‫ فرع النسائية‬/ ‫التغذية‬ ‫فاطمة محمد حسين‬

L1
Metabolic rate (MR)
The amount of energy expended by a human over a specific period of time.
Metabolic rate may be measured in joules, calories, or kilocalories per unit
time. may also see [ metabolic rate given as oxygen consumed (or carbon
dioxide produced) per unit time]

What are calories ?

A calorie is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water 1 C
It is used to express the quantity of energy released from different foods or
expended by different functional processes of the body

🎁
Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
Resting Metabolic Rate (RM), which is the calorie BMR
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) is the number of calories burned as the body
performs basic (basal) life-sustaining function.
Commonly also termed as burned if stayed in bed all day
BMR defines basal metabolism rate which makes up about 60-70% of the
calories we use ("burn" or expend)

This includes the energy body uses to maintain the basic function of living and
breathing body, including
1. The beating of our heart
2. Cell production
3. Respiration
4. The maintenance of body temperature
5. Circulation
6. Nutrient processing
unique metabolism rate, or BMR, is influenced by a number of factors including
age, weight, height, gender, environmental temperature, dieting, and
exercise habits
BMR Calculator. ‫حساب معدل االيض االساسي‬
A) Mifflin-St Jeor Equation:
For men:
BMR = (10 x W )+( 6.25x H) - (5x A ) + 5
For women:
BMR = (10 x W )+( 6.25x H) - (5x A ) -161

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 ‫ فرع النسائية‬/ ‫التغذية‬ ‫فاطمة محمد حسين‬

where:
W is body weight in kg
H is body height in cm
A is age
F is body fat in percentage

Energy balance equation

Energy Input (calories in) — Energy Output (calories out) = Energy Balance
1 gram of carbohydrates = 4 Calories
1 gram of protein = 4 Calories
1 gram of fat = 9 Calories

Energy balance

What is Energy balance?

1. Energy going into the body > Energy leaving the body = The body has
positive energy balance
2. Energy going into the body < Energy leaving the body = The body has
negative energy balance
3. Energy going into the body = Energy leaving the body = The body has
equal energy balance

Body Mass Index (BMI)

WHAT IS BODY MASS INDEX (BMI)
Body Mass Index (BMI) is a person’s weight in kilograms (or pounds) divided
by the square of height in metres (or feet)
A high BMI can indicate high body fatness. BMI screens for weight categories
that may lead to health problems, but it does not diagnose the sickness or health
of an individual.
BMI = weight in kilograms (or pounds) / height in metres (or feet)

How many calories do I burn A day ?

According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the average
adult woman expends roughly 1,600 to 2,400 calories per day, and the average
adult man uses 2,000 to 3,000 calories per day.

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 ‫ فرع النسائية‬/ ‫التغذية‬ ‫فاطمة محمد حسين‬

Metabolism

🔻 the chemical processes by which nutritive material is built up into living

🔺 which complex molecules are broken down into simpler substances during
matter, or

the performance of special functions

The various reactions which involve:
▪️ anabolism: reactions which involve the synthesis of complex molecules
▪️ catabolism : the breakdown of complex molecules
both anabolic and catabolic processes include a vast number of different
chemical reactions, but there are a number of common features.
Most of the metabolic processes occur inside the cells of the body, mainly in the
cytoplasm, but also inside intracellular organelles such as the mitochondria.
Anabolic and catabolic reactions involve the action of enzymes and the
utilisation of energy.

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In some cases the metabolic processes are regulated locally, i.e. by the cell
itself, but often the metabolism of the whole body is controlled in an integrated
fashion by the action of hormones and/or the nervous system.

L2
Carbohydrates (CHO)
are organic compounds composed of carbon ,hydrogen, and oxygen. They play
a significant role in providing cells with energy and supporting the normal
functioning of the body
Carbohydrates are classified according to the number of saccharides(sugar
units):
a. Monosaccharides (simple sugars) glucose, galactose ,and fructose.
b. Disaccharides (double sugars) sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
c. Polysaccharides (complex sugars) glycogen, cellulose (fiber), and starch

Types of carbohydrates
1. Sugar:is the simplest form of carbohydrate. It occurs naturally in some
foods, including fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products. Types of
sugar include fruit sugar (fructose), table sugar (sucrose) and milk sugar
(lactose). Added sugars can be found in many foods, such as cookies,
sugary drinks and candy
2. Starch: is a complex carbohydrate. This means it is made of many sugar
units bonded together. Starch occurs naturally in vegetables, grains, and
cooked dry beans and peas.
3. Fiber : is a complex carbohydrate. It occurs naturally in fruits,
vegetables, whole grains, and cooked dry beans and peas

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 ‫ فرع النسائية‬/ ‫التغذية‬ ‫فاطمة محمد حسين‬

Carbohydrates Metabolism
Ptyalin (salivary amylase), pancreatic amylase, and disaccharides maltose,
sucrase, and lactase are used in carbohydrate digestion.
The desired end products of carbohydrate digestion are monosaccharides, which
are absorbed by the small intestine in a healthy person.
After the body breaks carbohydrates down into glucose, some glucose
continues to circulate in the blood to maintain blood levels and to provide a
readily available source of energy.
The remainder is either used as energy or stored, either as glycogen, a large
polymer (compound molecule) of glucose, or as fat (glucose that cannot be
stored as glycogen is converted to fat), by a process called glycogenesis in the
liver and skeletal muscles.
Insulin: a hormone secreted by the pancreas, enhances the transport of glucose
into cells.

How many carbohydrates should I eat a day?

1. The minimum recommended percentage of energy that comes from
carbohydrates is 45%. It means that almost half of your energy should
come from carbohydrates
2. The maximum recommended percentage is 65%. If you eat a higher
percentage of carbs, you probably lack other macronutrients, such as
proteins.
These percentages apply to calories. If you want to recalculate the
recommended number of kcal in carbs to grams, you should use the following
equation: 4 cal = 1 g

Functions of carbohydrates in our body:

1- Carbohydrates as energy source : broken down to mainly glucose are the
preferred source of energy for body, as cells in brain, muscle and all other
tissues directly use monosaccharides for their energy needs.

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 ‫ فرع النسائية‬/ ‫التغذية‬ ‫فاطمة محمد حسين‬

2- The glycaemic response and glycaemic index

When eat a carbohydrate-containing food, blood glucose level rises and then
decreases, a process known as the glycaemic response. It reflects the rate of
digestion and absorption of glucose, the effects of insulin in normalizing the
blood glucose level

3-Gut function and dietary fiber

Although small intestine is unable to digest dietary fiber, fiber helps to ensure
good gut function by increasing the physical bulk in the bowel, and stimulating
the intestinal transit
Once the indigestible carbohydrates pass into the large intestine, some types of
fiber such as gums, pectin's and oligosaccharides are broken down by the gut
microflora
This increases the overall mass in the bowel and has a beneficial effect on the
make-up of gut microflora.
It leads to formation of bacterial waste products, like the short-chain fatty acids,
which are released in the colon with beneficial effects on health

L3
Lipids (Fats, oils)

Lipids : are organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in
organic solvents such as ether and alcohol

They are composed of the same elements as carbohydrates(carbon, hydrogen,

and oxygen) but have a higher hydrogen concentration

📌
Fatty acids are the basic structural units of most lipids.
Fatty acids are described as saturated or unsaturated.
- Saturated fatty acids : are those in which all carbon atoms are filled to
capacity (i.e., saturated) with hydrogen; an example is butyric acid, found
in butter
- unsaturated fatty acid : is one that could accommodate more hydrogen
atoms than it currently does. It has at least two carbon atoms that are not

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 ‫ فرع النسائية‬/ ‫التغذية‬ ‫فاطمة محمد حسين‬

attached to a hydrogen atom; instead, there is a double bond between the

two carbon atoms

❤️ mono - unsaturated fatty acids: fatty acids with one double bond
❤️ poly - unsaturated fatty acids: fatty acids with more than one double bond
(or many carbons not bonded to a hydrogen atom)
- An example of a polyunsaturated fatty acid is linoleic acid, found in
vegetable oil

Lipids are classified as simple or compound.

🔺
▪️ Glycerides: the simple lipids, are the most common form of lipids.
They consist of a glycerol molecule with up to three fatty acids attached
▪️ Triglycerides (which have three fatty acids) account for more than 90 % of the
lipids in food and in the body.
- Triglycerides may contain saturated or unsaturated fatty acids
- Saturated triglycerides: are found in animal products, such as butter, and
are usually solid at room temperature
- Unsaturated triglycerides : are found in plant products, such as olive oil
and corn oil , usually liquid at room temperature

- ▪️ Cholesterol: is a fat-like substance that is both produced by the body

and found in foods of animal origin
Most of the body's cholesterol is synthesized in the liver, some is absorbed
from the diet (e.g., from milk, egg yolk, and organ meats)

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 ‫ فرع النسائية‬/ ‫التغذية‬ ‫فاطمة محمد حسين‬

Lipids metabolism
Lipid metabolism involves the synthesis of the structural and functional lipids
(such as phospholipids, glycolipids, sphingolipids, cholesterol, prostaglandins,
etc.) that are characteristic of individual tissues and the degradation of lipids
to satisfy the metabolic needs of the body (e.g., energy production)

Roles of lipids on cells

1- Storage and provision of energy : Storage lipids are triacylglycerols. These
are inert and made up of three fatty acids and a glycerol.
2- Chemical messengers : all multicellular organisms use chemical messengers
to send information between organelles and other cells. Since lipids are small
molecules insoluble in water, they are excellent candidates for signalling. The
signalling molecules further attach to the receptors on the cell surface and bring
about a change that leads to an action

3- Maintenance of temperature : Layers of subcutaneous fat under the skin

also help in insulation and protection from cold. Maintenance of body
temperature is mainly done by brown fat as opposed to white fat. Babies have a
higher concentration of brown fat.
4- Membrane lipid layer formation : Linoleic and linolenic acids are
essential fatty acids. These form arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic and
docosahexaenoic acids. These are membrane lipids

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 ‫ فرع النسائية‬/ ‫التغذية‬ ‫فاطمة محمد حسين‬

5- Cholesterol formation : Much of the cholesterol is located in cell

membranes. It also occurs in blood in free form as plasma lipoproteins.
Lipoproteins are complex aggregates of lipids and proteins that make travel of
lipids in a watery or aqueous solution possible and enable their transport
throughout the body.
The main groups are classified as chylomicrons (CM), very low density
lipoproteins (VLDL), low density lipoproteins (LDL) and high density
lipoproteins (HDL), based on the relative densities

6- The "fat-soluble" vitamins : The "fat-soluble" vitamins (A, D, E and K) are

essential nutrients with numerous functions.
Acyl-carnitines transport and metabolize fatty acids in and out of mitochondria

7- Prostaglandin formation and role in inflammation : The essential fatty

acids, linoleic and linolenic acids are precursors of many different types of
eicosanoids, including the hydroxyeicosatetraenoic, prostanoids (prostaglandins,
thromboxanes and prostacyclins), leukotrienes (and lipoxins) and resolvins etc.
these play an important role in pain, fever, inflammation and blood clotting.

L4
Proteins
Proteins : are organic compounds that contain carbon ,hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen atoms; some proteins also contain sulphur.
Proteins are essential for almost every bodily function, beginning with the
genetic control of protein synthesis, cell function, and cell reproduction .
- The end products of protein digestion are amino acids
- Every cell in the body contains some protein, and about three quarters of
body solids are proteins
- Amino acids are basic structural units of proteins and categorized as
essential or non-essential

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 ‫ فرع النسائية‬/ ‫التغذية‬ ‫فاطمة محمد حسين‬

Protein Digestion
● Digestion of protein foods begins in the mouth
● Most proteins are digested in the small intestine
● The pancreas secretes the proteolytic enzymes trypsin, chymotrypsin, and
carboxypeptidase, glands in the intestinal wall secrete aminopeptidase
and dipeptidase
● These enzymes break protein down into smaller molecules and eventually
into amino acids
● Amino acids are absorbed by active transport through the small intestine
into the portal blood circulation
● The liver uses some amino acids to synthesize specific proteins (e.g., liver
cells and the plasma proteins albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen)

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 ‫التغذية ‪ /‬فرع النسائية‬ ‫فاطمة محمد حسين‬

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 ‫ فرع النسائية‬/ ‫التغذية‬ ‫فاطمة محمد حسين‬

Protein Metabolism
Protein metabolism includes three activities:
1. anabolism (building tissue)
2. catabolism (breaking down tissue)

🔺
3. nitrogen balance.
ANABOLISM : all body cells synthesize proteins from amino acids. The
types of proteins formed depend on the characteristics of the cell and are

🔺
controlled by its genes.
CATABOLISM : Because a cell can accumulate only a limited amount of

🔺
protein, excess amino acids are degraded for energy or converted to fat.
Nitrogen balance: was calculated as follows:
Nitrogen balance (g/day) = Nitrogen intake (g/day) – Total nitrogen output
(g/day)
Total Nitrogen output (g/day) = 24h nitrogen output (g/day)+4
where 4 is the factor for nitrogen loss through stools, sweat and wounds. It also
includes non-urea nitrogen loss.

▪️ The role of proteins in the body

1- Whenever our body is growing, repairing or replacing tissue, proteins are
involved .
2- Proteins form the building blocks of bones, teeth, muscles, skin and blood.
3- In addition, proteins help to regulate fluid balance, act as enzymes, act as
transporters and some hormones are proteins as well.
4- As antibodies, proteins also help with the body's defence against disease.
5- Proteins can also be used as a source of energy if needed

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 ‫ فرع النسائية‬/ ‫التغذية‬ ‫فاطمة محمد حسين‬

Methods for Assessing Protein Quality

1- Biological Value (BV): This is a measure of the proportion of absorbed
protein from a feed that becomes incorporated into the proteins of the human’s
body. It determines how readily the digested protein can be used in protein
synthesis in the human
BV assumes protein is the only source of nitrogen and measures the proportion
of nitrogen absorbed by the body that is then excreted (faecal and urine)

2- Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER): The PER was the first method adopted for
routine assessment of the protein quality of food. The PER is based on the
weight gain of a test human divided by its intake of a particular food protein
during the test period. PER assumes that all protein is used for growth.

Protein Structures

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