Materials and Manufacturing Processes

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Microwave joining of additive manufactured SS316

with conventional SS316 for hybrid structural
applications

Rahul Samyal, Ashok Kumar & Raman Bedi

To cite this article: Rahul Samyal, Ashok Kumar & Raman Bedi (23 Jan 2024): Microwave joining
of additive manufactured SS316 with conventional SS316 for hybrid structural applications,
Materials and Manufacturing Processes, DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2024.2304848

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2024.2304848

Published online: 23 Jan 2024.

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MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
https://doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2024.2304848

Microwave joining of additive manufactured SS316 with conventional SS316 for

hybrid structural applications
Rahul Samyal , Ashok Kumar , and Raman Bedi
Mechanical Engineering, Dr B. R. Ambedkar NIT, Jalandhar, Punjab, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Metal additive manufacturing (MAM) can better complement existing methods by providing hybrid Received 23 August 2023
structural strengthening and repair solutions. This opportunity and challenge can only be fulfilled by Accepted 1 December 2023
joining additive-manufactured (AM) parts with conventional ones. In this study, AM SS316 is joined with KEYWORDS
conventional SS316 through selective microwave hybrid heating. The SEM (scanning electron micro­ Additive; manufactured;
scopy) images pointed towards non-epitaxial grain evolution along the joint interlayer due to the SS316; microwave; joining
complete diffusion of Ni. EDS (energy dispersive spectroscopy) mapping exposed the intermixing of Fe
from base metal to interlayer and Ni from interlayer to base metal. At the fusion zone, the maximum
hardness of 282 HV was determined. Hard carbide phases attributed to increased hardness. A 378 MPa of
ultimate tensile stress of weld signifies the exceptional bonding achieved between Ni-Fe. At last, the
fractography study revealed both ductile and brittle modes of fracture.

Introduction
Metal additive manufacturing (MAM) has already attained
numerous applications in biomedical, construction, architec­
tural industries, and aerospace.[1,2] MAM offers the majority of
resource and structural efficiency by reducing material con­
sumption and wastage, providing enhanced customization and
improved accuracy. Moreover, MAM has advantages over
conventional manufacturing processes, such as fabricating
non-prismatic sections, better mechanical properties through
precise heating and cooling, adaptable microstructures and
internal stiffening.[3] Rather than replacing conventional man­
ufacturing processes, MAM can better complement existing
methods by providing hybrid structural strengthening and
repair solutions. This opportunity and challenge can only be
fulfilled by joining additive manufactured (AM) parts with
conventional ones. However, welding these parts has not
been completely achieved through conventional welding due
to certain challenges like high porosity, compatibility, thermal
properties, and microstructural variation.[4–6] A novel non-
conventional welding method is required to eliminate these
challenges. Microwave welding/joining is a novel joining pro­
cess that exhibits advantages like volumetric, uniform heating,
and is an eco-friendly source of heat.[7]
Microwave processing of the material generally comprises
heating the specimen through microwave radiations.[8,9] Due
to material property-dependent characteristics, materials are
classified as absorbers, opaque, transparent, and reflectors.
Restricted to absorber materials, microwave processing of the
materials has been used for drying, synthesis, and cooking.
Inherent properties of materials like dielectric and
magnetic fields have a strong interaction with microwaves
at the molecular level; thus, to understand the phenomena
of microwave heating, a numerical method was
studied. [10] It was concluded that dielectric properties
have a significant consequence on microwave heating.
Furthermore, the complex permittivity (ɛ*) which is
expressed as Eq. (1.1) is defined as a degree of absorption
of microwave radiation by a dielectric material.
00
ε� ¼ ε0 jε (1:1)
where ɛ′ (permittivity) is capability to absorb energy, ɛ′′ (loss
factor) is potential to dissipate energy, and tan δ (loss tangent)
is meant to be polarized and heated. Eq. (1.2) expresses the loss
tangent as:
00
ε
tanδ ¼ 0 (1:2)
ε
Different methods to determine dielectric constant and loss
tangent were studied earlier like: the transmission/reflection
line method, free space method, and resonance cavity
method.[11,12]
The magnetic factor is also responsible for heating materi­
als, during their interaction with microwaves. The study of the
interaction of microwaves with iron and ferromagnetic parti­
cles stated that the heating is caused due to magnetic effect.[13]
The complex permeability (µ*) is the resistance offered by the
material against the formation of a magnetic field. Eq. (1.3)
expresses the complex permeability as:
μ� ¼ μ0 jμ00 (1:3)
Where, the real term in the above equation is the magnetic
permeability (µ’) which is the ratio of the magnetic flux density
to the field strength, whereas the imaginary term is termed as

CONTACT Ashok Kumar baghaak@nitj.ac.in Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar, G.T Road,
Amritsar Bypass, Jalandhar, Punjab 144008, India
© 2024 Taylor & Francis
2 R. SAMYAL ET AL.
the magnetic loss factor (µ”) which is the energy per unit
volume transformed into heat in the cycle. Depending on the
corresponding resonant frequency of the material, magnetic
heating can be caused due to losses, such as for water (resonant
frequency = 2.45 GHz), which causes rapid heating during
microwave interaction.[14]
The absorption of microwave radiation depends on the skin
depth of the material. Skin depth (δ) is defined as the depth of
a material at which the field intensity reduces to 1/e (36.8%).
The higher the skin depth value, the more absorption of
radiation will occur.[15,16] Eq. (1.4) states the skin depth as:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ρ
δ¼ (1:4)
πf μr μo
Where, “δ” is skin depth (µm), “ρ” is resistivity (µ Ω-m), “f” is
the operating frequency (GHz), “µ” is magnetic permeability
(Hm−1). At room temperature, skin depth values of graphite,
charcoal, silicon carbide, and activated carbon are high,
whereas for bulk metals, they are significantly low. However,
the magnetic permeability and resistivity are function of tem­
perature (expressed in Eq. (1.5)). It was determined that
increase in temperature increases the skin depth of the bulk
metals.[17] Thus, susceptors like charcoal are generally used to
initially increase the temperature of the bulk metals.
ρt ¼ ρo ½1 þ αðT To Þ� (1:5)
Here, at a temperature T, “ρt” is the material’s resistivity,
whereas at a temperature To, “ρo” is respective resistivity. “α”
is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. With the increasing
temperature, the resistivity of a metallic conductor increases.
Over the years, due to continuous efforts of researchers to
process materials other than absorbers, it has become possible
to process microwave-reflecting materials like metals.[17–20]
Metals are processed under microwave radiation through
a susceptor material by elevating the temperature and forcing
metals to absorb microwave radiations, thus calling the tech­
nique microwave hybrid heating (MHH).[21–24] In addition,
the MHH technique was improvised to selective MHH
(SMHH) to gain various processing advantages.[25–27]
Since microwave heating is a novel and eco-friendly source
of heat, it was also utilized as heat treatment. Microwave heat
treatment of metals has emerged as a promising and innova­
tive approach. This technique complements the microwave
heating ability by achieving efficient and controlled heating
of metal specimens, offering distinct advantages over conven­
tional heat treatment methods. MHH was used as a post-heat
treatment on In 718 to observe its influence on microstructure
and hardness, whereas In 718 was manufactured by laser
powder bed fusion (LPBF). Overall, both conventional and
microwave heat treatments had a similar effect on the hard­
ness; however, the microwave was substantially energy effec­
tive as it consumed 80% less energy.[28]
A novel route of welding SS (stainless steel) plates (grade
316) was proposed having a multimode applicator through
MHH technique.[29] Using EWAC 1002ET powder as an inter­
layer, joints were developed between SS specimens through
MHH. Maximum tensile stress of 323 MPa with elongation of
11% and hardness of 145 HV was reported for the joints.[30]
Dissimilar joints of MS (Mild steel) and SS were also developed
through microwaves, having Ni as filler powder and
a processing time of 600 s.[31] Further, the study was extended
by introducing SS316 as interlayer powder.[32] For SS304-
SS316 joints, processing parameters were optimized to pro­
duce sound joints. The considered processing parameters were
processing time, particle size, microhardness, and tensile
strength.[33] The joining of MS plates having Ni interlayer of
an average thickness of 0.3 mm was achieved through micro­
wave heating. The presence of carbides is attributed to the 420
± 30 HV of increased hardness of the joint interlayer.[34,35]
Further, a study was reported on the influencing parameters
for change in tensile stress of the welded MS 1018 plates.[36]
The interlayer selection has an impactful role in defining the
tensile stress of the joint.[37] Thus, a comparative analysis was
studied between two filler materials for joining SS304 plates
through MHH.[38] In another study the effect of Ni and SS316
interlayer powder on the joint characteristics of SS430 was
studied. The tensile strength of joints produced from SS316
filler was determined to be higher.[39] Further, it was also
observed that the particle size of interlayer is an additional
essential parameter to define the mechanical properties.[40]
The smaller size of the interlayer powder will result in better
properties of the joint.[41] However, it is also possible to join SS
plates without any filler material through MHH.[42]
Using a filler powder for microwave joining could make the
overall process expensive. Thus, a novel joining technique was
proposed for joining metals without using filler powder
through MHH. Some of the similar austenitic SS, duplex SS,
and dissimilar SS joints were reported in the literature without
using filler powder.[43,44] Later, a novel localized and impro­
vised technique was also reported through graphite rods with­
out using charcoal and filler powder. The improved
parameters from the improvised approach were overall expo­
sure time, hardness, tensile strength, and elongation.[45,46]
Joining additive-manufactured metals with conventional
metals presents a range of complexities and challenges caused
by inherent variations in microstructure, composition, and ther­
mal properties. Differences in thermal expansion coefficient and
thermal conductivity between additive manufactured (AM) and
conventional metal can lead to uneven heat distribution during
joining. This can result in thermal stresses, distortions, and
potential cracking at the fusion zone. Distorting and cracking
can be prevented using low heat inputs and avoiding excessive
heating. A novel heat source like microwave heating could solve
this problem; however, this study has never been reported earlier.
In the present study, AM SS316 is joined with conventional SS316
through selective microwave hybrid heating. Later, joints are
characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-
dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), hardness, tensile test, and
fractography.
Materials and methods
The SMHH technique was used for the joining process, which
comprises a susceptor material, alumina cavity, graphite tape,
interlayer of Ni, and adjoining materials. The whole experi­
mental procedure is divided into (a) material selection, (b)

selective microwave hybrid heating setup, (c) microwave expo­
sure, and (d) developed joint, as presented in Figure 1.
SS316 is an austenitic stainless grade having similar
mechanical properties as SS 304; however, it is more resistant
to pitting corrosion. It is widely used for marine, architectural
components, food processing, and hot water systems applica­
tions. The additive-manufactured specimen of SS316 was
manufactured through the powder laser additive manufactur­
ing technique (PLAM). AM SS316 had dimensions of 25 ×
10 × 3 mm, whereas conventional SS316 had dimensions of
35 × 10 × 3 mm (Figure 2). Ni powder of 20 µm particle size
and about 99% pure powder was utilized to form an interlayer
(purchased from Nanoshel, Dera Bassi, Punjab, India).
Alumina (aluminum oxide) and charcoal have relatively high
dielectric constant and loss tangent, making it an efficient
material for absorbing microwave energy; thus, the specimen
is placed inside an alumina cavity, and charcoal is used as
a susceptor. The whole process was executed inside
a domestic microwave oven, operating at 2.45 GHz frequency
and 900 W of power. Table 1 illustrates the chemical composi­
tion of AM SS316 and SS316, which was measured using an
optical emission spectrometer. The AM SS316 was purchased
from Sintrizen technologies PVT. LTD. Gujarat, India.
Through gas-atomized LPBF additive manufacturing, rectan­
gular (100 × 50 × 3 mm) plates of SS316L were fabricated. The
process was carried out through the EOS M290 system (make:
EOS GmbH, Germany), equipped with a 900 W laser spot
diameter of 70 µm. Initially, the steel bed was preheated and
maintained at a temperature of 100°C to control the thermal
gradient and residual stresses in the build direction. A raster
scan strategy was opted with 67° rotation between layers. The
optimized building parameters which were used to develop
different plate layers are mentioned in Table 2.
Figure 1. Experimental procedure.
Figure 2. Dimensions of the adjoining specimen (mm).
Table 1. Elemental content of AM SS316 and conventional SS316.
Grade Cr Ni Mn
SS316 16.98 12.85 0.635
AMSS316 17.72 13.47 0.510
MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 3
For localized heating, the SMHH technique was opted,
which promotes efficient joint formation and minimal
energy wastage. In the SMHH technique, the selected area
is targeted by placing the susceptor in the localized region
through a drill-holed alumina brick. Since, the length of
AM 316 is 25 mm compared to 35 mm of conventional
316, drilled hole cavity was shifted to the AM316 side.
Figure 3 presents the Schematic diagram for the SMHH
technique. During microwave processing, the susceptor
initially absorbs the microwave radiation, which is con­
verted into heat. At a certain exposure time, the tempera­
ture of the specimen rises up to the recrystallization
temperature, and diffusion of interlayer powder begins.
At an exposure time of about 530 s, complete diffusion
of interlayer power occurs with complete bonding of base
metal with interlayer. At this exposure time, the joining of
AM316 with conventional SS316 is achieved. After numer­
ous trials, the required processing time to produce a sound
joint was predicted. A processing time of 530 s is deter­
mined as the adequate processing time for sound joints.
Processing time is a function of the type of alumina bricks,
drill hole cavity, type of susceptor, microwave cavity, and
operating power. Figure 4 presents the burning charcoal
through the drill hole cavity at a processing time of
approx.130 s.
Figure 5 illustrates a joint specimen developed through
SMHH technique. Upon mounting the joint specimens,
a multi-step refinement process was followed, involving suc­
cessive grinding by varying grades of silicon carbide (SiC)
abrasive paper. The metallurgical and fractographic investi­
gations are characterized by employing an SEM (scanning
electron microscopy) and EDS (Energy dispersive spectro­
scopy) (Make: Carl Zeiss AG). The tensile test is performed
C Si S Mo P Fe
0.023 0.784 0.0034 2.86 0.0189 Bal.
0.0377 0.686 0.0055 2.41 0.0146 Bal.
4 R. SAMYAL ET AL.

Table 2. Building parameters opted to develop LPBF SS316L plates. Result and discussions
Building parameters Layers cores
The microscopic analysis of the joint is carried out through SEM
Hatch Distance 0.19 mm
Scan Speed 1300 mm/s micrographs at different magnifications and locations, presented
Power 870 W in Figure 6. A completely diffused interlayer is observed having
metallurgical bonding with AM SS316 and SS316. Due to the
complete diffusion of Ni particles inside the primary austenite
considering the ASTM-E08/09 standard (Make: AIMIL). grains, a fusion boundary with non-epitaxial grain evolution is
Further, Vicker’s hardness test is employed for interlayer, observed (Figure 6(a)). Since, the filler material is different from
fusion boundary, and base metal (Make: OMNITECH). the base metal during the solidification of the fusion zone, two

Figure 3. Schematic diagram for SMHH technique.

Figure 4. During the SMHH process.

Figure 5. Joint specimen through SMHH.


Figure 6. SEM images of joint specimen at (a) interlayer with adjoining metals, (b) interlayer with AMSS316, (c) interlayer with SS316, and (d) magnified interlayer region.
primary phases are expected: the α-ferrite phase and the nickel-
based solid solution phase.[47] The primary α-ferrite phase pro­
vides strength to the fusion zone. In contrast, the nickel-based
solid solution phase provides high-temperature strength and
thermal stability and acts as an austenite stabilizer. Moreover,
a secondary phase of chromium carbide is expected at the bound­
aries of the grains. This carbide phase affects the mechanical and
corrosion properties of the fusion zone. α-Ferrite phase is gen­
erally formed at high-temperature transformation, whereas deple­
tion of chromium carbide occurs at the grain boundaries.[48]
Figure 6(b) illustrates the interlayer region (fusion zone) along
with AM SS316. Coarse grains are observed near the fusion
boundary, formed due to the heat-affected region. At the inter­
layer region, clusters of two phases and porosities are also
observed. At high temperatures, porosity from the AM SS316
tends to move toward the fusion zone due to its affinity for
escaping in the liquid state; thus, the fusion zone carries surface
porosity. However, these surface porosities can also control the
fatigue initiation.[49] Similarly, Figure 6(c) presents interlayer
regions along with conventional SS316. Similar coarse grains are
observed even for SS316. Figure 6(d) presents the magnified
interlayer region with clusters of two phases at different regions
within the interlayer, which was discussed earlier.
The elemental analysis at the interlayer region is studied at
the three different spots which is presented in Figure 7. During
MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 5
the joining of SS with the Ni interlayer, it is expected to form
Ni and Fe-based solid solution as a matrix, whereas the grain
boundaries are mainly covered by Cr, C, and Mo-based ele­
ments. Spot 1 at the interlayer region defines the first primary
phase, with ferrite-rich regions having 52.56% of the contribu­
tion, followed by Ni, Cr, and C having 22.19%, 15.04%, and
10.21%, respectively. This confirms the formation of the α-
ferrite as soft phase with Ni as stabilizer at cluster 1.
Furthermore, it confirms the minimal porosity because of no
oxygen content. Spot 2 on the interlayer region defines
the second primary phase (at cluster 2), which is nickel rich
region, forming a Ni, Fe, Cr, C, Mo, and oxygen alloy. Due to
similar electronic configuration and chemical properties, Ni,
Mo, and O have a strong affinity to form an alloy. Second
primary phase is also expected to form carbides such as chro­
mium carbides (Cr23C6 and Cr7C3) and molybdenum carbides
(Mo2C) which are hard phases. At elevated temperatures (typi­
cally from 500°C to 850°C), Cr reacts with C to form Cr23C6 at
grain boundaries, which refer to sensitization phenomenon.[50]
This can lead to a reduction in the Cr content in the vicinity of
grain boundaries, which also reduces the corrosion resistance
property.[51] Moreover, due to the significant content of oxy­
gen, porosity from the AM SS316 tends to escape.[49] Spot 3 is
at the grain boundary, with the majority of Cr and C content
and traces of Fe, Mo, and O. Further, elemental mapping at the
6 R. SAMYAL ET AL.
Figure 7. Point EDS analysis at interlayer region.
interlayer region is investigated to support the previous EDS
results. Figure 8 provides the maps of the interlayer region for
Fe, Ni, and Cr elements. The clusters observed in SEM images
as two different primary phases are also confirmed from the
mapping. Figure 8(a) shows the area of the elemental mapping.
Figure 8(b–d) defines the color-coded maps for Cr, Fe, and Ni,
respectively. The corresponding Cr and Fe deficient areas are
actually Ni-rich areas.
Hardness is a surface property typically associated with the
resistance to plastic deformation. The hardness is determined
at the fusion zone and moving away from the fusion zone at an
equal distance of 200 µm, which is also presented in Figure 9.
At the fusion zone, the mean hardness of 267 ± 45 HV is
Figure 8. EDS mapping (a) SEM image of the mapping region for (b) Cr, (c) Fe, and (d) Ni.
determined with a minimum of 258 HV and maximum of
282 HV hardness values. As discussed in the earlier sections,
there is the presence of two primary phases: austenite and solid
solution phase of nickel. Both the primary phases have FCC
structure; however, the secondary phases of carbides have
a BCC crystal structure, which is comparatively harder than
FCC. At the interlayer region, hard phases like Cr23C6 are
attributed to the increased hardness. Both metals exhibit dif­
ferent hardness values at 200 µm away from the fusion zone.
For AM SS316, the average hardness value near the fusion
boundary is 177 ± 10 HV, whereas for conventional SS316, it
is 205 ± 10 HV. This decreased hardness is caused due to
coarse grains at the HAZ as discussed earlier (Figure 6).

Figure 9. Hardness profiling of joint specimen.
Moving further away from the fusion zone, base metals SS316
and AM SS316 arise with a hardness value of 195 ± 5 and
143 ± 10 HV, respectively.
Figure 10 presents the stress–strain curve for microwave-
welded tensile specimens. Point “O” to “A” is an elastic defor­
mation region with a proportionality limit. Point “A” to “B” is
defined as a plastic deformation zone. At point “B”, a 378 MPa
of ultimate tensile stress of the joint signifies the exceptional
bonding achieved between Ni and Fe through microwave
welding. This strength surpasses expectations for such
a joint, indicating robust intermolecular interactions at the
interface. The strength of the joint is 80% of the microwave-
Figure 10. Stress vs strain curve.
MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 7
sintered SS316.[52] Furthermore, the specimen exhibited nota­
ble ductility, with 9.5% elongation before fracture. This elon­
gation value suggests a balanced combination of strength and
flexibility, indicative of a well-bonded and structurally sound
welded interface. The presence of ductile phases at the inter­
layer region is responsible for the strength. The successful
performance of the joint specimen showcases the potential of
microwave welding for achieving high-strength joints between
SS316 and AM SS316.
Fractography analysis of fractured surface is conducted
through SEM coupled with EDS, which has generated valuable
insights into the fracture behavior and elemental distribution.
8 R. SAMYAL ET AL.
The joints were fractured from the interlayer region. The SEM
image (Figure 11(a)) revealed distinct fracture areas named
fracture areas 1 and 2. On further magnification, Figure 11(b)
shows that fracture area 1 is comprised of brittle fracture mode,
whereas fracture area 2 has ductile fracture mode. Two primary
phases, confirmed earlier, imply these two-fracture areas.
Fracture area 1 is of Ni-rich phase with brittle fracture having
multiple cracks during solidification presented in Figure 11(c).
Hot cracking (solidification cracking or liquation cracking) in
the fracture area is attributed to the presence of eutectic phases
Figure 11. Fractography analysis. (a) Fracture areas 1 and 2, (b) detailed fracture areas 1 and 2, (c) fracture area 1, and (d) fracture area 2.
Figure 12. EDS analysis of fractured surface.
while solidifying. Figure 11(d) presents the presence of fine
dimples at fracture area 2 and a relatively smooth fracture sur­
face, indicating a ductile fracture mode, suggesting the α-ferrite
phase. Moreover, the sensitization phenomena which was dis­
cussed earlier is also confirmed at the grain boundaries. EDS
analysis provided elemental composition data along the fracture
surface, enabling the identification of any elemental segregation
or diffusion zones that impacted the structural integrity.
A combined SEM and EDS investigation is presented for frac­
ture area 1 (Brittle fracture) in Figure 12. Spots 1 and 2 confirm

that due to the possible presence of the carbides such as chro­
mium carbides (Cr23C6 and Cr7C3) and molybdenum carbides
(Mo2C), hot cracking and brittle fracture occurred, as Cr, C, and
Mo show their dominance at crack regions.
Conclusions
In summary, the key points from the current study are as
follows:
(1) AM SS316 with conventional SS316 joints were success­
fully fabricated through the SMHH technique using
nickel powder as an interlayer.
(2) The SEM images pointed toward non-epitaxial grain
evolution along the fusion zone due to the complete
diffusion of Ni particles inside the primary austenite
grains. Further, SEM images revealed the presence of
two primary phases at the interlayer region, α-ferrite
and Ni-rich phases. In addition, coarse grains were
observed near the fusion boundary, which was
formed due to the heat-affected region. At high tem­
peratures, porosity from the AM SS316 tends to move
toward the fusion zone due to its affinity for escaping
in the liquid state; thus, the fusion zone carries sur­
face porosities.
(3) EDS analysis exposed the intermixing of Fe from base
metal to interlayer and Ni from interlayer to base
metal. The interlayer region defines the first primary
phase with ferrite-rich content and the second pri­
mary phase with nickel-rich content. Further, EDS
also refers to the possibility of sensitization. At ele­
vated temperatures (typically from 500°C to 850°C),
Cr reacts with C to form Cr23C6 at grain boundaries,
which refer to sensitization phenomenon. This leads
to a deficient Cr content in the vicinity of grain
boundaries, which also downgrades the corrosion
resistance property.
(4) At the fusion zone, mean hardness of 267 ± 45 HV is
determined with a minimum of 258 HV and maximum
of 282 HV hardness values. Hard carbide phases are
attributed to increased hardness of the interlayer
region. For AM SS316, the average hardness value
near the fusion boundary was 177 ± 10 HV, whereas
for conventional SS316, it was 205 ± 10 HV. This
decreased hardness value was caused due to coarse
grains at the heat-affected zone.
(5) The ultimate tensile stress of 378 MPa of joint claimed
the exceptional bonding achieved through microwave
welding. This strength surpasses expectations for such
a joint, indicating robust intermolecular interactions at
the interface. The specimen exhibited notable ductility
due to the presence of α-ferrite phase, with 9.5% elon­
gation before fracture. This elongation value suggests
a balanced combination of strength and flexibility, indi­
cative of a well-bonded and structurally sound welded
interface.
(6) A fractography study revealed ductile and brittle frac­
tures. The presence of sensitization at grain boundaries
was also confirmed. Hot cracking in the fracture area
MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 9
was observed due to chromium carbides (Cr23C6)
forming a secondary phase at grain boundaries.
Further, fine dimples at fracture area 2 were observed,
suggesting that the joint maintained considerable
strength and elongation.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
ORCID
Rahul Samyal http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1035-6855
Ashok Kumar http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1455-9115
Raman Bedi http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2061-9129
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