TEAM TENT DISCUSSION GROUP

ELE3102: APPLIED ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

SOLUTIONS
Question 1
a) Explain the following terms as applied to operational amplifiers.
i) Unity gain frequency
 This is the frequency in which the signal output of an op-amp has the same amplitude as
the input.
ii) Slew rate
 This is the maximum (fastest) rate of change of the output voltage.
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡)
𝑆𝑅 = [ ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Limitation on slew rate capability can give rise to non-linear distortion in the op amp.
 For sinusoidal waveforms not subjected to slew rate limitation, the rate capability at all
points in an op amp must satisfy the condition;
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡)
[ ] = 𝑆𝑅 ≥ 2𝜋𝑓𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚.
iii) Closed loop band width and gain band width product
 Closed loop bandwidth is the frequency at which the closed loop system gain drops 3 dB
below the peak.
 The band width represents the two points in the frequency domain where the signal is
0.7071 of the maximum signal amplitude.
 Gain bandwidth product is the bandwidth of the op-amp when the open loop voltage gain
is reduced to 1
iv) Op amp
 This is a very high gain differential amplifier with very high input impedance and very low
output impedance
b) Give the characteristics of an ideal op amp and a non-ideal op-amp
For an ideal op amp
 Infinite input impedance.
 Zero output impedance
 Infinite open loop gain.
 Infinite bandwidth
For a non-ideal op-amp
 High input impedance with a finite value
 Low output impedance.
 Large bandwidth with a finite value
 Large open loop gain with a finite value
c) Give the advantages and disadvantages of the following negative and positive feedback.
Negative feedback;
 Advantages;
 Increases the bandwidth of the op-amp
 Reduces distortion
 Increases gain stability
Disadvantages;
 Reduces the closed loop gain of an amplifier
d) Explain the term negative feedback and show that when negative feedback is applied to
𝐴
an amplifier, the resulting gain is given by 𝐴𝑓 = 1+𝛽𝐴.
 Negative feedback is the one in which the feedback energy (voltage or current) is out of
phase with the input signal and thus opposes it.
Draw a block diagram
𝑉0 = 𝐴(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑓 )

𝑉0 = 𝐴(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝛽𝑉0 )
𝑉0 (1 + 𝛽𝐴) = 𝐴𝑓 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑽𝟎 𝑨
𝑨𝒇 = =
𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑨)
e) Using the formula given in d) above, derive the expression for the voltage gain of the non-
inverting op amp.
𝑅1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, 𝛽 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, 𝐴 = ∞
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓
1 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐴𝑓 = = = (1 + )
𝛽 𝑅1 𝑅1
Question 2
a) The input voltage, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) shown below is applied to an inverting operational amplifier. The
op-amp has a slew rate of 6.3 V/μs. The plot of the input voltage, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) is shown below.

i) Calculate the maximum closed loop gain that the amplifier can have without exceeding
the op-amp slew rate.
Δ𝑉𝑖𝑛 1.05 − −1.05
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡, = = 1.05 𝑉/𝜇𝑠
Δt 2.0 − 0
 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 6.3
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐺 = = = 6 𝑉/𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 1.05
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, 𝐺 = −𝟔 𝑽/𝑽
ii) Sketch the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) versus time, t, at maximum closed loop gain.
Note: Since it is an inverting op-amp, the voltage scale will be flipped vertically with respect to the
original graph and magnified by a scale factor of 6.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴𝑡 𝑡 = 0; 𝑉0 (𝑡) = 1.05(−6) = −6.3 𝑉
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 2; 𝑉0 (𝑡) = −1.05(−6) = 6.3

b) What are the two characteristics of a linear system (e.g an amplifier)?

 The output signal is directly proportional to the input.
 It exhibits constant parameters.
i) Consider an inverting op-amp circuit that is connected to a dual power supply of ±6 VDC.
The closed loop voltage gain of the amplifier is -4. Sketch its output voltage versus time
if it is driven with an input sine wave of 10 kHz and peak amplitude of 2 volts?
1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 × 104 𝑡 , 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 = = 0.1 𝑚𝑠
10𝑘
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = −4(2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 × 104 𝑡) = −8(𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 × 104 𝑡) 𝑉
Since it is an inverting op-amp, the sine curve will be flipped and saturates at ±6 𝑉

N.B: Let the clipping be slightly close to ±6 𝑉 not exactly at that value

ii) Consider a non-inverting op-amp circuit that is connected to a dual power supply of ±5
VDC. The closed loop voltage gain of the amplifier is 4. Sketch its output voltage versus
time if it is driven with an input sine wave of 1 kHz and peak amplitude of 2.5 volts?
 1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) = 2.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 × 103 𝑡 , 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 = = 1 𝑚𝑠
1𝑘
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = 4(2.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 × 103 𝑡) = 10(𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 × 103 𝑡) 𝑉
The output will saturate at ±5 𝑉

N.B: Let the clipping be slightly close to ±10 𝑉 not exactly at that value
Question 3
a) Find an expression for the output voltage 𝑣0 of the operational amplifier circuit below in
terms of 𝑉𝑎 and 𝑉𝑏

𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑;

(𝑉𝑎 − 0) (0 − 𝑉01 )
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐾𝐶𝐿, =
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅2
𝑉01 = − 𝑉 … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
𝑅1 𝑎
𝑉01 − 0 𝑉𝑏 − 0 0 − 𝑉0
+ = … … … … … … . . (2)
𝑅3 𝑅5 𝑅4
𝑅2 𝑉𝑏 𝑉0
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (1) 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 (2) ∶ − 𝑉𝑎 + =−
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅5 𝑅4
 𝑹𝟐 𝑽𝒃
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑹 𝟒 { 𝑽𝒂 − }
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟓
Notes: The above expression reveals that one can also design difference amplifier using a
combination an inverting amplifier in the first stage and a summing amplifiers as the second
stage.
b) Consider the real-world op amp shown below. It has an open loop gain 𝐴𝑣 𝑜𝑓 500,000 and
is connected to a dual supply with 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 10 𝑉

i) Plot the output voltage and input voltage curves with respect to time, if the input
voltage, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 3 sin 𝑤𝑡.

N.B: Let the clipping be slightly close to ±10𝑉 not exactly at that value
ii) Plot the output voltage curve with respect to time, if the input voltage, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 =
3 sin 𝑤𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 0 𝑉 𝑏𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 10 𝑉.

N.B: Let the clipping be slightly close to +10 𝑉 not exactly at that value
 iii) Give one application of the circuit above.
 Applied in signal amplification.
 Op amp comparator
 Op amp high pass and low pass active filter
 Op amp multivibrator
iv) Plot the output voltage and input voltage curves with respect to time, if the input
voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is a rectangular wave with a peak voltage of +3 𝑉.

N.B: Let the clipping be slightly close to ±10 𝑉 not exactly at that value.
v) What would happen in the case of iv) above if the slew rate was short.
 The output signal will be linearly distorted and will be in saw-tooth like form.
Question 4
a) Design an amplifier circuit that produces an output voltage 𝑣0 (𝑡), governed by the
𝟏
expression, 𝑽𝟎 (𝒕) = −𝟎. 𝟐𝑽𝟏 (𝒕) + 𝟎. 𝟓𝑽𝟐 (𝒕) − 𝑽𝟑 (𝒕) + 𝑽𝟒 (𝒕) where 𝑉1 (𝑡), 𝑉2 (𝑡), 𝑉3 (𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉4 (𝑡)
𝟒
are input voltages. Show all the components and their values.
N.B: Keep the number of components in your circuit as small as possible. That will reduce
the cost of your amplifier and for that you will be rewarded with more points.
NOTES:
  When designing op amp circuits with an output of the form,
𝑉0 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑉1 (𝑡) + 𝐵𝑉2 (𝑡) + 𝐶𝑉3 (𝑡) + 𝐷𝑉4 (𝑡) + ⋯ 𝑍𝑉𝑛 (𝑡), for a simple design, use two summing
amplifiers.
 If all the coefficients of of the input voltages are negative, you can use one summing
amplifiers
 If some of the voltage coefficients are negative and others are positive, use two summing
amplifiers in cascade and do the following;
 The inputs with positive coefficients are used as the inputs for the first stage op amp
 The inputs with negative coefficients are used as the inputs for the second stage op amp
 By doing so you will generate an expression that exactly is in the form of the given
expression, compare the expressions, choose of the typical values for your design to help
you in getting other values of the components used.

Also indicate the biasing on the op amps i.e. +𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 −𝑉𝑐𝑐
Assuming that the op-amp is ideal with infinite input impedance implying zero input current into
the op-amp and infinite open loop gain.
Assuming a virtual short circuit between the input terminals, thus a virtual ground.
𝑉2 𝑉4
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, 𝑉01 = −𝑅𝑓1 [ + ] … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
𝑅2 𝑅4
The output of the first op amp acts as one of the inputs of the second op-amp.
𝑉1 𝑉3 𝑉01
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, 𝑉0 (𝑡) = −𝑅𝑓2 [ + + ] … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅5
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1) 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 (2)
𝑉1 𝑉3 −𝑅𝑓1 𝑉2 𝑉4
𝑉0 (𝑡) = −𝑅𝑓2 ( + + [ + ])
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅5 𝑅2 𝑅4
𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 (𝑡) = − 𝑉1 + 1 2 𝑉2 − 2 𝑉3 + 1 2 𝑉4 … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅5 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5
1
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (3) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑉0 (𝑡) = −0.2𝑉1 (𝑡) + 0.5𝑉2 (𝑡) − 𝑉3 (𝑡) + 𝑉 (𝑡)
4 4
𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓1 𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓1 𝑅𝑓2 1
= 0.2 , = 0.5 , = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅5 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5 4
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑓1 = 𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑅5 = 10 𝑘Ω,

𝑹𝟏 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝛀, 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝛀, 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝛀, 𝑹𝟒 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒌𝛀

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠, 𝑅𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑐2 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑. 𝑐 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠;

1 1 1 −1
𝑅𝑐1 = 𝑅2 || 𝑅4 ||𝑅𝑓1 = [ + + ] = 𝟓. 𝟕 𝒌𝛀
20 40 10
1 1 1 1 −1
𝑅𝑐2 = 𝑅1 ||𝑅3 ||𝑅5 ||𝑅𝑓2 = [ + + + ] = 𝟑. 𝟏 𝒌𝛀
50 10 10 10
b) Design a capacitor coupled inverting amplifier using an op-amp that has an input voltage,
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 500 cos 𝑤𝑡 𝑚𝑉 and voltage gain of 20. The load resistance 𝑅4 be 1 𝑘Ω and the lower
cutoff frequency equal to 60 𝐻𝑧, 𝐼𝐵(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 500 𝑛𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼1 = 200𝐼𝐵(𝑚𝑎𝑥) . Use 𝑅4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 to set the
lower cutoff frequency.

𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑;
𝑅2
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐺 = − = −20 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅2 = 20𝑅1 … … … (1)
𝑅3
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 0 500𝑚
= 𝐼1 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡, 𝐼1 = … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝑅3 𝑅3
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐼1 = 200𝐼𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 200(500𝑛) = 0.1 𝑚𝐴 … … … … … … … … (3)
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛𝑠 (2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (3); 𝑅3 = 5 𝑘𝛺
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (1); 𝑅2 = 100 𝑘𝛺
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑑. 𝑐 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒,
5(100)
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 ||𝑅3 = = 4.8 𝑘𝛺 𝑜𝑟 4.7(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
5 + 100
𝑋𝐶1 ≈ 𝑅3 𝑋𝐶2 ≈ 𝑅4
1 1
𝐶2 = = = 2.65 𝜇𝐹
2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑅4 2𝜋(60)(1𝑘)
1 1
𝐶1 = = = 5.31 𝜇𝐹
𝑓𝐿 (60)
2𝜋 (10) 𝑅3 2𝜋 (5𝑘)
10
Question 6
a) Why is it important for a voltage amplifier to have high a high input resistance and low
output resistance?
 High input impedance for an amplifier to have good amplification of the input signal
otherwise we would get a low voltage in so low amplification.
 Low output impedance ensure maximum voltage drop across the load.
b) Give one reason why an op amp may still have an output even if the input voltage is zero.
 This is due to the effect of dc imperfections in the op amp like dc offset voltages and
dc bias currents that are always circulating for as long as the op amp is biased hence
there will always be signal at the output even when there is no actual input signal
c) An electronic device takes an input voltage 𝑉𝑖 (𝑡) and returns an output signal 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) =
5𝑉𝑖2 (𝑡), is this a linear device? Explain you answer using equations.

Compiled by, DAVID