Unit 1 Introduction To Electrical Engineering

231GE211 – BASIC ENGINEERING SCIENCE UNIT 1
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Basic Structure of Power System– Power Generation, Transmission, Distribution–Cables

and Insulators-Types of Electrical Machines and their applications –Energy Saving Techniques.
1.1 BASIC STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM

The power system is a network which consists generation, distribution and transmission
system. It uses the form of energy (like coal and diesel) and converts it into electrical
energy. The power system includes the devices connected to the system like the
synchronous generator, motor, transformer, circuit breaker, conductor, etc.
The power plant, transformer, transmission line, substations, distribution line, and
distribution transformer are the six main components of the power system. The power plant
generates the power which is step-up or step-down throughthe transformer for
transmission.
The transmission line transfers the power to the various substations. Through substation,
the power is transferred to the distribution transformer which step-downthe power to the
appropriate value which is suitable for the consumers.
Structure of Power System

The power system is the complex enterprise that may be subdivided into thefollowing
sub-systems. The subsystems of the power system are explained below in detail.
VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 1

Generating Substation
In generating station the fuel (coal, water, nuclear energy, etc.) is converted into electrical
energy. The electrical power is generated in the range of 11kV to 25kV, which is step-up
for long distance transmission. The power plant of the generating substation is mainly
classified into three types, i.e., thermal power plant, hydropower plant and nuclear power
plant.
The generator and the transformer are the main components of the generating station. The
generator converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy. The mechanical energy
comes from the burning of coal, gas and nuclear fuel, gas turbines, or occasionally the
internal combustion engine.
The transformer transfers the power with very high efficiency from one level to another.
The power transfer from the secondary is approximately equal to the primary except for
losses in the transformer. The step-up transformer will reduce losses in the line which makes
the transmission of power over long distances.
Transmission Substation
The transmission substation carries the overhead lines which transfer the generated
electrical energy from generation to the distribution substations. It only suppliesthe large
bulk of power to bulk power substations or very big consumers.
Fig Structure of power system

Distribution Substation
The component of an electrical power system connecting all the consumers in an area to
the bulk power sources is called a distribution system. The bulk power stations are
connected to the generating substations by transmission lines. They feed some substations
which are usually situated at convenient points near the load centers. The substations
distribute the power to the domestic, commercial and relatively small consumers. The
consumers require large blocks of power whichare usually supplied at sub-transmission
or even transmission system.
1.2 POWER GENERATION

Power generating station (i.e. power plants) is special plants with a set ofcomponents
that have the ability to generate bulk electric power.
A generating station essentially employs a prime mover coupled to an alternatorfor the
production of electric power.
The prime mover (e.g., steam turbine, water turbine etc.) converts energy fromsome
other form into mechanical energy.
Alternator converts mechanical energy of the prime mover into electricalenergy.
§ The electrical energy produced by the generating station is transmitted and
distributed with the help of conductors to various consumers.
Fig. Diagram of A generating station
Sources of electric energy

Since electrical energy is produced from energy available in various forms in nature, it
is desirable to look into the various sources of energy. These sources of energy are:
(i)The Sun (ii) The Wind (iii) Water……( Renewable energy)

(iv) Fuels (v) Nuclear energy .......................... (Classical energy)
Depending upon the form of energy converted into electrical energy, thegenerating
stations are classified as under:
(i) Steam power stations
(ii) Hydroelectric power stations
(iii) Diesel power stations
(iv) Gas station
(v) Nuclear power stations
(vi) Wind power station
(vii) Solar cell (Photo voltage cell)
Types of generating stations:

1. Steam Power Station (Thermal Station): A generating station which converts heat
energy of coal combustion into electrical energy is known as a steampower station.
A steam power station basically works on the Rankine cycle. Steam is produced in the boiler
by utilizing the heat of coal combustion. The steam is then expanded in the prime mover
(i.e., steam turbine) and is condensed in a condenser to be fed into
the boiler again. The steam turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanicalenergy
of the turbine into electrical energy.
Although steam power station simply involves the conversion of heat of coal combustion
into electrical energy, yet it embraces many arrangements for proper working and
efficiency.
The schematic arrangement of a modern steam power station can be divided into the
following stages for the sake of simplicity:
1. Coal and ash handling arrangement
2. Steam generating plant
3. Steam turbine
4. Alternator
5. Feed water
6. Cooling arrangement
Fig. Schematic arrangement of steam station

2. Hydro-electric Power Station

A generating station which utilizes the potential energy of water at a high level forthe
generation of electrical energy is known as a hydro-electric power station.
Constituents of Hydro-electric Plant
The constituents of a hydro-electric plant are
(1) Hydraulic structures
(2) Water turbines and
(3) Electrical equipment. We shall discuss these items in turn.
1. Hydraulic structures. Hydraulic structures in a hydro-electric power station
include dam, spillways, headworks, surge tank, penstock and accessory works
(i) Dam. A dam is a barrier which stores water and creates water head.
(ii) spillways are constructed of concrete piers on the top of the dam, used to discharge the
surplus water from the storage reservoir into the river on the down-stream side of the dam.
(iii) Headworks. The headworks consists of the diversion structures at the head of an intake.
They generally include valves for controlling the flow of water to the turbine.
(iv) Surge tank. Open conduits leading water to the turbine require no* protection.
However, when closed conduits are used, protection becomes necessary to limit the
abnormal pressure in the conduit. For this reason, closed conduits are always provided with
a surge tank. A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank (open at the top) in which water level
rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings in the conduit.
2. Water turbines. Water turbines are used to convert the energy of falling water into
mechanical energy. The principal types of water turbines are :
(i) Impulse turbines (ii) Reaction turbines
Impulse turbines. Such turbines are used for high heads.
(i) Reaction turbines. Reaction turbines are used for low and medium heads.The
important types of reaction turbines are :
(a) Francis turbines is used for low to medium heads.
(b) Kaplan turbines is used for low heads and large quantities of water.
3. Electrical equipment. The electrical equipment of a hydro-electric power station
includes alternators, transformers, circuit breakers and other switching and protective
devices.

3. Nuclear Power Plant

Main components of nuclear power plants:
i) Moderators
In any chain reaction, the neutrons produced are fast moving neutrons. These are less effective
in causing fission of U235 and they try to escape from the reactor. It is thus implicit that speed of
these neutrons must be reduced if their effectiveness is carrying out fission is to be increased.
This is done by making these neutrons collide with lighter nuclei of other materials, which does
not absorb these neutrons but simply scatter them. Each collision causes loss of energy and thus
the speed of neutrons is reduced. Such a material is called as a “moderator”. The neutrons
thusslowed down are easily captured by the fuel element at the chain reaction proceeds slowly.
ii) Reflectors
Some of the neutrons produced during fission will be partly absorbed by the fuel elements,
moderator, coolant and other materials. The remaining neutrons will try to escape from the
reactor and will be lost. Such losses are minimized by surrounding (lining) the reactor core
with a material called a reflector which will reflect the neutrons back to the core. They improve
the neutron economy.
iii) Shielding
During Nuclear fission particles and neutrons are also produced. They are harmful
tohuman life. Therefore it is necessary to shield the reactor with thick layers of lead, or concrete
to protect both the operating personnel as well as environment from radiation hazards.
iv) Cladding
In order to prevent the contamination of the coolant by fission products, the fuel element is
covered with a protective coating. This is known as cladding. Control rods are used to control
the reaction to prevent it from becoming violent. They control the reaction by absorbing neutrons.
These rods are made of boron or cadmium. Whenever the reaction needs to be stopped, the rods
are fully inserted and placed against their seats and when the reaction is to be started the rods are
pulled out.
v) Coolant
The main purpose of the coolant in the reactor is to transfer the heat produced inside the reactor.
The same heat carried by the coolant is used in the heat exchanger for further utilization in the
power generation.
Some of the desirable properties of good coolant are listed below
1. It must not absorb the neutrons.
2. It must have high chemical and radiation stability
3. It must be non-corrosive.
4. It must have high boiling point (if liquid) and low melting point (if solid)
5. It must be non-oxidizing and non-toxic.
The above-mentioned properties are essential to keep the reactor core in safe condition as well
asfor the better functioning of the content.
6. It must also have high density, low viscosity, high conductivity and high specific heat.
Theseproperties are essential for better heat transfer and low pumping power.
The water, heavy water, gas (He, CO2), a metal in liquid form (Na) and an organic liquid
areused as coolants. The coolant not only carries large amounts of heat from the core but also
keeps the fuel assemblies at a safe temperature to avoid their melting and destruction.
i) Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor may be regarded as a substitute for the boiler fire box of a steam power plant.
Heat is produced in the reactor due to nuclear fission of the fuel U235. The heat liberated in the
reactor is taken up by the coolant circulating through the core. Hot coolant leaves the reactor at
top and flows into the steam generator (boiler).
Radiation hazards and Shieldings
The reactor is a source of intense radioactivity. These radiations are very harmful to human life.
It requires strong control to ensure that this radioactivity is not released into the atmosphere to
avoid atmospheric pollution. A thick concrete shielding and a pressure vessel are provided to
prevent the escape of these radiations to atmosphere.
ii) Steam generator
The steam generator is fed with feed water which is converted into steam by the heat of the hot
coolant. The purpose of the coolant is to transfer the heat generated in the reactor core and use it

for steam generation. Ordinary water or heavy water is a common coolant.
iii) Turbine
The steam produced in the steam generator is passed to the turbine and work is done by the
expansion of steam in the turbine.
iv) Coolant pump and Feed pump
The steam from the turbine flows to the condenser where cooling water is circulated. Coolant
pump and feed pump are provided to maintain the flow of coolant and feed water respectively.
4. Wind Power Plant
Wind power is a sustainable and renewable energy source that efficiently converts wind
energy into electricity. Wind turbines, resembling airplane wings or helicopter rotor blades, utilize
the aerodynamic force from the rotor blades to generate electricity. Clustered in wind farms across
large areas, these turbines harness the kinetic energy of moving air and convert it into rotational
energy through the spinning of the blades. This rotational energy is then transferred to a generator
via a shaft, producing electrical energy. Wind plants can be situated on land or offshore, and they
can also be hybrid plants incorporating other sources like solar energy. With minimal
environmental impact compared to fossil fuel burning, wind power offers clean and valuable
investment for a sustainable future.
Wind power plants, also known as wind farms, are facilities that use wind turbines to convert
the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical energy. These plants are a source of renewable energy
and help reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
What are Wind Power Plant? (Wind Turbine)
Wind Power plants are a collection of wind turbines either horizontal or vertical type.
These turbines collect the energy individually and are connected to a common plant. The wind
turbine is also similar to the normal turbine, as it converts kinetic energy into mechanical energy.
And they are designed in such a way that the height and length of the blades are maintained at
some ratio. Among all the power plants Wind plant is one of the major plants with more than 20
years of life span. It usually requires maintenance every six months. The overall efficiency of a
Wind turbine power plant is 20% - 40%.
Working of Wind Power Plant
So, how does a wind turbine work? The wind turbine works on the principle of conversion
of kinetic energy of wind to mechanical energy used to rotate the blades of a fan connected to an
electric generator. When the wind or air touches the blades (or) vanes of the windmill it the air
pressure can be uneven, higher on one side of the blade and lower on the other. Hence, uneven
pressure causes the blades to spin around the center of the turbine. The turbine does not operate at
wind speeds above 55 mph with the use of the controller.
The rotor shaft of the turbine (ie., low speed and high speed) is interlinked with the gearbox
which converts the speed from 30 to 60 rpm into 1000 to 1800 rpm. As the gearbox consists
of gears, to transmit mechanical energy. These speeds are most suitable to the generator for the
generation of electricity. When the rotor of the turbine rotates it drives a generator through a setup
gearbox causing the generator to produce electrical energy. Windmills are available in size

from 100 KW to 36 MW mainly used off-shore Now the engineers are designing 10 MW of the
wind turbine.
Types of Wind Power Plant (Wind Turbines)
There are two types of wind turbines
o Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)

o Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT): These turbines resemble windmills, with the tip of
the shaft pointing in the direction of the wind. Smaller turbines are steered by wind vanes
mounted on the building since they must face the wind. Wind sensors and servos are used with
larger turbines to turn them.
Fig Types of wind turbines
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

Mounted on the vertical shaft is the main root. This gets rid of the problems with horizontal
wind turbines. As they require more space and are difficult to install. The subtypes consist of
o Darius Type turbine

o Savonious Type Turbine
1.3 TRANSMISSION AND SUBSTATIONS

1. Purpose of Transmission:
- Transmission is the process of transporting electrical energy from power generation sources
(power plants) to distribution systems and ultimately to end-users.
- High-voltage transmission lines are used to minimize energy losses during long-distance
transport.
2. Transmission Lines:
- Transmission lines are conductive cables or wires used to carry electrical power over long
distances.
- High voltage is used to reduce energy losses and increase the efficiency of power
transmission.
- Common transmission voltages include 230 kV, 345 kV, 500 kV, and even higher for long-
distance transmission.
3. Substations:
- Substations are facilities where the voltage is transformed, and the power is rerouted or
redirected in the transmission network.
- Step-up transformers increase voltage for long-distance transmission, while step-down
transformers decrease voltage for distribution.
4. AC vs. DC Transmission:
- Alternating current (AC) is traditionally used for most power transmission due to its ease of
voltage transformation and lower line losses.
- High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission is used for specific cases where long-
distance transmission or interconnecting asynchronous grids is necessary.
5. Line Losses:
- Resistance in transmission lines causes energy losses in the form of heat.
- Higher transmission voltages result in lower line losses, making it more economical for long-
distance power transfer.
6. Grid Stability:
- Transmission systems play a crucial role in maintaining the stability of the power grid.
- Synchronization of generators and load balancing are critical for grid stability.
7. Transmission Planning:
- Transmission planning involves designing and expanding the transmission network to meet
growing energy demands and improve system reliability.
- Factors such as load forecasts, renewable energy integration, and system contingencies are
considered in planning.
8. Grid Expansion and Upgrades:
- Periodic upgrades and expansions are required to accommodate increased demand, integrate
new generation sources, and enhance overall grid reliability.
9. Smart Grid Technologies:
- Advanced technologies, such as phasor measurement units (PMUs) and synchrophasors,
enable real-time monitoring and control of transmission systems for improved reliability and
efficiency.
10. Interconnection of Grids:
- Interconnecting different regional or national grids enhances overall grid reliability and
allows for the sharing of resources.
- Cross-border interconnections facilitate international energy exchange.

11. Environmental Impact:
- Transmission lines can have visual, environmental, and social impacts.
-Efforts are made to balance the need for new transmission infrastructure with
environmental and community considerations.
WORKING OF SUB STATION
Transformers
Transformers are the largest single piece of equipment in a substation.
They work by increasing the voltage of the electricity produced by the generator, from an
average of between 12,000 and 22,000 Volts, up to transmission voltages of 132,000 and
275,000 Volts, and then back down to 66,000, 33,000 or 11,000 Volts to enter the distribution
network.
Substations also include small buildings for staff facilities and technology for protection and
control systems. This allows the site to be remotely monitored and operated from our central
control room.
Switchyards
Substations without transformers are called switchyards. A switchyard is remotely operated to
re-route power supplies where there is an immediate or critical need.
How a substation works
ElectraNet’s transmission lines move electricity over long distances, at 132 or 275 kV, before
arriving at a substation where the voltage is lowered.
Once the voltage has been lowered to 66, 33 or 11 kV, the electricity is moved through to large
industrial customers or the distribution network where it is taken to homes and businesses.
Light poles provide lighting for crews that might need to attend the site in the event of a fault.
Surge arrestors protect equipment within the substation from any voltage spikes on the
transmission lines.
Line disconnectors allow transmission lines and equipment within the substation to be safely
isolated for maintenance work.
Gantries guide transmission lines into the substation.
Voltage and current transformers measure voltage and current entering and moving through
the substation.
Circuit breakers are automatic switches that interrupt electrical flow to de-energise equipment
and clear faults.
Lightning masts attract lightning away from sensitive substation equipment.
Busbars are conductors which connect equipment within the substation.

Weather stations provide real time information about localised conditions which could affect
the safe and reliable operation of the transmission network.
Power transformers increase or reduce voltage, depending on whether the substation is an entry
point to the transmission network or an exit to the distribution network.
Communications towers allow substations to be remotely monitored and operated.
Safety around substations
Our multi-layered security and safety measures around substations ensure public safety, protect
the integrity of the equipment and assure the ability of the transmission network to ‘keep the
lights on’. While it is quite safe to live near, pass by, or view a substation from outside the
perimeter fence line, it is very dangerous for a person without appropriate training to enter a
substation.
1.4 DISTRIBUTION
The part of the power system that distributes electric power for local use is called
as distribution system. Generally, a distribution system is the electrical system between the
substation fed by transmission system and the consumer’s meters. A typical distribution system is
shown in the figure.
Components of Distribution System

• Distribution Sub-Station – A distribution sub-station is the electrical system which
transfers power from transmission system to the distribution system of an area.
• Feeders – A feeder is a conductor which connects the distribution sub-station to the area
where power is to be distributed. The current in a feeder remains the same throughout its
length because no tapings are taken from it. The main consideration in the design of a
feeder being its current carrying capacity.
• Distribution Transformers – The distribution transformer is a step-down transformer in
which primary and secondary are delta and star connected respectively. It is also termed
as service transformer. The output voltage of distribution transformer is 440 V in 3-phase
system whereas 230 V in 1-phase system in India.
• Distributor – A distributor is a conductor from which tapings are taken for supply to the
consumers. Due to the taping is done at various places in a distributor, the current being

not same throughout its length. The main design consideration of a distributor is the voltage
drop across its length because the statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 6 % of rated
voltage at the consumer’s terminals.
• Service Mains – Service Mains is a small cable which connects the distributor to the
consumer’s meter.
Classification of Distribution System
Classification based on the nature of current −
• DC distribution system
• AC distribution system
Classification based on the type of construction −
• Over-head system
• Under-ground system
Classification based on the scheme of connection −
• Radial system
• Ring main system
• Inter-connected system
Types of AC Distribution System
Primary Distribution System

The primary distribution system is the part of AC distribution system which operates at
voltages slightly higher than general utilization. The voltage used for primary distribution depends
upon the amount power to be transferred and distance of substation required to be fed. The
commonly used primary distribution voltages are 11 kV, 6.6 kV and 3.3 kV. The primary
distribution is done by 3-phase 3-wire system because of economic considerations.
Secondary Distribution System
The secondary distribution system includes those ranges of voltage at which consumer
utilises the electrical energy. In India, the secondary distribution employs 440V (3-phase) & 230V
(1-phase), 3-phase 4-wire system.
Requirements of a Distribution System

Some of the requirements of a good distribution system are −
• Proper Voltage – The voltage variations at consumer’s terminals should be as low as
possible. The statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 6 % (India) of the rated voltage at
consumer’s terminals.
• Availability of Power on Demand – The electric power must be available to the
consumers in any amount that they may require from time to time.
• Reliability – The modern industry is almost dependent on electric power for its operation.
This calls for reliable service as much possible.
1.5 CABLES AND INSULATORS

In a power system, various types of cables are used for transmitting electrical power and
signals. These cables play a crucial role in connecting different components of the power
system, ranging from power plants to distribution networks and end-users. Here are some
common types of cables used in power systems:
1. Power Cables:
- Low Voltage Power Cables (LV):Used for distributing power within buildings and residential
areas. Common voltage ratings include 600V and below.
- Medium Voltage Power Cables (MV): Used for medium voltage distribution, typically
ranging from 1 kV to 33 kV.
- High Voltage Power Cables (HV): Designed for high voltage transmission, usually above 33
kV. These cables are used to connect power generation sources to substations or for long-
distance transmission.
2. Concentric Neutral Cables:

- Feature a concentric conductor layer surrounding the insulation and conductors. This design
provides additional insulation and protection, especially in high-voltage applications.
3. Underground Cables:
- Used for power distribution where the installation of overhead lines is not feasible or
desirable.
- Consist of insulated conductors buried underground, reducing visual impact and minimizing
exposure to environmental elements.
- Underground cables are commonly employed in urban areas or environmentally sensitive
locations.
4. Submarine Cables:
- Designed for underwater or submarine applications, such as connecting islands to mainland
grids or interconnecting power systems across bodies of water.
5. High-Temperature Cables:
- Suitable for applications where cables may be exposed to elevated temperatures, such as
those near power generation equipment or industrial processes.
6. Bare Conductors:
- Consist of uninsulated conductors used in overhead power transmission lines. They are often
made of aluminum or copper and are suitable for long-distance transmission.
7. Control Cables:
- Used for transmitting control signals and data within a power system. Commonly found in
substation control systems and industrial automation.
8. Instrumentation Cables:
- Similar to control cables, these are designed for transmitting signals from sensors and
measurement devices to monitoring and control equipment.
9. HVDC Cables:
- High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) cables are used for transmitting electrical power over
long distances. HVDC is often employed in interconnecting asynchronous grids or connecting
remote renewable energy sources.
10. Fiber Optic Cables:

- Although not for power transmission, fiber optic cables are increasingly used in power
systems for communication purposes. They provide high-speed data transmission and are
immune to electromagnetic interference.
11. Cable Joints and Terminations:

- Components used to connect different lengths of cables or terminate them at various
equipment points. Properly designed and installed joints and terminations are crucial for
maintaining the integrity of the power system.
Choosing the appropriate type of cable depends on factors such as voltage requirements,
environmental conditions, installation considerations, and specific application needs within the
power system.
Rating of cables
The rating of cables refers to the various specifications and parameters that define their
electrical and thermal performance. These ratings are essential for selecting the right type of
cable for a particular application within a power system. Here are some key cable ratings:
1. Voltage Rating:
- Low Voltage (LV): Typically up to 1 kV.
- Medium Voltage (MV): Ranges from 1 kV to 33 kV.
- High Voltage (HV):Generally above 33 kV.
2. Current-Carrying Capacity (Ampacity):

- This represents the maximum continuous current that a cable can carry without exceeding its
temperature rating.
- Ampacity depends on factors such as conductor size, insulation type, ambient temperature,
and installation conditions.
3. Temperature Rating:
- Conductor Temperature: The maximum temperature that the conductor can reach during
normal operation.
- Ambient Temperature: The maximum temperature of the surrounding environment during
cable operation.
- Total Temperature Rise: The difference between the conductor temperature and the ambient
temperature.
4. Short-Circuit Rating:
- Specifies the maximum fault current that a cable can withstand without sustaining damage.
- Important for ensuring the safety and reliability of the power system during fault conditions.
5. Insulation Material and Thickness:

- Different insulation materials have varying thermal and electrical properties.
- The thickness of insulation affects the cable's overall electrical and thermal performance.
6. Conductor Material and Cross-Sectional Area:

- Copper and aluminum are common conductor materials, each with its own set of advantages
and disadvantages.
- The cross-sectional area of the conductor influences the cable's current-carrying capacity.
7. Mechanical Protection and Durability:

- Cables may have additional layers or features to provide mechanical protection against
physical damage and environmental factors.
- Durability considerations include resistance to abrasion, moisture, chemicals, and UV
radiation.
8. Flame Retardant and Fire Resistance:
- Cables designed for use in fire-prone areas or critical applications may have flame-retardant
or fire-resistant properties to prevent the spread of fire.
9. Cable Size and Dimensions:
- The physical size of the cable, including its diameter and overall dimensions, is an important
consideration during installation.
It's important to note that cable ratings are typically specified by manufacturers and must
comply with industry standards and regulations. Engineers and designers carefully consider
these ratings to ensure that the selected cables meet the specific requirements of the power
system, taking into account factors such as load conditions, environmental considerations, and
safety standards.
Insulators :
Insulators are materials or devices that prevent the flow of electric current. In the context
of power systems, insulators are used to support and isolate conductors, preventing unintended
electrical contact with other conductive materials or the ground. They play a crucial role in
maintaining the integrity and safety of the electrical infrastructure. Here are types of insulators
commonly used in power systems:
Types of Insulators:
1. Pin Insulators:
- Commonly used in distribution systems and transmission lines.
- Consist of a single piece of porcelain or glass with a threaded metal pin at the center for
attachment to the supporting structure.
- Suitable for voltages up to the medium voltage range.
2. Suspension Insulators:
- Used in high-voltage transmission lines.
- Consist of a series of porcelain or glass discs connected in series by metal links or rods.
- Suspended from supporting structures, providing a longer creepage distance to prevent
electrical flashover.
3. Strain Insulators:
- Designed to withstand mechanical tension in the line.
- Used at the ends of long spans or at corners of transmission lines.
- Similar in construction to suspension insulators but oriented to resist axial loads.
4. Shackle Insulators:
- Used in low-voltage distribution lines.
- Resemble a miniature version of suspension insulators and are often used to support service
wires or for dead-ending conductors.
5. Post Insulators:
- Used to support bus bars and other equipment in substations.
- Consist of a single insulating unit mounted on a supporting structure.
6. Cap and Pin Insulators:

- Commonly used in medium-voltage distribution systems.
- Feature a cap that covers the top of the insulator to provide additional protection against
contaminants.
7. Solid Core Insulators:

- Constructed from a single piece of insulating material (usually porcelain or polymer).
- Suitable for various voltage levels and are often used in outdoor applications.
8. Hollow Insulators:
- Consist of a ceramic or polymer outer shell filled with insulating material.
- Used in high-voltage and extra-high-voltage applications.
9. Composite/Polymer Insulators:
- Made from a combination of polymer materials and fiberglass reinforcement.
- Lightweight, resistant to environmental factors, and provide good electrical insulation.
- Commonly used in polluted or corrosive environments.
10. Bushing Insulators:

- Used to insulate and support conductors where they pass through the walls of transformers,
circuit breakers, or other enclosed equipment.
- Prevents electrical breakdown between the energized conductor and the grounded
equipment.
11. Insulator Strings:

- Consist of multiple insulators connected in series.
- Used in high-voltage transmission lines to provide increased insulation and creepage
distance.

Properties of Insulator Materials:
1. Porcelain Insulators:
- Traditional material with good mechanical strength and electrical insulation properties.
- Commonly used in high-voltage applications.
2. Glass Insulators:
- Similar to porcelain insulators but may be more susceptible to damage.
- Used in distribution lines and for lower voltage applications.
3. Polymer Insulators:
- Made from composite materials like silicone rubber or ethylene propylene rubber.
- Lightweight, resistant to pollution, and offer good performance in contaminated
environments.
The selection of insulators depends on factors such as voltage level, environmental conditions,
mechanical loads, and specific application requirements within the power system.
1.6 TYPES OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
Electric machines are essential devices in electric engineering that convert electric power
into mechanical electricity or vice versa. These machines play a vital position in diverse
programs, from powering business gadgets to propelling electric-powered vehicles. The 3
number one sorts of electric-powered machines are DC (direct modern-day) machines, AC
(alternating contemporary) machines, and special-reason machines. DC machines, inclusive of
DC automobiles and mills, function with an immediate present-day power supply. DC motors
convert electrical electricity into mechanical power, driving an extensive range of programs that
include electric-powered cars, robotics, and household appliances. On the opposite hand, DC
turbines remodel mechanical energy into electric power, serving as backup power assets or in
far-off locations.
AC machines, comprising induction cars and synchronous machines, are powered
through alternating modern. Induction automobiles are extensively used in industrial programs,
using the rotating magnetic area to pressure diverse equipment. Synchronous machines,
consisting of synchronous motors and generators, hold synchronized operation with the strength
deliver frequency, making them appropriate for programs requiring particular velocity
management and power generation in energy flowers.
What are Electric Machines?
Electric machines, additionally called electric machines, are gadgets that convert electric
strength into mechanical strength or vice versa. These machines play an essential function in
diverse programs across industries, presenting the approach to generate, convert, and make use
of electrical electricity.
Electric machines can typically be categorized into two fundamental sorts: cars and
turbines.
Electric Motors
• Function: Electric vehicles convert electrical power into mechanical electricity.
They perform on the precept of electromagnetic induction, where a modern-day-
sporting conductor located in a magnetic discipline stories a pressure, resulting in
motion.
• Applications: Motors are notably used in an extensive variety of packages, along
with commercial machinery, electric-powered motors, family home equipment,
pumps, fans, and robotics.
Electric Generators
• Function: Electric generators, also referred to as alternators, remodel mechanical
power into electric strength. They perform on the principle of electromagnetic
induction, wherein a rotating coil inside a magnetic subject generates an electric-
powered present-day.
• Applications: Generators are critical for energy generation in various settings,
from big-scale electricity flora producing strength for the grid to small turbines
offering backup power in far-flung locations.
Types of Electrical Machines
The type of electrical machines extensively categorizes them into most important kinds:
• Stationary Electrical Machines
• Dynamic Electrical Machines
Stationary Electrical Machines
Stationary electric machines, additionally called static or non-rotating machines, are gadgets in
which the magnetic area or the conductor shape stays constant in space. These machines
typically do not involve any mechanical rotation during their operation. The number one
examples are transformers and some kinds of inductors. A stationary electric gadget that
exemplifies its category is the transformer.
• Functionality: Stationary electric machines, as the name shows, continue to be
fixed of their function throughout operation. They normally involve the conversion
of electrical energy to different kinds with out massive movement in their
components.
Examples:
• Transformers: Stationary transformers are critical for voltage transformation in
energy distribution structures. They switch electrical electricity between unique
voltage degrees with out mechanical motion.
• Resistive Loads: Devices like electric powered heaters and incandescent lamps can
be taken into consideration as desk bound electrical machines. They convert electric
electricity into warmness without involving mechanical movement.
Transformer
Transformers are desk bound electrical devices that facilitate the switch of electrical power
between exceptional voltage stages in an alternating modern (AC) power machine. They perform
on the principle of electromagnetic induction, utilizing coils and a magnetic middle to trade the
voltage of alternating currents.
Transformers
Components

• Primary and Secondary Coils: Transformers have two units of coils known as the
number one and secondary coils. The number one coil is attached to the enter
voltage, even as the secondary coil is connected to the output.
• Magnetic Core: The coils are wound round a magnetic core, usually product of
laminated metal. The magnetic center enhances the efficiency of strength transfer.
Operation
• When an alternating present day flows through the primary coil, it creates a
converting magnetic subject in the middle.
• This converting magnetic subject induces an alternating voltage within the
secondary coil, taking into account the transformation of voltage degrees.
Types
• Step-Up Transformer: Increases the voltage from the number one to the
secondary coil. The secondary voltage of a step-up transformer is raised from the
low primary voltage. Because the primary winding has fewer turns than the
secondary winding in this sort of transformer, the ratio of the primary to secondary
winding will be greater than one and is used to raise the voltage level prior to
distribution.
• Step-Down Transformer: Decreases the voltage from the primary to the secondary
coil. Step-down transformer are used in electrical systems that distribute electricity
over long distances and operate at extremely high voltages to ensure minimum loss
and economical solutions. Step-down transformer are used to change high-voltage
into low-voltage supply lines.
Types of Transformer
Applications
• Transformers are necessary to energy distribution networks, in which they step up
voltage for efficient long-distance transmission and step down voltage for
neighborhood distribution.
• They also are used in numerous digital devices, imparting voltage adjustments for
unique components.
Dynamic Electrical Machines
Dynamic electrical machines contain the conversion of electrical electricity into mechanical
strength or vice versa, with the involvement of motion. These machines consist of electric
powered generators and electric powered cars.
• Functionality: Dynamic electrical machines, in evaluation, involve sizable
mechanical movement as a part of their operation. These machines convert electric
energy into mechanical power (vehicles) or vice versa (generators), and their
components go through motion during the strength conversion technique.
Examples:
• Electric Motors: Dynamic electrical machines in the shape of automobiles are
broadly utilized in numerous applications. Examples encompass induction vehicles,
synchronous cars, and DC motors, all of which involve rotational motion as part of
their operation.
• Generators: Generators are dynamic machines that convert mechanical energy
(often from a rotating shaft) into electric strength. They play a crucial function in
power technology in energy plants.
Dynamic electrical machines can be similarly labeled into electric automobiles and electrical
turbines, every serving a awesome function within the conversion of strength.
Electrical Motors
Electrical automobiles are dynamic machines that convert electrical strength into mechanical
strength. They operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction, where the interaction
among magnetic fields and electric currents generates a mechanical pressure. An electric
motor is a machine that is used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. When a
current-carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field it experiences some forces that help
in the rotation of the shaft or axil.
Electric Motor
Components of an Electric Motor

• Stator: The stator is the stationary a part of the motor and consists of coils of wire
which are connected to the electricity supply. When electric cutting-edge flows
through these coils, a magnetic subject is generated.
• Rotor: The rotor is the rotating a part of the motor. It is typically fabricated from a
coil or coils of twine that are established on a shaft. The rotor is placed within the
magnetic discipline created through the stator.
• Commutator (in DC Motors): In DC vehicles, the rotor frequently consists of a
commutator, that’s a rotary transfer that reverses the direction of the electric
cutting-edge in the rotor coil, ensuring non-stop rotation.
• Brushes (in DC Motors): Brushes are conductive contacts that keep electric
contact with the commutator. In DC cars, they assist in transferring electric current
to the rotor.
Working Principle
The operation of an electric powered motor involves the subsequent steps:
• Application of Electric Current: When an electric powered contemporary is
carried out to the stator coils, a magnetic discipline is created within the stator.

• Creation of Magnetic Field: This magnetic area interacts with the rotor (which is
also a coil of twine) because of the electromagnetic principle. The rotor experiences
a pressure that causes it to rotate.
• Rotation of the Rotor: As the rotor rotates, the electrical present day in the coils
generates a magnetic discipline, growing a continuous cycle of magnetic interplay
among the stator and rotor.
• Conversion of Electrical to Mechanical Energy: The non-stop interplay among
the magnetic fields outcomes within the conversion of electrical electricity into
mechanical energy, causing the rotor to spin.
Types
• DC Motors: Direct contemporary vehicles are extensively used in diverse
programs, from household appliances to commercial machinery, supplying a
trustworthy and controllable conversion of electrical electricity into rotational
motion.
• AC Motors: Alternating modern-day cars consist of induction motors and
synchronous cars. Induction cars are standard in industrial settings, even as
synchronous vehicles are regarded for his or her precise pace manipulate and are
frequently utilized in applications inclusive of synchronous clocks.
Electrical Generators
Electrical generators, additionally referred to as alternators, are dynamic machines that convert
mechanical electricity into electric energy. They perform on the precept of electromagnetic
induction, wherein the motion of a conductor in a magnetic area induces an electric modern. A
generator is a mechanical device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The
electricity generated at various power plants is produced by the generators installed there. When
a coil spins in a magnetic field or moves relative to a magnet, it generates an electromotive
force (emf) or potential difference.
Electric Generator
Components of an Electric Generator

• Rotor (Armature): The rotor, usually a coil or coils on a shaft, induces an electric
current with the aid of slicing throughout magnetic discipline traces as it spins.

• Stator: The stationary stator, with connected cord coils, affords the magnetic
subject within which the rotor rotates.
• Field Coils: Windings of cord at the stator create a magnetic subject whilst an
electric modern passes thru, essential for electromagnetic induction.
• Prime Mover: External forces like steam mills or engines power the rotor,
converting mechanical electricity into rotational movement.
• Voltage Regulator: A manipulate machine adjusting generator output voltage for
strong electric output.
Working Principle
• Mechanical Input (Prime Mover): Prime movers, together with engines, supply
mechanical power to the generator via using the rotor.
• Generation of Magnetic Field: Stator discipline coils create a stationary magnetic
discipline when an electric current flows thru them.
• Electromagnetic Induction: Rotor spinning in the magnetic subject induces an
electric modern-day in its coils, following Faraday’s law.
• Output Voltage: The brought on modern-day creates an alternating modern-day
(AC) voltage transferred to the outside circuit via stator windings.
• Conversion to Direct Current (DC) (optional): In some applications, a rectifier
converts AC to DC for uses like charging batteries or powering DC gadgets.
Types
• AC Generators: Alternating present day turbines are extensively used for power
technology in numerous packages, from big-scale energy flora to small
transportable mills. They offer a regular and efficient way to produce electrical
power.
• DC Generators: While much less commonplace today, direct present day turbines
were historically used in precise programs, consisting of early electricity systems
and positive business approaches.
Advantages of Electric Machines

• Efficiency: Electric machines, specifically modern ones, exhibit high performance
in converting electric power to mechanical strength (motors) or vice versa
(generators). This efficiency contributes to decreased energy wastage and
progressed average device overall performance.
• Environmental Friendliness: Electric machines, specifically inside the context of
electric vehicles and renewable strength systems, offer environmentally friendly
solutions. They make a contribution to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions,
promoting sustainability and purifier energy utilization.
• Variable Speed Control: Many electric machines, especially advanced motors,
allow for particular manipulate of speed and torque. This flexibility is vital in
packages where various running situations and unique overall performance
necessities are vital.
• Low Maintenance: Electric machines, as compared to a few traditional mechanical
structures, frequently require decrease renovation. They have fewer shifting
components subject to wear and tear, resulting in decreased preservation expenses
and downtime.
• Versatility: Electric machines are available diverse kinds and sizes, making them
versatile for a huge variety of applications. From small household appliances to
large industrial machinery, electric machines can be adapted to satisfy various
needs.
Disadvantages of Electric Machines

• Initial Cost: The upfront value of obtaining and installing electric machines, in
particular excessive-performance and green ones, can be relatively high. This
preliminary investment might also pose a barrier, particularly for smaller-scale
packages.
• Dependency on Power Supply: Electric machines depend on a solid and to be had
electricity supply. Interruptions or fluctuations in the strength supply can impact
their overall performance, doubtlessly main to downtime or the want for backup
electricity answers.
• Environmental Impact of Manufacturing: The production and disposal of
electric machines could have environmental effects. The manufacturing process
might also contain useful resource-extensive sports, and the disposal of digital
additives can contribute to electronic waste problems.
• Complexity in Control Systems: Advanced electric powered machines with
sophisticated manipulate systems may also require specialized information for top-
quality operation and preservation. This complexity can growth the talent and
training necessities for employees.
• Limited Energy Density in Batteries: In packages together with electric powered
motors, the energy density of modern battery technologies can restriction the
variety and overall efficiency of electrical machines. Ongoing advancements in
battery generation aim to cope with this dilemma.
Applications of Electric Machines
• Electric Vehicles (EVs): Electric machines, specifically electric powered vehicles,
are broadly utilized in electric automobiles for propulsion. They offer a smooth and
efficient opportunity to inner combustion engines, contributing to the development
of sustainable transportation.
• Industrial Machinery: Electric machines are quintessential additives in various
business programs, powering equipment together with pumps, compressors,
conveyor systems, and production gadget. Their potential to provide particular
control and performance makes them crucial for industrial processes.
• Power Generation: Electric turbines are fundamental in electricity plants for
producing energy. They convert mechanical power, regularly from turbines pushed
by water, steam, or wind, into electric power. This application is vital for meeting
the worldwide demand for electric strength.
• Renewable Energy Systems: Electric machines play a key role in renewable
energy programs, which includes wind turbines and hydroelectric mills. They
convert the mechanical electricity from those renewable resources into electrical
electricity, contributing to sustainable electricity technology.
• Household Appliances: Various household appliances, which includes fridges,
washing machines, enthusiasts, and vacuum cleaners, comprise electric
automobiles. These automobiles permit the vital mechanical capabilities, supplying
comfort and efficiency in every day household duties.
1.7 ENERGY SAVING TECHNIQUES:
In the context of a power system, implementing energy-saving techniques involves
optimizing the generation, transmission, and distribution processes to enhance overall
efficiency and reduce energy losses. Here are some key energy-saving techniques in a power
system:
Generation:
1. High-Efficiency Power Plants:

- Upgrade or replace older power plants with newer, more efficient technologies.
- Invest in combined heat and power (CHP) systems to capture and utilize waste heat
for additional energy.
2. Renewable Energy Integration:

- Increase the share of renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and
hydroelectric power, in the generation mix.
- Invest in advanced technologies for harnessing renewable energy efficiently.
3. Load Management:
- Implement demand response programs to balance electricity demand and supply.
- Encourage time-of-use pricing to incentivize consumers to shift their energy usage
to off-peak hours.
Transmission and Distribution:
1. High-Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Transmission:

- Utilize HVDC transmission for long-distance power transmission, as it can result in
lower energy losses compared to traditional alternating current (AC) transmission.
2. Energy Storage Systems:

- Deploy energy storage systems, such as batteries, to store excess energy during low-
demand periods and release it during peak demand.
- Improve grid reliability and stability through the use of energy storage.
3. Grid Automation and Smart Grid Technologies:

- Implement advanced grid automation systems for real-time monitoring and control.
- Integrate smart grid technologies to enhance the efficiency and reliability of the
power system.
4. Power Factor Correction:

- Improve power factor to reduce reactive power losses in the transmission and
distribution networks.
- Install power factor correction equipment and capacitors where needed.
Substation and Equipment Efficiency:
1. Efficient Transformers:
- Upgrade to high-efficiency transformers to reduce energy losses during voltage
transformation.
- Implement load tap changers to optimize voltage levels based on demand.
2. Regular Maintenance:
- Conduct regular maintenance of substation equipment to ensure optimal
performance and prevent energy losses due to equipment inefficiencies.
Energy Conservation in Industrial and Commercial Sectors:
1. Energy-Efficient Motors and Equipment:

- Use energy-efficient motors and industrial equipment.
- Implement variable speed drives to match motor speed with load requirements.

2. Power Quality Improvement:

- Address power quality issues, such as harmonics, to reduce energy losses in
industrial processes.
- Implement power factor correction measures.
Grid Interconnections:
1. Interconnected Grids:
- Promote regional or national grid interconnections to share resources and balance
energy loads.
- Enhance coordination for more efficient energy utilization across interconnected
grids.
2. Demand-Side Management:
- Encourage demand-side management practices, such as load shedding during peak
hours and energy-efficient building designs.
- Support distributed energy resources and microgrid implementations.
3. Energy Efficiency Standards and Regulations:

- Enforce and adhere to energy efficiency standards and regulations for power
generation, transmission, and distribution equipment.
4. Training and Awareness:

- Educate power system operators, engineers, and maintenance personnel on energy-
saving practices and technologies.
5. Monitoring and Analytics:

- Use advanced monitoring and analytics tools to identify and address inefficiencies
in real-time.
Energy-saving techniques in a power system require a comprehensive approach,

involving technological advancements, regulatory support, and collaboration among
stakeholders. Regular assessments, upgrades, and the adoption of innovative solutions
contribute to the overall energy efficiency and sustainability.



Unit 1 Introduction To Electrical Engineering

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Unit 1 Introduction To Electrical Engineering

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231GE211 – BASIC ENGINEERING SCIENCE UNIT 1

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Basic Structure of Power System– Power Generation, Transmission, Distribution–Cables

1.1 BASIC STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM

Structure of Power System

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 1

Fig Structure of power system

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 2

1.2 POWER GENERATION

Fig. Diagram of A generating station

Sources of electric energy

(i)The Sun (ii) The Wind (iii) Water……( Renewable energy)

Types of generating stations:

Fig. Schematic arrangement of steam station

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 4

2. Hydro-electric Power Station

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 5

3. Nuclear Power Plant

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 7

for steam generation. Ordinary water or heavy water is a common coolant.

What are Wind Power Plant? (Wind Turbine)

Working of Wind Power Plant

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 8

Types of Wind Power Plant (Wind Turbines)

There are two types of wind turbines

o Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)

Fig Types of wind turbines

Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 9

o Darius Type turbine

1.3 TRANSMISSION AND SUBSTATIONS

- Cross-border interconnections facilitate international energy exchange.

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 11

Components of Distribution System

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 12

Types of AC Distribution System

Primary Distribution System

Requirements of a Distribution System

1.5 CABLES AND INSULATORS

2. Concentric Neutral Cables:

10. Fiber Optic Cables:

11. Cable Joints and Terminations:

2. Current-Carrying Capacity (Ampacity):

5. Insulation Material and Thickness:

6. Conductor Material and Cross-Sectional Area:

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 15

- Suitable for voltages up to the medium voltage range.

6. Cap and Pin Insulators:

7. Solid Core Insulators:

10. Bushing Insulators:

11. Insulator Strings:

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 17

Properties of Insulator Materials:

1.6 TYPES OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 19

Components of an Electric Motor

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 21

Components of an Electric Generator

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 22

Advantages of Electric Machines

VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGG COLLEGE 23

1. High-Efficiency Power Plants:

2. Renewable Energy Integration: