry for IB Diploma, Hodder Education
Examples
Aluminium chloride, 𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝒍𝟔

Image from: https://socratic.org/questions

Boron trifluoride ammonia, 𝑩𝑭𝟑 𝑵𝑯𝟑

Image from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ammonia-boron-trifluoride.png

20
Bonding and electron orbitals

• Covalent bonds are formed

when orbitals overlap to form
molecular orbitals

• In hydrogen, the two 1s atomic

orbitals overlap and merge to
form a σ (sigma) bond

• All single bonds are σ bonds

Chemistry for IB diploma, Hodder Education
21
Bonding and electron orbitals

• The second bond of a double bond, known as a π (pi)

bond, is formed by the sideways overlap of p orbitals

• The π bond is weaker than the single bond

Chemistry for IB diploma, Hodder Education

22
Metallic bonding

• Atoms in a metal are packed closely together in a regular

arrangement called a lattice.

• Metal atoms in a lattice lose their outer shell electrons and

become positive ions.

• Outer shell electrons obtain energy and are free to move

throughout the metal lattice.

• We call these electrons delocalised electrons (mobile

electrons); not associated with any particular atom or
bond.

23
Metallic bonding

• Metallic bonding is strong: ions are held together by strong

electrostatic attraction between their positive charges of
metal ions and the negative charges of delocalised
electrons. They are non-directional.

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Image from: https://www.tes.com/lessons/wFR3KO5aDv2jhA/2-the-periodic-table
Metallic bonding and the properties
of metals

Most metals have high melting points and high boiling points

• It takes a lot of energy to weaken the strong attractive

forces between the metal ions and the delocalized
electrons.

• The higher the m.p., the stronger the metallic bonding.

25
Metallic bonding and the properties
of metals

Metals conduct electricity

• When a voltage (potential

difference) is applied to a piece
of metal, an electric current flows
in it (delocalised electrons are
repelled from the negative
electrode to the positive
electrode) because the
delocalised electrons are free to
move and carry charge.
26
Image from: https://thescienceteacher.co.uk/metallic-bonding/
Shapes of molecules

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

• Electrons (negative charge) repel each other when they

are close together, e.g. electrons in the bonds surrounding
the central atom in a molecule will repel other electron
pairs.

• This repulsion forces the pairs of electrons apart until the

repulsive forces are minimised.

27
Shapes of molecules

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

The shape and bond angles of a covalently bonded

molecule depend on:

1. The number of pairs of electrons around each atom

2. Whether these pairs are lone pairs or bonding pairs

28
Shapes of molecules

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

• Lone pairs of electrons have a more concentrated

electron charge cloud than bonding pairs of electrons.

• This results in a different amount of repulsion between

different types of electron pairs.

Lone pair–lone pair > lone pair–bond pair > bond pair–bond pair

29
Shapes of molecules

tetrahedral shape trigonal pyramidal shape bent shape30

Chemistry for IB Diploma, Hodder Education
Shapes of molecules
Sulfur hexafluoride Octahedral shape
F

F F
S
F F

https://chemistryclinic.co.uk/ https://www.wikiwand.com https://favpng.com

Boron trifluoride
Trigonal planar shape
F

B
F
F

https://chemistryclinic.co.uk/ https://as-studypeach.tumblr.com https://commons.wikimedia.org 31

Shapes of molecules
Carbon dioxide
Linear shape

O
C

https://www.tuttee.co/ http://www.chem.ucla.edu https://phys.org/news

Phosphorus pentafluoride Trigonal bipyramidal shape

F
F F
F
F P
F F F

F
F
https://www.chemguide.co.uk https://chemistryonline.guru
32
https://commons.wikimedia.org
109.5°

33
 Shapes of molecules
Linear
https://favpng.com F

180°

Bent
https://commons.wikimedia.org

<180° 34
Shapes of molecules
Trigonal planar
https://chemlab.truman.edu

120°

Trigonal pyramidal
https://en.wikipedia.org
Repulsion Repulsion

107°
35
Shapes of molecules
Tetrahedral
https://study.com/academy
https://en.m.wikipedia.org
109.5°

Trigonal bipyramidal
https://en.wikipedia.org
https://favpng.com

90°

120°
36
Shapes of molecules
See-saw
https://en.m.wikipedia.org
Repulsion Repulsion

<180°
T-shaped
https://www.angelo.edu]
https://enacademic.com

90°
37
Shapes of molecules
Octahedral
https://villanovachemistry.wordpress.com
https://commons.wikimedia.org
90°

Square pyramidal
https://en.wikipedia.org 90°

Repulsion Repulsion
38
Shapes of molecules
Square planar
https://en.wikipedia.org

https://byjus.com/jee/hybridization-of-xef4/

39
Importance of molecular shape

• The 3D shape of drug molecules is a very important issue in

drug design and in drug-receptor interaction (binding)

• The biological activity of a drug Chemistry for IB Diploma, Hodder Education

depends on its interaction with

drug targets, such as proteins
inside or on cells (receptors,
enzymes), nucleic acids (DNA
and RNA) and membranes
(phospholipids and glycolipids) A computer-generated model of
Taxol, a natural anti-cancer drug
from the Pacific yew tree

40
 No. of No. of
Shape of molecule Example
bonding pair lone pair

2 0 Linear 𝐵𝑒𝐶𝑙2

3 0 Trigonal planar 𝐵𝐹3

4 0 Tetrahedral 𝐶𝐻4

3 1 Trigonal pyramidal 𝑁𝐻3

2 2 Bent 𝐻2𝑂

5 0 Trigonal bipyramidal 𝑃𝐶𝑙5

4 1 See-saw 𝑆𝐶𝑙4 /𝑆𝐹4
3 2 T shaped 𝐶𝑙𝐹3
6 0 Octahedral 𝑆𝐹6
5 1 Square pyramidal 𝐶𝑙𝐹5 /𝐵𝑟𝐹5
4 2 Square planar 𝑋𝑒𝐹4 41
Intermolecular forces

• Weak forces between molecules.

• Three types of intermolecular force:

i. temporary dipole-induced dipole forces
ii. permanent dipole-dipole forces
iii. hydrogen bonding

42

https://www.khanacademy.org
Electronegativity

Definition:

• The ability of a particular atom, which is covalently

bonded to another atom, to attract the bond pair of
electrons towards itself.

• The greater the value of the electronegativity, the greater

the power of an atom to attract the electrons in a
covalent bond towards itself.
43

https://www.kindpng.com
Electronegativity Table – Pauling Scale

increases

44
Polarity in molecules

Simple covalent bond (interatomic bonds)

i) polar covalent (e.g. 𝑯 − 𝑭)

• Elements with different electronegativity values
• Forms polar molecule (permanent dipole moment)
• Electron distribution is asymmetric

ii) non-polar covalent (e.g. 𝑯 − 𝑯)

• Elements with similar electronegativity values
• Forms non-polar molecule (temporary dipole moment)
• Electron distribution is symmetric

45
Polarity in molecules

Polar covalent
Electron poor Electron rich
region region

https://study.com
hhttps://slideplayer.com/slide/260597/

• As the difference in EN values of the atoms in a covalent

bond increases, the bond becomes more polar.

• The degree of polarity of a molecule is measured as a

dipole moment.

• The direction of the dipole is shown by the sign

46
Polarity in molecules

• In molecules containing more than two atoms, we have to

take into account:
o The polarity of each bond
o The arrangement of the bonds in the molecule

• Trichloromethane, 𝐶𝐻𝐶𝑙3 , is a polar molecule, with

negative end towards the chlorine atoms.

• Three 𝐶 − 𝐶𝑙 dipoles point in a similar direction. The electron

distribution is asymmetric.
47

http://chemistry.bd.psu.edu/jircitano/polar.html
Polarity in molecules

48

https://study.com/academy
 Question

Are the following molecules polar or non-polar? In each case

give a reason for your answer.

a) Chlorine, 𝐶𝑙2

b) Hydrogen fluoride, 𝐻𝐹

c) The V-shaped molecule, sulfur dichloride, 𝑆𝐶𝑙2

d) The tetrahedral molecule, chloromethane, 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑙

e) The tetrahedral molecule, tetrabromomethane, 𝐶𝐵𝑟4

49
Concept Check

Which of the above molecule is the most polar?

A. A

B. B

C. C

D. D
50
Polarity in molecules

• Tetrachloromethane, 𝐶𝐶𝑙4 , is a
non-polar molecule, even
though 𝐶 − 𝐶𝑙 is a polar bond.

• Four polar 𝐶 − 𝐶𝑙 bonds

pointing towards the four
corners of a tetrahedron.

• These dipoles in each bond

cancel each other.

51

https://schoolbag.info/chemistry/mcat_2/20.html
Polarity and chemical reactivity

• Bond polarity influences chemical reactivity.

• E.g. both nitrogen, 𝑁 ≡ 𝑁, and carbon monoxide, 𝐶 ≡ 𝑂

have triple bonds requiring similar amount of energy to
break them.

• Nitrogen is non-polar molecule and is fairly unreactive.

• Carbon monoxide is a polar molecule and reacts with

oxygen and commonly used as a reducing agent.

52
Van der Waals’ forces

• Noble gases (e.g. neon and argon) exist as free atoms.

• Noble gases can be liquefied at very low temperatures.

• The weak forces of attraction are keeping the atoms

together in the liquid state.

• These very weak intermolecular forces of attraction are

called van der Waals’ forces; exist between all atoms or
molecules.

53
 Van der Waals’ forces

• Dispersion forces; also known as London forces (named

after Fritz London who first suggested how they might arise)
are due to the formation of temporary dipoles

Van der Waals forces

Instantaneous dipole induced

dipole force / London force / Dipole-dipole force
dispersion force (permanent)
(temporary)

54
London forces

Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces

• In a symmetrical molecule like 𝐻2 , electrons are distribute

evenly with no positive or negative parts.

• This can be described in the lozenge-shaped diagram

below:

• The even shading shows that on average there is no

electrical distortion.

55
London forces

Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces

• Electrons are mobile, they might find themselves towards

one end of the molecule, making that end δ −.

• The other end will be temporarily short of electrons and

becomes δ +.

𝛿− 𝛿+ 𝛿− 𝛿+

The molecule has an instantaneous dipole

• An instant later, electrons may have moved up to the

other end, reversing the polarity of the molecule.
56
London forces

• As the right hand molecule approaches, its electrons will

tend to be attracted by the slightly positive end of the left
hand one.

𝛿− 𝛿+ 𝛿− 𝛿+

Instantaneous dipole

• An instant later, electrons may have moved up to the

other end, reversing the polarity of the molecule.

𝛿+ 𝛿− 𝛿+ 𝛿−

57
Instantaneous dipole Induced dipole
 58
https://www.zmescience.com/
London forces

• This diagram shows how a whole lattice of molecules could

be held together in a solid using London forces.

59

https://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/vdw.html
London forces
The strength of London forces

• London forces between molecules < covalent bonds

within molecules.

Noble gases Boiling point (°𝐶)

Helium (4.003) −269
• no. of shell

increase
Neon (20.180) −246 • size of atom
• London force
Argon (39.948) −186 • B.P.

Krypton (84.798) −152 Bigger atoms /

molecules have higher
Xenon (131.249) −108 b.p. and stronger
London forces
Radon (222.018) −62
Factors which influence London forces
1. Molecular size

• Going down Group 17, number of shell, number of electrons,

and size increases.

• Electrons become located further away from nucleus and

hence, less strongly attracted.

• Electron cloud can be distorted increasingly easy

(polarisability of the bond increases).

• This results in stronger and more significant London forces.

Molecule Boiling point / K Molar mass / 𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏
𝐹2 85 38
𝐶𝑙2 239 71
61
𝐵𝑟2 332 160
Factors which influence London forces
2. Molecular shape

• Molecules with a larger surface allow a closer contact

between molecules

• This give rise to more extensive London forces of attraction

than in molecules of similar molecular mass but with more
compact shapes due to branching

Chemistry for IB Diploma, Hodder Education

62
Dipole-dipole forces
• In a polar molecule, there is a permanent dipole moment.

• A dipole-dipole force exists between polar molecules

because the positive end of the dipole of one molecule
will electrostatically attract the negative end of the dipole
of another molecule

https://www.emedicalprep.com 63
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/119345458861264448/
Dipole-dipole forces
• For small molecules with the same
number of electrons, permanent dipole-
dipole forces > London forces.

• Propanone ( 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝐶𝐻3 , 𝑀𝑟 = 58 ) has a

higher BP than butane (𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3 , weak
permanent
𝑀𝑟 = 58). dipole-
dipole force
• More energy is needed to break the
intermolecular forces between
propanone molecules than between
butane molecules.
64
https://cardinaloconnorconference.com
Dipole-dipole forces
• The difference in the BP of propanone and butane can be
explained by the different types of intermolecular force
between the molecules.
𝜹−

propanone, BP 56 °𝐶

𝜹+

• The permanent dipole-dipole forces between propanone

molecules are strong enough to make this substance a
liquid at room temperature. 65
https://www.chegg.com
Dipole-dipole forces
• There are only induced dipole forces between butane
molecules. These forces are comparatively weak, so
butane is a gas at room temperature.

butane, BP 0 °𝐶

• C-H bond is virtually non-polar. Therefore, alkanes are not

very reactive.

66
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butane
 When comparing the relative strengths
of intermolecular forces:
• When molecules have very different molecular masses,
London forces are more significant than permanent dipole-
dipole forces.

• The molecule with largest relative molecular mass has the

strongest intermolecular attractions.

Molecule Molecular mass Melting point / 𝑲 Boiling point / 𝑲

Hydrogen chloride, 𝐻𝐶𝑙 36.5 159 188
Hydrogen bromide, 𝐻𝐵𝑟 81.0 186 207
Hydrogen iodide, 𝐻𝐼 128.0 222 238

Table above shows the increase in meting and boiling points of the hydrogen halides
from hydrogen chloride to hydrogen iodide. All molecules have a linear shape.
67
 When comparing the relative strengths
of intermolecular forces:
• When molecules have similar molecular masses, dipole-dipole
forces are more significant.

• The most polar molecule has the strongest intermolecular

attractions.

Name of Formula Relative Dipole moment Boiling point

substance molecular mass /𝑫 /𝑲
Propane 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3 44 0.1 231
Methoxymethane 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐶𝐻3 46 1.3 249
Ethanenitrile 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑁 41 3.9 355

Table above shows the increase in meting and boiling points of

the polar substances with similar relative molecular masses.
68
Hydrogen bonding

• Hydrogen bonding is the strongest type of intermolecular

force.

• For hydrogen bonding to occur between two molecules,

we need:
i. one molecule (donor) having a hydrogen atom
covalently bonded to fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen.
ii. a second molecule (acceptor) having a 𝐹, 𝑂 or 𝑁
atom with an available lone pair of electrons.
69

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/176907091602039679/
 Hydrogen bonding

• When a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to a very

electronegative atom, the bond is very highly polarised.

• The 𝛿 + charge on the H atom is high enough for a bond to

be formed with a lone pair of electrons on the 𝐹, 𝑂 or 𝑁
atom of a neighbouring molecule.

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http://chemistry2.csudh.edu/rpendarvis/aminbassyn.html https://www.quora.com
Hydrogen bonding

• The average number of hydrogen bonds formed per molecule

depends on:
1. the number of hydrogen atoms attached to 𝐹, 𝑂 or 𝑁 in the
molecule.
2. the number of lone pairs present on the 𝐹, 𝑂 or 𝑁.

• Water can form, four

hydrogen bonds (2
donated & 2 accepted)
per molecule – high B.P.

71

http://www.mikeblaber.org
Hydrogen bonding

• Ammonia can also form hydrogen bonds but it has a shortage of

lone pairs – lower B.P. than water.

Source: https://files.mtstatic.com

72
Hydrogen bonding

• Hydrogen fluoride can also form hydrogen bonds but it has a

shortage of hydrogen atoms – lower B.P. than water.

https://www.quora.com https://www.chemguide.co.uk 73
Effect of hydrogen bonding on
physical properties

Hydrogen bonding affects:

• The boiling points of water, ammonia, hydrogen fluoride and

other molecules

• The solubility of simple covalent molecules such as ammonia,

methanol and ethanoic acid in water

• The density of water and ice

• The viscosity of liquids, for
e.g. the alcohols

74
https://www.cradle-cfd.com/media/column/a142
Deducing the types of intermolecular
force present in substances
Chemistry for the IB Diploma, Hodder Education

75
Bonding and physical properties

Ionic compounds

• Ionic compounds are solids at R.T.P. (25 °𝐶 and 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚):

1. there are strong electrostatic forces (ionic bonds)
holding the +𝑣𝑒 and – 𝑣𝑒 ions together.
2. the ions are arranged in a lattice, with the oppositely
charged ions close to each other.

high melting points, high BP:

requires a lot of energy to
overcome the strong inter-
ionic forces.

76
https://igcseandialchemistry.com/giant-chemical-structures/
Bonding and physical properties

Metallic compounds

• They have high melting points and high B.P. It takes a lot of
energy to break the strong attractive forces (metallic
bonds) between the positive metal ions and the ‘sea’ of
delocalized electrons.

77

http://www.tutorsglobe.com
Bonding and physical properties

Covalent compounds

• Covalently bonded substances (simple molecular structure

like 𝐻2 𝑂 and 𝑁𝐻3 ), are liquids or gases.

• The interactions between the molecules are weak

intermolecular forces, so it does not take much energy to
overcome these forces.

• They have low melting points and low B.P. compared with
ionic compounds and metallic elements.

78
Bonding and physical properties

Covalent compounds

• Some substances like iodine and poly(ethene), are solids at

room temperature.

• These are usually molecules where the van der Waals’

forces are significant.

79

https://2012books.lardbucket.org
Bonding and physical properties

Chemistry for the IB Diploma, Hodder Education

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