ADIGRAT UNIVERSITY

COLLAGE OF AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIROMENTAL SCINCE

DEPARTIMENT ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

SENIOR RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
FOR PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR BSc DEGREE IN
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE.

RESEARCH PAPER ON:IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND ADAPTATION

PRACTICE IN ADWA WEREDA IN CASE OF ENDABAGERIMA KEBELLE

Submitted to: Department of Environmental Science

PREPARED BY: ID NO

1. MESELU MELESE...............................................03794/09

2. TEKLAY WELU...................................................03860/09

3. BEYENESH TESHAGER......................................03595/09

4 .MULU WELEGEBRAIL …...................................05088/08

5. ABRAHAM MEKONEN......................................04781/08

6 .REDAE TENSAY.................................................03831/09
Advisor Dr. Shivraj Sahai

Adigrat Tigray Ethiopia

June, 2019

ii | P a g e
Acknowledgment
First and for most great thanks are given to almighty God. He has helped us in every aspect of
our life. Next we will highly appreciative to our respective advisor Dr. SHIVRAJ SEHAI Who
tirelessly checked, commented and directed our Paper work and made it fruits.

i|Page
Abstract
Farmer’s Climate Change Adaptation Practices (CCAP) is regulated by the world policy in
terms of considering the natural environment. And climate change is the major impacts now in
Ethiopia, especially in the area of expanding around urbanization and also in Tigray; the
climate change is generated by the industrialization. Then we were conducting our study
regarding Adwa. Climate change is a global phenomenon. Its impact on agricultural activities in
developing countries has increased dramatically. Understanding how farmers perceive climate
change and how they adapt to it is very important to the implementation of adequate policies for
agricultural and food security. This paper aims to contribute to an understanding of farmers’
adaptation choices, Determinants of the adaptation choices and the long-term implications of
the adaptation choices. Data was collected from the respondents in the Adwa used to analyze the
factors that influencing household decisions to adapt to climate change. As a result of farmers
having in adequate knowledge and adaptation practices with regard to climate change in crop
production that result in environmental effects. This study recommend that agricultural
stakeholders such as the ministry of agriculture to carry out sensitization campaigns to educate
farmers on proper use of climate change adaptation practices to improve productivity as well as
prevent environmental effects.

KEY WORDS: CLIMATE CHANGE, CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

ii | P a g e
iii | P a g e
Table of Contents
Acknowledgment..........................................................................................................................................i
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................................ii
1.1. Background......................................................................................................................................1
1.2. Statement of the problem..................................................................................................................3
1.3. Objective..........................................................................................................................................3
1.3.1. General objective.......................................................................................................................3
1.3.2. Specific objectives.....................................................................................................................3
1.4 Significance of the study...................................................................................................................3
1.5 Scope of the study............................................................................................................................4
1.6 Limitation of the study.....................................................................................................................4
2. Literature Review....................................................................................................................................5
2.1. Climate Change.................................................................................................................................5
2.2. Elements of Climate Changes...........................................................................................................5
2.3. Climate Change Adaptation..............................................................................................................5
2.3.1 Rainfall Globally........................................................................................................................6
2.3.2 Rainfall in Africa and Ethiopia...................................................................................................6
2.3.3 Temperature Globally.................................................................................................................8
2.3.4 Temperature in Africa and Ethiopia............................................................................................9
2.3.5 Instability Globally...................................................................................................................10
2.3.6 Instability in Africa and Ethiopia..............................................................................................10
2.4. Approaches to climate change adaptation.....................................................................................10
2.5. Environmental assessment and climate change adaptation...........................................................11
2.6 .Climate change adaptation strategies for agriculture.....................................................................11
2.6.1. At Farmers level......................................................................................................................12
3. Methodology.........................................................................................................................................15
3.1 Description of the study area..........................................................................................................15
3.2. Population......................................................................................................................................15
3.3. Sampling Techniques......................................................................................................................15
3.4. Sample size.....................................................................................................................................15
3.5 data source and data collection.....................................................................................................16
3.6 Data analysis and Data presentation...............................................................................................16

i|Page
4. Result and discussion............................................................................................................................17
4.1 Characteristics of the Respondents......................................................................................................17
4.1.1 sex composition............................................................................................................................17
4.1.2 Age composition...........................................................................................................................17
4.1.3 Educational level..........................................................................................................................18
4.1.4 Religion of respondents................................................................................................................19
4.1.5 Family size...................................................................................................................................19
4.1.6 The marital status..........................................................................................................................20
4.1.7 Occupational status.......................................................................................................................21
4.2 causes and impacts of climate change and its adaptation Practices......................................................21
4.2.1 Causes of climate change..............................................................................................................21
4.2.2 Human causes of climate change..................................................................................................22
4.2.2.1 How deforestation causes climate change....................................................................23
4.2.2.2 How expansion of agriculture causes climate change...................................................23
4.2.3 Impacts of climate change............................................................................................................23
4.2.4 Practices to climate change adaptation.........................................................................................24
5. Conclusion and recommendation...................................................................................................25
5.1 Conclusions.................................................................................................................................25
5.2 Recommendation.......................................................................................................................25

ii | P a g e
List of table
Table 4.1 sex composition proportion of respondents
Table 4.2 age composition proportion of respondents
Table 4.3 the educational level of respondents
Table 4.4 the religion proportion of respondents
Table 4.5 the family proportion of respondents
Table 4.6 the respondent of marital status
Table 4.7 occupation of the respondents
Table 4.8 cause of climate change
Table 4.9 human causes of climate change
TABLE 4.10 Impacts of climate change
TABLE 4.11 Practices to climate change adaptation

List of figures
List of acronyms

iii | P a g e
iv | P a g e
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background
The effects of climate change are tangible and demand actions. These actions can be mitigation,
to prevent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions or reduce their atmospheric concentration, or
adaptation, to adjust to actual or expected climate and its effects (Field et al., 2014). Mitigation
and adaptation have been seen as ‘mirror images’ (Yohe, 2001) or substitutable (Buob and
Stephan, 2011). This led to climate policies focus on mitigation (Biesbroek et al., 2010), because
adaptation was seen as a substitute (Adger et al., 2005; Klein, 2011; Hallegatte et al., 2011) with
local and tangible benefits, in contrast to the global benefits of mitigation .Currently, both
mitigation and adaptation are widely accepted as interrelated actions in addressing climate
change (Klein et al., 2005; Warren et al., 2012).

However, any adaptation measure may have unintended environmental impacts (Adger et al.,
2005), which could question its suitability for achieving the desired objectives. Adaptation to
climate change is at the intersection of science, communities and decision-making, with different
spatial and temporal scales (Scarlett, 2011), and is influenced by social issues, financial
resources, political context, public awareness, politicization of climate change or scientific
uncertainty (Carlson and McCormick, 2015).

Consequently, different approaches have influence in decision-making, but with a risk of

monopolizing the debate, biasing the choice of adaptation. Adaptation is not exclusively linked
to climate change, but the effects of ‘climate change’, due to human influence, or of ‘changing
climate’, due to natural irregularity, are quite similar (Kiem and Austin, 2013). In fact, many
climate change adaptations build on traditional measures adjusted to deal with new or increased
impacts. Novel vulnerabilities and impacts may need alternative and innovative measures.
Climate and its effects, and may be done through a wide range of actions, structural, institutional,
or social (Agard et al., 2014).

The environmental protection authority and ministry of environment and forest were key
stepping institutions for the establishment of the ministry of environment, forest and climate
change. Environmental protection authority was established as autonomous government agency,
the environmental protection council was also established to oversee the tasks and activities of

1|Page
environmental protection authority. Following the need for better representing of environmental
matters in the council of ministers, environmental protection authority upgraded to the ministry
of environment and forest. The ministry of environment and forest was established by the
amended proclamation 803/2013. In 2015, the ministry of environment and forest renamed and
restructured to the ministry of environment, forest and climate change by promotion no
916/2015.

Ethiopia is one of the most vulnerable country to the adverse effects of climate change due to its
geographical location, topography and heavily dependent on rain-fed agriculture, under-
development of water resources, high population growth rate, low economic development level,
inadequate road infrastructure in drought prone areas, weak institutions in combination with low
adaptive capacity(NAPA, 2007). Climate change is, unquestionably inducing changes to natural
and social systems. The effects of these changes are already grave, and are growing further
currently. The ongoing changes highly threaten human development for the world of poor and
spreading to the entire world becoming long term dangers for all human beings.Climate change
influences the growth and development of Ethiopia through changes in agricultural productivity,
water availability, road infrastructure maintenance and extreme events. To the amount that
climate change reduces agricultural or hydropower output in a given year, it also reduces income
and hence savings (EDRI, 2013). Climate change causes an enormous challenge to Ethiopia’s
government and people. It has faced with increasingly erratic rains, and sometimes the complete
failure of seasonal rains – problems linked to climate change. Consequently, millions of
Ethiopians often face severe food scarcity.

Due to the different water harvesting structures, increased water availability and its proper
utilization and other improved climate change practices during adoption have increased growth
rate of productivity resulting similar increase in area and production of important crops. The
cropped area, productivity and production of important crops during the period of watershed
development programs (1997 to 2006) in the village were increased. To examine the relevance of
growth rate of variables the exponential trend, which is approximately best uniform rate of
growth is used.

2|Page
However, there is no significant study on the climate change impact on farming and CCAP
adopted by farmers in Adwa region, the present work proposes to carry out research on the
climate change impact in Adwa and assess the CCAP of the farmers in Adwa, Tigray, Ethiopia.

1.2. Statement of the problem

The farmer CCA Practices are the most modern and recently developed method of land
rehabilitation and climate change adaptation (Darghouth and others 2008). Few complete studies
however, examined the extent to which farmer Climate change adaptations strtegy’s have
resulted in the desired effects (e.g.PPathak and others, 2007, Assefa, 2011). In Tigray regional
state the impact of climate change has been grown from time to time on the agriculture and
livelihood of the community. The impact studies conducted so far were not include the detail
socio-economic components being severely affected. Similarly, climate change in central zone
of Tigray, specifically in the study area Endabagerima kebelle has grown in recent years from
more technical interventions to restore degraded lands as a means of adaptation and mitigation
strategies.

1.3. Objective

1.3.1. General objective

The General objective is to study the Climate Change Adaptation Practices (CCAP) of farmers in
Adwa, Tigray, Ethiopia.

1.3.2. Specific objectives

 To identify the impacts of climate change on farmers in the study area.
 To identify the major farmers CCAP the study area

1.4 Significance of the study

This was help for those who are interested to raise such as a direction indicator. The result of the
study expected to give some clue to those who need to deal with problem of climate change on
farmers and its adjacent solution and to those who would conducted further and detail research
on this problem or for direct intervention on this problem more over it was also use full to
recommend possible solution for the governmental and non-governmental organization to reduce
impact of climate change in Adwa wereda in case of endabagerima kebelle.

3|Page
1.5 Scope of the study
There are about 18 kebeles in Adwa wereda. Since the researcher believes that result of this
research can be more reliable if it has the whole kebele had been included/ However due to some
practical problem like time and financial constraints, the study was conducted only in one kebele
which is endabagerima.

1.6 Limitation of the study

The researchers confronted with the number of problem throughout the investigation under taken
the following can be taken as prominent problem and have their own impact on the sample since
of the study. There are time constraints and financial constraint.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Climate Change

Climate variability refers to variations in the prevailing state of the climate on all temporal and
spatial scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may be due to natural internal
processes within the climate system, or to variations in natural or anthropogenic (human-driven)
external forcing. Global climate change indicates a change in either the mean state of the climate
or in its variability, persisting for several decades or longer. This includes changes in average
weather conditions on Earth, such as a change in average global temperature, as well as changes
in how frequently regions experience heat waves, droughts, floods, storms, and other extreme
weather. It is important to note that changes in individual weather events will potentially
contribute substantially to changes in climate variability. Climate change could occur naturally
as a result of a change in the sun’s energy or Earth’s orbital cycle (natural climate forcing), or it
could occur as a result of persistent anthropogenic forcing, such as the addition of greenhouse
gases, sulfate aerosols, or black carbon to the atmosphere, or through land-use change.

2.2. Elements of Climate Changes

The most important elements of climate changes are rainfall and temperature. Instability will also
be included in this thesis because it might contribute to explain much of the negative impacts of
climate changes farmers in Ethiopia are facing. In the following we will present how these
elements have changed globally and in Africa and Ethiopia.

4|Page
2.3. Climate Change Adaptation
Adaptation means anticipating the adverse effects of climate change and taking appropriate
action to prevent or minimize the damage they can cause, or taking advantage pf opportunities
that may arise. Examples of adaptation measures include- using scarce water resources more
efficiently, adapting building codes to future climate conditions and extreme weather events,
building flood defenses and raising the levels of dykes, developing drought resistance crops,
choosing tree species and forestry practices less vulnerable to storms and fires, and setting aside
land corridors to help species migrate. Climate change is a problem which is set to continue
growing with time. Therefore, the formulation and implementation of a program of adaptation to
climate change is a dictate of survival for Ethiopia. Climate change will affect the whole country
and the solution to its impacts must also seek throughout the whole country. Climate change will
affect the whole area of the country. Consequently, its solutions also must cover the whole
country. With the participation of the whole population, Ethiopia’s aim of becoming carbon
neutral by 2025 will be achieved

2.3.1 Rainfall Globally

The trend in rainfall globally is that it is increased variance (UNEP 2007). Wet areas are
becoming wetter, and dry and arid areas are becoming drier (UNEP 2007). Recent reviews have
considered an impending global water crisis in the context of continued population growth and
predicted climate changes (Cosgrove and Rijsberman 2000). Cosgrove and Rijsberman (2000)
suggest that the projected trends in world population growth and dynamics will place
substantially greater multi-sectoral demands on water, leading to greater competition between
sectors for an increasingly limited supply of abstracted water. The climate changes do also
increasingly lead to climate-related disasters such as flood and drought (Pettengell 2010).

2.3.2 Rainfall in Africa and Ethiopia

Most climate models predict that the Sahel region will be drier in the 21st century than it has
been earlier (UNEP 2006). Even slight increases in rainfall are unlikely to reverse the situation
since a warmer climate means that evapo-transpiration will be more intense, and worsening the
already arid conditions (UNEP 2006). Moreover, the synoptic view of freshwater availability
indicates that the Horn of Africa is amongst the regions of the world that will experience severe
water scarcity (Magadza 2003). UNEP (2007) state that “there is increasing concern about the

5|Page
likelihood of changes in rainfall patterns and water availability, thereby affecting food security”.
In addition, water availability in some regions might be more critical in the future, due to
decreases in rainfall in the sub-tropics (Pettengell 2010). In Africa, the impacts of climate
changes, amongst other factors, suggest an alarming increase in water scarcity for many
countries, likely to face water scarcity or water stress by year 2025 (UNECA 1999, UNEP 2007).
Water scarcity will curtail the ability of irrigated agriculture to respond to the expanding food
requirements of tomorrow‟s Africa (Rosegrant et al. 2002).

In addition to water scarcity, drought is amongst the challenges for the people at the Horn of
Africa (Senbeta 2009). Vulnerable communities in Africa suffer from climate variability, for
example due to increasing frequency of droughts (AMCEN and UNEP 2002). According to
Grid-UNEP, (2011) drought can be defined as a “phenomenon that exists when rainfall has been
significantly below normal recorded levels, causing serious hydrological imbalances that
adversely affect land resource production systems”. REST, (1995) on their hand, is defining
drought as “a period of two years or more with rainfall well below average”. In this thesis it will
be argued that shorter time periods than two years, with drastic reduction of rainfall, also can be
defined as drought. An example is in Oromia, where they had a drought in 2008, lasting for
approximately nine months (United Nations 2008). These types of events will also be included as
droughts in this study. This can be supported by Araya and Stroosnijder (2010), who states that;
“from the viewpoint of Ethiopians, drought is any season with low rainfall in relation to crop
water demand that results in poor crop harvest or total crop failure and/or livestock suffering or
dying because of feed shortages as a consequence of poor rainfall distribution/amount”.What is
defined as a drought is also dependent upon which area is discussed (GCDAMP 2009). A week
without rain can be defined as a drought in some areas, while in drier areas months have to go
before people consider it to be a drought (GCDAMP 2009). For example in Oromia Region, as
mentioned above, they experienced a drought in 2008 and it did not rain in nine months (United
Nations 2008). Due to this lack of rainfall, crop production in Oromia failed, and this leads to
expectations of extended food shortages until the next harvest (United Nations 2008).
Armyworm and locust infestation further depleted the limited available resources including farm
lands and pasture in Oromia in 2008 (United Nations 2008).

6|Page
In other areas of the country, for instance in Tigray, nine months without rainfall, from
September to next June, is the normal situation. Between 1950 and 1990 there was lower rainfall,
the total mean rainfall over Ethiopia was between 0 % and 20 % lower (Hulme et al. 2001).
Rainfall in the 1950‟s was above average in Ethiopia, while in the 1960‟s it was below average
(Nicholson 2001). During the 1970‟s, there were variations in rainfall within the country, but
during the 1980‟s it was drier than average (Rosell 2010). The 1970‟s and 1980‟s stand out as
dry decades whereas the 1990‟s return to wetter conditions (Conway 2000). Spatial disparity and
time period differences between different researches makes it difficult to draw conclusions that
are easily compared (Rosell 2010). Moreover, rainfall correlates with altitude. Altitudes above
1500 meters receive in average 900 millimeters rainfall annually, while areas of Ethiopia on
altitudes below 1500 meters gets in average 600 millimeters (Dinar et al. 2009).

Furthermore, 53 % of the Ethiopian farmers in a study made by Deressa et al. (2009) have
observed decreasing rainfall over the past 20 years. Drought continues to be a major challenge
for the Ethiopian community (United Nations 2008), and in the twenty-first century there has
been a rising frequency of extreme droughts due to global warming in Ethiopia (Institute of
Development Studies 2008).

Agricultural drought is, to a significant extent, responsible for shortfalls in food production in
semi-arid areas (UNEP 2006). Yet, agricultural drought cannot always be linked to low rainfall.
In the Sahel, the loss of rain water through runoff, soil evaporation, and drainage below the
rooting zone is often considered as the major cause of moisture stress (UNEP 2006). The next
two paragraphs will consider the two rainy seasons they have in Ethiopia. All parts of the
country have the kiremti rainy season and some parts have also a belg rainy season. The belg
season shows also an increase in temperature and potential evaporation.The longer rainy season,
kiremti, during the summer months from June to September is also changing. However, there is
research saying that rainfall during these months is actually increasing. Rosell (2010), states that
there is an increase in the annual rainfall and also in the kiremti rainy season in Ethiopia. High
rainfall variability, more extreme rainfall during the start of the kiremti season and more rainy
days during the kiremti season were found. The possibility to grow cereal during this season is
considered to be more or less the same during the past 30 years (Rosell 2010). If this is correct, it
is positive development for Ethiopia and Ethiopian farmers.Hailstorm is another phenomenon

7|Page
that sometimes occurs in Ethiopia, especially in the highlands (Nater 2010). Furthermore, flood
is also a climate related disaster that occurs in Ethiopia from time to time. Flood can be defined
as “the rising of a body of water and it’s overflowing onto normally dry land” (WordNet 2011).
In 2006, flood caused significant human life and property loss in many regions in Ethiopia
(Tadege 2007). Moreover, regional projections of climate models do predict a rising frequency
of extreme flooding due to global warming in Ethiopia (Institute of Development Studies 2008).

2.3.3 Temperature Globally

One way climate changes take form is through warmer weather conditions. EPA (2010) states
the average surface temperature has, since the mid-1970‟s increased by about 1°F or 0.5°C.
IPCC (2007), states that the Earth’s temperature has increased by approximately 0.74°C since
1906. The increase in greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere has led many scientists to
conclude that the Earth’s temperature will increase by several degrees over the next century
(Houghton et al. 1992). UNEP (2007) writes that the Earth’s average temperature has increased
by approximately 0.74°C over the past century. EPA (2010) on the other hand, state that the
Earth’s surface is currently warming at a rate of about 0.29ºF/0.16°C per decade or 2.9°F/1.61°C
per century. NOAA, (2010) on their side, states that the eight warmest years on record since
1880 have all occurred after 2001. In the period from 1900 to 2002, the surface temperatures
globally rose linearly by 0.069°C per decade; warming spurts occurred from the late 1910‟s to
1945 and from 1970 to the present. Moreover, the warming rate of the Earth has, since 1970,
accelerated to 0.17°C per decade, about three times as fast as the average rate for the last century.
However, this comparison is somewhat misleading because the actual rate of warming in 1915-
1945 was 0.16ºC per decade, essentially the same as for 1970 to the present (Balling 2003).
Regional projections of climate models predict a substantial rise in mean temperatures during the
twenty-first century (Institute of Development Studies 2008).

IPCC have estimated that Earth’s temperature will increase with further 1.8°C to 4°C over the
21st century (UNEP 2007: 40). Even with a slight warming, an increased number of extreme
weather events are likely to have greater negative impact than increased average temperatures in
itself (Pettengell 2010: 28). It is a trend with a dramatic and continuing rise in the number of
small- and medium-scale climate-related disasters globally; since the 1980‟s, the average
number of people reported as affected by climate-related disasters has doubled from 121 to 243

8|Page
million a year (Pettengell 2010: 32). By 2015, Oxfam‟s projections suggest that this number will
probably grow by more than 50 % to an average of over 375 million people annually (Oxfam
2010).

2.3.4 Temperature in Africa and Ethiopia

In Africa, temperatures have increased in the same way as in the rest of the world the last 100
years (EPA). Analysis for the time period 1901-1995 indicates that the African continent is now
warmer than it was 100 years ago (Rosell 2010). Over the past 55 years there has been a
warming trend also in Ethiopia. The temperature has been increasing by about 0.37°C every ten
years (Tadege 2007). Maximum temperature has not increased very much, but there have been
fewer cold days (NMA 2011). Findings from a study made by Deressa et al,. (2009) indicate that
50.6 % of the surveyed farmers in Ethiopia have observed increasing temperatures over the past
20 years. This increase in temperature consequently gives several impacts and effects.

2.3.5 Instability Globally

In addition to changes in rainfall and temperature, there are tendencies also to increased weather
instability globally. Climatic instability or variety is often associated with amongst others
hurricanes, typhoons, droughts, floods, and frost in tropical areas (UNEP 2003). It has for
instance been an increase in the frequency of hurricanes in the North Atlantic since 1995
(Webster et al. 2005). In addition, droughts in East Africa, hurricanes in the Carrribean, and
flood in Bangladesh are other examples of climate instability (UNEP 2003).

2.3.6 Instability in Africa and Ethiopia

Rain delay, unreliable waterfall, and heavy and unseasonal rain are challenges for the people at
the Horn of Africa (Senbeta 2009). Also in Ethiopia, seasonal rainfall is unstable and
unpredictable (Nater 2010). Moreover, regional projections of climate models predict an increase
in rainfall variability (Institute of Development Studies 2008). Climate changes are likely to
make matters worse because of the increases in rainfall variability that has been predicted
(Cooper et al. 2008). In western Ethiopia, the seasonal kiremti rainfall has become irregular and
unpredictable, with heavy flooding, an alarming increase in hail storms and unusual hot winds.
Moreover, Dinar et al. (2008) report that there is strong variability of rainfall all over Ethiopia.
Despite variable rainfall, which makes agricultural planning difficult, a substantial proportion of
the country still gets enough rain for rain-fed crop production (Dinar et al. 2008). The increased

9|Page
variability of rainfall puts farmers in a delicate situation, with higher demand for flexibility in
their farming strategies (Rosell 2010). A dry spell at the start, mid, or late in the growing season
for the crop can be very critical for the farmers. Furthermore, a dry spell in the end of the season
results in a shortened growing season and has been reported to reduce yields significantly for
example in Mekele in northern Ethiopia (Araya and Stroosnijder 2010). Higher temperatures,
decreased and more irregular rainfall and more unstable weather might result in various impacts
for the farmer population in Ethiopia. Some of these will be discussed below.

2.4. Approaches to climate change adaptation

Adaptation is an ambiguous concept that allows for different disciplinary approaches, responds
to different stakeholder's interests (Sovacool, 2011) and is open to manipulation, for example to
maintain the status quo in development (Ireland, 2012). In the sample, it found a dominance of
the technical approach with a majority of documents that first analyse the impacts of climate
change and then propose adaptation measures. Documents with a social approach were the
second largest group, most of them focused on developing countries. We found an economic
approach in about a quarter of the documents, a proportion that may be underestimated because
papers with economic focus but without specific measures (e.g. Schweikert et al., 2014, 2014;
Chinowsky et al., 2015; Twerefou et al., 2015) were not included in our review. A minority of
the documents had an environmental approach, usually combined with other perspectives.

2.5. Environmental assessment and climate change adaptation

We have detected a general lack of attention to EA in the context of climate change adaptation.
The 5th IPCC report, devoted to impacts, adaptation and vulnerability, does not take into account
the role of EA; asstriking examples, it is neither included in the decision making chapter(Jones et
al., 2014) nor cited among the tools used for adaptation planning in Africa (Niang et al., 2014).
In the UK, RAE (2011) considers the constraints set by the environmental agencies as legal,
administrative and institutional barriers to adaptation, instead of an inherent part of the
adaptation design process. Although we did not register whether those specific actions should be
subjected to EA processes according to national regulations, we found that in a global context
EA is not a process- integrated tool for decision-making on climate change adaptation or, at
least, for strategic decisions, which are essential in this area. EA is highly variable across scales.
The scope of a project and whether it is subject to EA is determined by governments, and nations

10 | P a g e
define thresholds, screening processes, or both of them. However, what is often lacking is the
assessment of cumulative impacts of individual projects promoted by governments, NGOs,
donors, etc., to reduce vulnerability from various perspectives.

2.6 .Climate change adaptation strategies for agriculture

There are different actions to be done to avoid the effects of climate change. The first thing that
have to be done is implementing mitigation actions to the environment the requirement for
adaptation to climate change also be decreased like stop burning wood, dried dung and kerosene
and use renewable energy. Actions to help implement Ethiopia’s program to adaptation to
climate change are listed below

 Strengthening information generation and dissemination

 Strengthening disaster early warning general
 Institutional capacity building for integrating adaptation to climate change into all
development and administration activities
 Incorporate adaptation to climate change into educational curricula
 Developing research capacity on adaptation to climate change
 Strengthening finance and technology which fund the adaptation programs
 Regular updating of the programs of adaptation to climate change
 Ensuring gender equality and child care
 Ensuring care for people with disabilities and for the elderly

2.6.1. At Farmers level

Growth in agriculture might also increase farmer’s productivity and income (OECD 2006).
Moreover, enhancing growth in the agricultural sector in developing countries will be critical in
achieving a sustainable path out of poverty and meeting the target of halving the proportion of
people living on less than one dollar a day (OECD 2006). Development and innovation in
agriculture has been recognized to be important for poverty reduction (Eldis 2010). The
importance of agriculture for poverty reduction, however, goes well beyond its direct impact on
rural incomes. Agricultural growth, particularly through increased agricultural sector
productivity, also reduces poverty by lowering and stabilizing food prices, improving
employment for poor rural people, increasing demand for consumer goods and services, and
stimulating growth in the nonfarm economy. A positive process of economic transformation and

11 | P a g e
diversification of both livelihoods and national economies is the key to sustained poverty
reduction. It is agricultural growth that enables poor countries, poor regions, and ultimately poor
households to take the first steps in this process (OECD 2006). Naerstad (2007) states that “a
productivity increase in the agricultural sector will most probably result in increased food
security”. Greatly enhanced investment in agriculture by a broad range of stakeholders will be
required if the agricultural sector is to meet the food security requirements of tomorrow‟s Africa
(Cooper et al. 2008).

In many situations, production and the quality of the natural resource base upon which
communities depend are declining in sub-Saharan Africa (Rosegrant et al. 2002). As a result,
cereal deficits in this region, currently standing at around 9 million tons annually, are projected
to more than triple to 35 million tons by 2025 leading to sub-Saharan Africa being identified as a
“food trade hotspot” (Rosegrant et al. 2002).

Agriculture is one of the sectors most vulnerable to climate change impacts. The impacts are
often strongest in Africa, because agriculture here is important for the daily subsistence, and
adaptive capacity is often low (Senbeta 2009, Smith et al. 2003). Countries with limited
economic resources, low levels of technology, poor information and skills, poor infrastructure,
unstable or weak institutions, and inequitable empowerment and access to resources have little
capacity to adapt and are highly vulnerable to climate changes (Smit and Pilisofovan).
Populations dependent on agriculture are particularly vulnerable to climate changes through the
climate-sensitive nature of their activities and because agricultural workers and smallholder
farmers in developing countries tend to be among the most disadvantaged and marginalized
(Pettengell 2010). Rain-fed agriculture will remain the dominant source of staple food
production and the livelihood foundation of the majority of the rural poor in sub-Saharan Africa
(Cooper et al. 2008). Low level of socio-economic development, inadequate infrastructure and
lack of institutional capacity is often making subsistence farmers more vulnerable to climatic
changes. These facts make Ethiopia more vulnerable to climatic factors including climate
variability and extreme climatic events (Tadege 2007).

According to McCarthy et al., (2001) vulnerability is a function of three main factors:

12 | P a g e
- Exposure: Exposure is the change in climate and what is affected, for example how many
people are living in an area that could be affected by drought or flood.

- Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the direct effect of climate changes on systems, for example changes
in crop yields.

- Adaptive capacity: Adaptive capacity is the ability of a system to adapt to climate changes,
reduce adverse effects or take advantage of beneficial effects.

In Ethiopia exposure is high because great parts of the population are living in densely populated
areas affected by amongst others reduced rainfall, increased temperatures, recurring drought, or
flood. In addition, sensitivity is high in most parts of Ethiopia because large parts of the
population experience impacts of climate changes amongst others because they depend on rain-
fed agriculture. Adaptive capacity amongst these small scale farmers are varying and because of
these three factors, vulnerability of climate changes in Ethiopia is therefore high. Ethiopia’s
geographical location and topography in combination with low adaptive capacity entail a high
vulnerability to adverse impacts of climate changes (Institute of Development Studies 2008).
Causes for vulnerability of Ethiopia to climate variability and change include very high
dependence on rain-fed agriculture which is very sensitive to climate variability and change,
under-development of water resources, low health service coverage, high population growth rate,
low economic development level, low adaptive capacity, in adequate road infrastructure in
drought prone areas, weak institutions, and lack of awareness (Tadege, 2007).

13 | P a g e
 3. Methodology

3.1 Description of the study area

Adwa is located in the central part of Tigray region of Ethiopia, and it is bounded by different
mountains as an eye opened plant that stimulates the town to be attractive. These are the
Weyinadega, and “dega” the total area of the district falls under weyinadega. Climate condition
of the area is dega and Woina Dega and it has a rainy system. The annual rainfall received with
in the area ranges from 400-1200mm and a mean annual temperature ranges between 20-
21°c.The rainy season is from June to September.

3.2. Population
Adwa has total population of 40,500 of whom 18,307 are men and 22,193 women. The total
number of Households of the study area is 2000.From this sample size was determined. So the
researcher was gone to take 95 the individual household heads in the study area through the
instruments of data collection

3.3. Sampling Techniques

In Adwa there are 18 kebeles from those the samples was collected from one of the
representative kebeles which is Endabagerima. (Based on its degradation status and adaptation
strategies being carried out) of Adwa Woreda. From the selected kebele, some household was
selected randomly for final data collection.

3.4. Sample size

The total number of Households of the study area is 2000 from those 1200 males and 800
females .From this sample size was determined. So the researcher was gone to take 95 the
individual household heads in the study area through the instruments of data collection by using
the formula developed by Yemane taro (1967)
N=2000/1+2000(0.1)2 = 95.23

90% confidence level 10% error

Where: N= total population

14 | P a g e
 n= no of observation

e= error (e=0.1)

3.5 data source and data collection

The data was collected from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data was collected
through interview, questionnaire and observations. The secondary data was also obtained from
various published and unpublished material.

3.6 Data analysis and Data presentation

The data was conducted by using both quantitative and qualitative descriptive statistics. The
quantitative data was presented in the form of tables and percentages and qualitative data was
presented in the form of explanation and narration.

15 | P a g e
 4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
This chapter deals with data analysis and data interpretation of the study area. Interpretation of
the study area based on information gathered through questionnaire and interview.

4.1 Characteristics of the Respondents

4.1.1 Sex composition

Sex is an important demographic variable and is a primary basis of demographic classification in
vital statistics and surveys.

Table 4.1 sex composition proportion of respondents

Sex Number of respondents Percentage
Male 50 52.6%
Female 45 47.4%
Total 95 100%
Source own survey, 2019
From the above table the highest respondents are male which accounts 52.6% and the remain
respondents are female.

4.1.2 Age composition

Table 4.2 age composition proportion of respondents

Age Number of respondents Percentage

15-30 35 36.8%
31|-50 40 42.1%
Above 50 20 21.1%
Total 95 100%
Source own survey, 2019
From the above table the highest respondents are found the age between 31_50 which accounts
42.1%.This means our question focuses on found under the age between 31_50.Because they
have good understanding about the variability of the climate in the past in the study area.

16 | P a g e
 Object 1

4.1.3 Educational level

Education is always valued as a means of deliverance from ignorance and enables one to
perform effectively to any given task within a specified period. respondents were asked to
state their level of education.
Table 4.3 the educational level of respondents
Educational level Number of respondents Percentage

Un able to read and write 15 15.79%

Primary(1_8) 22 23.16%

Secondary(9_12) 25 26.31%

Diploma and above 33 34.74%

Total 95 100%

Source: own survey 2019

As shown that in the above table 4.3 respondent cannot read and write are 15.79% and 1-8 is
23.16% of respondent attended schooling and also 9-12 is 26.31% of respondent are attended
schooling and 34.74% of respondents are diploma and above. The table tells us that the
percentage of diploma and above are very high.

17 | P a g e
4.1.4 Religion of respondents
Table 4.4 the religion proportion of respondents
religion Number of respondents Percentage

Orthodox 90 94.7%

Muslim 5 5.3%

Catholic 0 0%

Protestant 0 0%

Total 95 100%

Source: own survey 2019.

As shown in the above table 94.7% orthodox, 0% Protestants, 0% catholic and 5.3% are Muslim
follower in the study area.

4.1.5 Family size

Table 4.5 the family proportion of respondents
Family size Number of respondents Percentage

1-2 15 15.8%

3-4 32 33.7%

5-6 28 29.5%

Above 6 20 21%

Total 95 100%

18 | P a g e
Source: own survey 2019.

From table 4.5 as we can show that, 15.8% of the respondent respond that as percent have 1-2
children and 33.7% subject of respondent are 3-4 and 29.5% of the subject of respondent are 5-
6 and 21% subject of respondents are above 6 family size.

4.1.6 The marital status

Table 4.6 the respondent of marital status
Marital status Number of respondents Percentage

Single 13 13.7%

Married 55 57.9%

Divorced 11 11.5%

Windowed 16 16.9%

Total 95 100%

Source; Own survey 2019.

Out of 95 respondents 13 respondents (13.7%) are single, 55 respondents (57.9%) are married,
the rest 11(11.5%) and 16(16.9%) are windowed and divorced respectively.

4.1.7 Occupational status

19 | P a g e
Table 4.7 occupation of the respondents
Occupational Number of respondents Percentage

daily labor 12 12.6%

Merchant 13 13.7%

Civil service 11 11.6%

Farmer 59 62.1%

Total 95 100%

Source; own survey 2019

According to above table most respondent are farmer that account for 62.1% and the lowest
respondent are civil service that account are 11.6%. This shows that the study areas are
dominated by farmer.

4.2 causes and impacts of climate change and its adaptation Practices

4.2.1 Causes of climate change

Table 4.8 cause of climate change
Causes of climate change Number of respondents Percentage

Natural causes 5 5.26%

Human causes 90 94.74%

Total 95 100%

Source; own survey 2019

The above table show that the main cause of climate change. According to the above table 5.26%
of the respondent responds natural causes, 94.74% of the respondents are human causes,
According to the majority of sample respondents response human cause is the main cause of
climate change in the study area. Because most of activities which cause climate change in the

20 | P a g e
study area is influenced by humans, due to this case human cause is the main cause of climate
change in the study area.

4.2.2 HUMAN CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Table 4.9 human causes of climate change
HUMAN CAUSES Number of respondents Percentage

Over grazing 16 16.8%

Land use change 23 24.2%

Excess use of fertilizers 16 16.8%

Expansion of agriculture 40 42.2%

Others _ _

Total 95 100%

Source; own survey 2019

The above table show that the human cause of climate change in the study area. According to the
majority of sample respondents response expansion of agriculture is the major human cause of
climate change in the study area.

Object 3

21 | P a g e
4.2.2.1 HOW LAND USE CHANGE CAUSES CLIMATE CHANGE

Counting indirect emissions from land use changes through deforestation which contribute
to increase the atmospheric temperature. Deforestation would increase the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, because when forests are cleared and the trees are either
burnt or rot, the stored carbon is released as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Generally,
land use changes remove the vegetation cover that absorbs the shortwave radiation,
thereby, leading to global warming.

4.2.2.2 HOW EXPANSION OF AGRICULTURE CAUSES CLIMATE

CHANGE
As we get from the respondents and our observation expansion of agriculture causes climate
change because when we expanded agricultural areas cutting of trees or deforestation occurs.so,
due to the occurrence of deforestation expansion of agriculture causes climate change. Climate
change affects agriculture and agriculture also affects climate change. Agriculture affects climate
change through the emission of greenhouse gas from different farming practices. Agriculture and
land use change (deforestation) are major contributors to climate change in the study area.

4.2.3 Impacts of climate change

Climate change causes wide ranging effects on the environment, and on economic and
related sectors, including agriculture and food security, human health and biodiversity.
Rising temperature cause shifts in crop growing seasons which affects food security and
changes in the distribution of disease. Climate change can influence humans directly,
through impacts on health and the risk of extreme events on lives, and indirectly, through
impacts on food security. The biophysical effects of climate change on agriculture induce
changes in production, which play out through the economic system as farmers, altering
crop mix and production.
TABLE 4.10 Impacts of climate change
Impacts of climate change Number of respondent Percentage

Environmental impact 30 31.6%

Economic impact 25 26.3%

22 | P a g e
 Health impact 28 29.5%

Others 12 12.6%

Total 95 100%

Source; own survey 2019

According to the above table 31.6% of the respondent answered environmental impact, economic
impact accounts 26.3% health impact account about 29.5% and others accounts12.6%.This table
shows that environmental impact and health impact are the main effect of climate change
according to the respondent information the study area.

4.2.4 Practices to climate change adaptation

Adaptation has the potential to reduce adverse impacts of climate change and to enhance
beneficial impacts. There are different adaptation measures on agricultural sector.From
those use of natural fertilizer, more use of agroforestry and more use of intercropping are
practiced in the study area.

TABLE 4.11 Practices to climate change adaptation

Practices to climate change adaptation Number of respondents Percentage

Use of natural fertilizer 25 26.3%

More use of agroforestry 45 47.4%

More use of intercropping 25 26.3%

Others _ _

Total 95 100%

Source own survey 2019

23 | P a g e
From the above table more use of agroforestry is the major practice of farmers to adapt climate
change that account for 47.4%.

5. Conclusion and recommendation

5.1 Conclusions
This study has been conducted in Tigray eastern zone woreda Adwa in case of endabagerima
kebelle. As the study result shows that the major cause of climate change are human cause in the
study area. From the human cause expansion of agricultural land is the major cause. Not only
this are other factors facilitate climate change activity like over grazing, deforestation and
excessive use of fertilizer.
From the finding the researcher can conclude that analysis that the impact is environmental,
economic, health impact and loss of productivity. From those impact environmental and health
impact are major impacts.

24 | P a g e
From the major finding to reduce the impact of climate change on farmers are use of CCAP. Like
afforestation, use of natural fertilizer and decreasing of over grazing and to increase awareness of
community about the adaptation practices of climate change in the study area.

5.2 Recommendation
To overcome the cause and impact of climate change the following recommendations are
forwarded by the researcher As a result of farmers having in adequate knowledge and adaptation
practices with regard to climate change in crop production that result in environmental effects.
This study recommend that agricultural stakeholders such as the ministry of agriculture to carry
out sensitization campaigns to educate farmers on proper use of climate change adaptation
practices to improve productivity as well as prevent environmental effects.

Reference

Abate, Z, (1994). Water Resources Development in Ethiopia: An Evolution of Present

Experience and Future Planning Concepts, Ithaca Press

Abegg, B., Agrawala, S., Crick, F., de Montfalcon, A., 2007. Climate change impacts and
adaptation in winter tourism. In: Agrawala, S. (Ed.) Climate change in the
European Alps. OECD, Paris, pp. 25–60.

Adger, W, N, Huq, S, Brown, K, Conway, D, and M, Hulme, (2003). “Adaptation to

Climate Change in the Developing World”, in Progress in Development
Studies 3, pp. 179 - 195

Adger, W.N., Arnell, N.W., Tompkins, E.L., 2005. Successful adaptation to climate
change across scales. Glob. Environ. Chang. 15, 77–86.

Adugna, A, (n.a.).Oromia, URL:http://www.ethiodemographyandhealth.org/Oromia.html

(accessed 19.02.2011)

25 | P a g e
 Agard, J., Schipper, E.L.F., Birkmann, J., Campos, M., Dubeux, C., Nojiri, Y., et al.,
2014.Glossary. In: Barros, V.R., Field, C.B., Dokken, D.J., Mastrandrea,
M.D., Mach, K.J., Bilir, T.E., et al. (Eds.), Climate Change 2014: Impacts,
Adaptation and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of
Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New
York, pp. 1757–1776.

AMCEN and UNEP, (2002). Africa Environment Outlook: Past, Present and future
perspectives, Eathprint Limited, Stevenage, Hertfordshire

Araya, A, (2005).An agro-climatic characterization towards improving barley production

in the Giba catchment, Northern Ethiopia, MSc dissertation. MAGM
program, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe

Berrang-Ford, L., Ford, J.D., Paterson, J., 2011. Are we adapting to climate change?
Global Environ. Change 21, 25–33.

Berrang-Ford, L., Pearce, T., Ford, J.D., 2015. Systematic review approaches for climate
change adaptation research. Reg. Environ. Chang. 15, 755–769.

Biesbroek, G.R., Swart, R.J., Carter, T.R., Cowan, C., Henrichs, T., Mela, H., Morecroft,
M.D.,

Briggs, S., Hudson, M.D., 2013. Determination of significance in ecological impact

assessment: past change, current practice and future improvements. Environ.
Impact Assess. Rev. 38, 16–25.

Buob, S., Stephan, G., 2011. To mitigate or to adapt: how to confront global climate
change. Eur. J. Polit. Econ. 27, 1–16.

Carlson, K., McCormick, S., 2015. American adaptation: social factors affecting new
developments to address climate change. Glob. Environ. Chang. 35, 360–
367.

26 | P a g e
 CEAA, 2003.Incorporating climate change considerations in environmental assessment.
General guidance for practitioners. The Federal-Provincial-Territorial
Committee on Climate Change and Environmental Assessment.
default.asp? lang=En&n=A41F45C5-1 (accessed 21.10.15).

Cendrero, A., Sánchez-Arcilla, A., Zazo, C., 2005.Impacts on coastal areas. In: Moreno,
J.M (Ed.), A Preliminary General Assessment of the Impacts in Spain Due
to the Effects of Climate Change.Ministerio de MedioAmbiente, Madrid, pp.

CEQ, 1997. Draft guidance regarding consideration of global climate change in

environmental documents prepared pursuant to the National Environmental
Policy Act. Council on Environmental Quality.
http://www.boem.gov/uploadedFiles/BOEM/

Rey, D., 2010. Europe adapts to climate change: comparing national adaptation
strategies. Glob. Environ. Chang. 20, 440–450.

27 | P a g e
 Appendix

This questionnaire has been prepared to examine the impacts of climate change and climate change
adaptation practice on farmers regarded to Endabagerima Keble. The information you are going to
provide will be used only conduct the research. You are kindly invited to give reliable answer by
interview and questionnaire.

Part 1. Personal identification data

1. Sex A. Male B. Female

2. Age A.15-30 B.31-45 C. 46 and above

3. What is your educational level?

A. Illiterate B. Primary (1-8) C. secondary (9-12)

D. Diploma E. Degree and above

4. Religion

A. Orthodox B. Protestant

A. Muslim D. Other

5. Family size A. 1-2 B. 3-4 C. 5-6 D. above 6

28 | P a g e
6. Marital status A. single B. Married C. divorce D. widowed

7. Occupation

A. Farmer B. daily labor C. other

Part 2. Climate change related questions

1. Do you have awareness about climate change adaptation practice in your kebelle?

A. Yes B, No

2. If your answer is yes for question number 1, what are those possible ways to aware farmers?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________.

3. Do you think that there is cause of climate change?

A. Yes B. No C. I don't know

4. If your answer is yes for question number 3, what are the cause of climate change?

A. Human cause B. Natural cause

5. If your answer is human cause what are those causes

A. Unhealthy agricultural practice

B. Over grazing

C. Excessive use of fertilizers (pesticides)

D. Land use changes

E .Other specify

6. If your answer is natural cause what are those causes

A. Land slide

B. Flood

29 | P a g e
C. Earth quake

D. Volcanic eruption

7. How unhealthy agricultural practice cause climate change if there is

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________.

8. How over grazing causes climate change if their is

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________.

9. How excessive use of fertilizers (pesticides) cause climate change?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________.

10. How deforestation cause climate change

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________.

11. From the above cause of climate change which one is the main cause of climate change in your
kebelle?

A. Human cause B, Natural cause

12. Do you think that there is climate change impact in your kebelle?

A. Yes B. No C. l don't know

13. If your answer is yes for question number 12 what are those impacts?

A. Economic impact B. Health risk

30 | P a g e
C. Environmental impact D. Productivity

E. Other specify

14.From question number 13 which impact is highly influence in your kebelle

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________.

15. Do you have any possible farmer's climate change adaptation practice in your kebelle?

A. Yes B. No C.I don't know

16. If your answer is yes for question number 15 which type of adaptation practice are there in your
kebelle?

A. Forestry B. Agro forestry

C. Crop management D. Other specify

17. From the above adaptation practices which one is the best adaptation practice of climate change used
by farmers In your kebelle?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.

31 | P a g e