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Chapter 3
Information Technology (IT)
Contents
 Learning Objectives
 Introduction
 Hardware: Computing, Storing and communicating
 Programs: In Charge of the Hardware
 People: The Most Important Element
 Procedures: The Way It Goes
 The Reasons for Using Information Technology
 Communication Technologies
 Database Management Systems (DBMS)
 Summary
 Review Questions

3.1. Learning Objectives

After reading this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain how hardware, software, data, people, and procedures are
combined to form an information system
 Identify the main reasons for using IT by organizations.
 Describe the benefits of computer networking and discuss about components
communication technologies.
 Describe the concept of a Database Management System (DBMS).

3.2. Introduction

The technology plays an important role in delivering timely and error free information to
its recipients. Technology includes hardware, software, databases, and communication
system. Hardware is a set of devices such as processor, monitors, keyboard, and printer
that accept data, process them, and display them. Software is a set of programs that
enable the hardware to process data. Database is also an integral part of IT system, which
is a collection of related files, tables, relation etc. that stores data and the association
among them. Network connects computing resources of an organization and facilitates
sharing of hardware and software. The organization processes and people are integral part
of an IT System.
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Figure.3.1: IT Components/ Resources.

3.3. Hardware: Computing, Storing and communicating

3.3.1. Basic Computer Operations

A computer as shown in Figure.3.2 performs basically five major operations or functions.

These are 1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input, 2) it stores data, 3) it can
process data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in the form of output, and 5) it
controls all operations inside a computer. We discuss below each of these operations.

1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system.
You should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which
takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out processed data.
Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for
processing.

Figure. 3.2: Basic computer Operations

2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage.
Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the
processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be
provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit
for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer
system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and
instructions.

The storage unit performs the following major functions:

 All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
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 Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is
called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from
the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the
type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.

4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful
information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be
kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form.
Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.

5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are
performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed
by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations in side the
computer.

3.3.2. Central Processing Unit

The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing
unit. You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that
takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the
computer functions by activating and controlling the operations.

Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)

After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The
actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit.
The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when
required. After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further
processing or getting stored.

Control Unit (CU)

The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor
seeing that things are done in proper fashion. The control unit determines the sequence in
which computer programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of
programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of
signals for other units of the computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board
operator when several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates
the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output.
Therefore it is the manager of all operations mentioned in the previous section.

3.2.3. Storage Unit

There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and secondary. Primary memory is
accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of primary memory. As
soon as the computer is switched off the contents of the primary memory is lost. You can
store and retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to secondary
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memory. Secondary memory such as floppy disks, magnetic disk, etc., is located outside
the computer. Primary memory is more expensive than secondary memory. Because of
this the size of primary memory is less than that of secondary memory. We will discuss
about secondary memory later on.

Primary Memory
Computer memory is used to store two things: i) instructions to execute a program and
ii) data. When the computer is doing any job, the data that have to be processed are stored
in the primary memory. This data may come from an input device like keyboard or from
a secondary storage device like a floppy disk.

As program or the set of instructions is kept in primary memory, the computer is able to
follow instantly the set of instructions. For example, when you book ticket from railway
reservation counter, the computer has to follow the same steps: take the request, check
the availability of seats, calculate fare, wait for money to be paid, store the reservation
and get the ticket printed out. The program containing these steps is kept in memory of
the computer and is followed for each request.

But inside the computer, the steps followed are quite different from what we see on the
monitor or screen. In computer’s memory both programs and data are stored in the binary
form. You have already been introduced with decimal number system, that is the
numbers 1 to 9 and 0. The binary system has only two values 0 and 1. These are called
bits. As human beings we all understand decimal system but the computer can only
understand binary system. It is because a large number of integrated circuits inside the
computer can be considered as switches, which can be made ON, or OFF. If a switch is
ON it is considered 1 and if it is OFF it is 0. A number of switches in different states will
give you a message like this: 110101....10. So the computer takes input in the form of 0
and 1 and gives output in the form 0 and 1 only. Is it not absurd if the computer gives
outputs as 0’s & 1’s only? But you do not have to worry about. Every number in binary
system can be converted to decimal system and vice versa; for example, 1010 meaning
decimal 10. Therefore it is the computer that takes information or data in decimal form
from you, convert it in to binary form, process it producing output in binary form and
again convert the output to decimal form.

The primary memory as you know in the computer is in the form of IC’s (Integrated
Circuits). These circuits are called Random Access Memory (RAM). Each of RAM’s
locations stores one byte of information. (One byte is equal to 8 bits). A bit is an acronym
for binary digit, which stands for one binary piece of information. This can be either 0 or
1. You will know more about RAM later. The Primary or internal storage section is made
up of several small storage locations (ICs) called cells. Each of these cells can store a
fixed number of bits called word length.

Each cell has a unique number assigned to it called the address of the cell and it is used to
identify the cells. The address starts at 0 and goes up to (N-1). You should know that the
memory is like a large cabinet containing as many drawers as there are addresses on
memory. Each drawer contains a word and the address is written on outside of the
drawer.

Capacity of Primary Memory

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You know that each cell of memory contains one character or 1 byte of data. So the
capacity is defined in terms of byte or words. Thus 64 kilobyte (KB) memory is capable
of storing 64 ´ 1024 = 32,768 bytes. (1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes). A memory size ranges
from few kilobytes in small systems to several thousand kilobytes in large mainframe and
super computer. In your personal computer you will find memory capacity in the range of
64 KB, 4 MB, 8 MB and even 16 MB (MB = Million bytes).

The following terms related to memory of a computer are discussed below:

1. Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as random
access memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any
location of the memory directly store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any
address of the memory as the first address. It is also called read/write memory.
The storage of data and instructions inside the primary storage is temporary. It
disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off. The
memories, which loose their content on failure of power supply, are known as
volatile memories .So now we can say that RAM is volatile memory.
2. Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory in computer, which is
called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the
ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM
stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to
operate the personal computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it
cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that
examines and initializes various equipment attached to the PC when the switch is
made ON. The memories, which do not loose their content on failure of power
supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.
3. PROM There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to
modify or erase programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store your
program in PROM chip. Once the programs are written it cannot be changed and
remain intact even if power is switched off. Therefore programs or instructions
written in PROM or ROM cannot be erased or changed.
4. EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which
over come the problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed
time and again by erasing the information stored earlier in it. Information stored
in EPROM exposing the chip for some time ultraviolet light and it erases chip is
reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When the EPROM is in use
information can only be read.
5. Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access
time of main memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the
slow speed of main memory. To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a
small memory chip is attached between CPU and Main memory whose access
time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called CACHE memory.
CACHE memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM. It is used to
store programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used
by the CPU. So each memory makes main memory to be faster and larger than it
really is. It is also very expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its
size is normally kept small.
6. Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed, there is also
movement of data between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer
the processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a number of special
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memory units called registers. They are not part of the main memory but they
store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directed by the control unit.

Secondary memory
You are now clear that the operating speed of primary memory or main memory should
be as fast as possible to cope up with the CPU speed. These high-speed storage devices
are very expensive and hence the cost per bit of storage is also very high. Again the
storage capacity of the main memory is also very limited. Often it is necessary to store
hundreds of millions of bytes of data for the CPU to process. Therefore additional
memory is required in all the computer systems. This memory is called auxiliary memory
or secondary storage.

In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the operating speed is
slower than that of the primary storage. Huge volume of data are stored here on
permanent basis and transferred to the primary storage as and when required. Most
widely used secondary storage devices are magnetic tapes and magnetic disk.

1. Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe
computers where large volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also you
can use tapes in the form of cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is
inexpensive. Tapes consist of magnetic materials that store data permanently. It
can be 12.5 mm to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and 500 meter to 1200 meter
long which is coated with magnetic material. The deck is connected to the central
processor and information is fed into or read from the tape through the processor.
It is similar to cassette tape recorder.

Figure. 3.3. Magnetic Tape

Advantages of Magnetic Tape:

 Compact: A 10-inch diameter reel of tape is 2400 feet long and is able to
hold 800, 1600 or 6250 characters in each inch of its length. The maximum
capacity of such tape is 180 million characters. Thus data are stored much
more compactly on tape.
 Economical: The cost of storing characters is very less as compared to other
storage devices.
 Fast: Copying of data is easier and fast.
 Long term Storage and Re-usability: Magnetic tapes can be used for long
term storage and a tape can be used repeatedly with out loss of data.
2. Magnetic Disk: You might have seen the gramophone record, which is circular
like a disk and coated with magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in computer
are made on the same principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the
computer drive. Data is stored on both the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are
most popular for direct access storage device. Each disk consists of a number of
invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded on tracks of a
disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic spot
represents one bit and its absence represents zero bit. The information stored in a
disk can be read many times without affecting the stored data. So the reading
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operation is non-destructive. But if you want to write a new data, then the existing
data is erased from the disk and new data is recorded.

3. Floppy Disk: It is similar to magnetic disk discussed above. They are 5.25 inch or
3.5 inch in diameter. They come in single or double density and recorded on one
or both surface of the diskette. The capacity of a 5.25-inch floppy is 1.2 mega
bytes whereas for 3.5 inch floppy it is 1.44 mega bytes. It is cheaper than any
other storage devices and is portable. The floppy is a low cost device particularly
suitable for personal computer system.
4. Optical Disk:
With every new application and software there is greater demand for memory
capacity. It is the necessity to store large volume of data that has led to the
development of optical disk storage medium. Optical disks can be divided into the
following categories:
 Compact Disk/ Read Only Memory (CD-ROM): CD-ROM disks are made of
reflective metals. CD-ROM is written during the process of manufacturing by
high power laser beam. Here the storage density is very high, storage cost is very
low and access time is relatively fast. Each disk is approximately 4 1/2 inches in
diameter and can hold over 600 MB of data. As the CD-ROM can be read only
we cannot write or make changes into the data contained in it.
 Write Once, Read Many (WORM): The inconvenience that we can not write any
thing in to a CD-ROM is avoided in WORM. A WORM allows the user to write
data permanently on to the disk. Once the data is written it can never be erased
without physically damaging the disk. Here data can be recorded from keyboard,
video scanner, OCR equipment and other devices. The advantage of WORM is
that it can store vast amount of data amounting to gigabytes (109 bytes). Any
document in a WORM can be accessed very fast, say less than 30 seconds.
 Erasable Optical Disk: These are optical disks where data can be written, erased
and re-written. This also applies a laser beam to write and re-write the data. These
disks may be used as alternatives to traditional disks. Erasable optical disks are
based on a technology known as magnetic optical (MO). To write a data bit on to
the erasable optical disk the MO drive's laser beam heats a tiny, precisely defined
point on the disk's surface and magnetizes it.

3.3.4. Input Output Devices

A computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the external environment.
When you work with the computer you feed your data and instructions through some
devices to the computer. These devices are called Input devices. Similarly computer after
processing gives output through other devices called output devices.

For a particular application one form of device is more desirable compared to others. We
will discuss various types of I/O devices that are used for different types of applications.
They are also known as peripheral devices because they surround the CPU and make a
communication between computer and the outer world.

Input Devices
Input devices are necessary to convert our information or data in to a form which can be
understood by the computer. A good input device should provide timely, accurate and
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useful data to the main memory of the computer for processing followings are the most
useful input devices.
1. Keyboard: - This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The
layout of keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter of the type QWERTY. It
also contains some extra command keys and function keys. It contains a total of
101 to 104 keys. A typical keyboard used in a computer is shown in Figure. 3.4.
You have to press correct combination of keys to input data. The computer can
recognize the electrical signals corresponding to the correct key combination and
processing is done accordingly.

Figure. 3.4: Keyboard & mouse

2. Mouse: - Mouse is an input device shown in Figure. 3.4 that is used with your
personal computer. It rolls on a small ball and has two or three buttons on the top.
When you roll the mouse across a flat surface the screen censors the mouse in the
direction of mouse movement. The cursor moves very fast with mouse giving you
more freedom to work in any direction. It is easier and faster to move through a
mouse.

3. Scanner: The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we
want to input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical device
that can input any graphical matter and display it back. The common optical
scanner devices are Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR), Optical Mark
Reader (OMR) and Optical Character Reader (OCR).
o Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): - This is widely used by
banks to process large volumes of cheques and drafts. Cheques are put
inside the MICR. As they enter the reading unit the cheques pass through
the magnetic field which causes the read head to recognize the character of
the cheques.
o Optical Mark Reader (OMR): This technique is used when students
have appeared in objective type tests and they had to mark their answer by
darkening a square or circular space by pencil. These answer sheets are
directly fed to a computer for grading where OMR is used.
o Optical Character Recognition (OCR): - This technique unites the
direct reading of any printed character. Suppose you have a set of hand
written characters on a piece of paper. You put it inside the scanner of the
computer. This pattern is compared with a site of patterns stored inside the
computer. Whichever pattern is matched is called a character read.
Patterns that cannot be identified are rejected. OCRs are expensive though
better the MICR.

Activity A
What would you suggest about the importance of the different storage devices?
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Output Devices
1. Visual Display Unit: The most popular input/output device is the Visual Display
Unit (VDU). It is also called the monitor. A Keyboard is used to input data and
Monitor is used to display the input data and to receive massages from the
computer. A monitor has its own box which is separated from the main computer
system and is connected to the computer by cable. In some systems it is compact
with the system unit. It can be color or monochrome.
2. Terminals: It is a very popular interactive input-output unit. It can be divided into
two types: hard copy terminals and soft copy terminals. A hard copy terminal
provides a printout on paper whereas soft copy terminals provide visual copy on
monitor. A terminal when connected to a CPU sends instructions directly to the
computer. Terminals are also classified as dumb terminals or intelligent terminals
depending upon the work situation.
3. Printer: It is an important output device which can be used to get a printed copy
of the processed text or result on paper. There are different types of printers that
are designed for different types of applications. Depending on their speed and
approach of printing, printers are classified as impact and non-impact printers.
Impact printers use the familiar typewriter approach of hammering a typeface
against the paper and inked ribbon. Dot-matrix printers are of this type. Non-
impact printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print. They use electro-static
chemicals and ink-jet technologies. Laser printers and Ink-jet printers are of this
type. This type of printers can produce color printing and elaborate graphics.

Figure. 3.5: Laser Printer

3.4. Programs: In Charge of the Hardware

What Is Software?
As you know, computer cannot do anything without instructions from the user. In order
to do any specific job you have to give a sequence of instructions to the computer. This
set of instructions is called a computer program. Software refers to the set of computer
programs, procedures that describe the programs, how they are to be used. We can say
that it is the collection of programs, which increase the capabilities of the hardware.
Software guides the computer at every step where to start and stop during a particular job.
The process of software development is called programming.
You should keep in mind that software and hardware are complementary to each other.
Both have to work together to produce meaningful result. Another important point you
should know that producing software is difficult and expensive.

Computer software is normally classified into two broad categories.

1. Application Software
2. System software
1. Application Software: Application Software is a set of programs to carry out
operations for a specific application. For example, payroll is an application software
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for an organization to produce pay slips as an output. Application software is useful

for word processing, billing system, accounting, producing statistical report, analysis
of numerous data in research, weather forecasting, etc. In later modules you will learn
about MS WORD, Lotus 1-2-3 and dBASE III Plus. All these are application
software. Another example of application software is programming language. Among
the programming languages COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) is more
suitable for business application whereas FORTRAN (Formula Translation) is useful
for scientific application.

2. System Software: You know that an instruction is a set of programs that has to be
fed to the computer for operation of computer system as a whole. When you switch
on the computer the programs written in ROM is executed which activates different
units of your computer and makes it ready for you to work on it. This set of program
can be called system software. Therefore system software may be defined as a set of
one or more programs designed to control the operation of computer system.

System software are general programs designed for performing tasks such as controlling
all operations required to move data into and out of the computer. It communicates with
printers, card reader, disk, tapes etc. monitor the use of various hardware like memory,
CPU etc. Also system software are essential for the development of applications
software. System Software allows application packages to be run on the computer with
less time and effort. Remember that it is not possible to run application software without
system software.

Development of system software is a complex task and it requires extensive knowledge

of computer technology. Due to its complexity it is not developed in house. Computer
manufactures build and supply this system software with the computer system. DOS,
UNIX and WINDOWS are some of the widely used system software. Out of these UNIX
is a multi-user operating system whereas DOS and WINDOWS are PC-based.

So without system software it is impossible to operate your computer. The following

picture is shown in Figure. 3.6. Relation between hardware, software and you as a user of
computer system.

Figure. 3.6. Relation between hardware & software.

3.5. People: The Most Important Element

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The effectiveness of an IT infrastructure is a function of the type of IT personnel

available to it. In fact, best of computer hardware, software and data may be spoiled and
may cause havoc if human resources are not competent, honest or reliable. Qualities like
competence, honesty and reliability are critical to any work environment.

People resources include IS specialists and end users.

 IS Specialists – systems analysts, programmers, computer operators etc.
 End users – anyone else who uses information systems.

Information System Specialists

Those are the ones who have full-time responsibility for developing and maintaining
computer based systems. There are five categories of information specialists:
 System analysts work with users to define the requirements for developing
new systems and improving existing ones.
 Database administrator’s work with users and system analysts to create
databases that contain the data needed to produce the user’s information.
 Network specialists work with system analysts and users to establish the data
communication networks that tie together widespread computing resources.
 Programmers use the documentation prepared by the systems analysts to
encode the instructions that cause the computer to transform the data into
information needed by the user.
 Operators handle the large-scale computing equipment such as mainframe
computers and mini-computers.

3.6. Procedures: The Way It Goes

The procedures play an important role in a smooth and effective utilization of

information resource. They also protect the information resource and maintain its quality.
Thus the procedures as element of information system refer to the instructions to users
regarding the use of IT infrastructure for normal day to day activity and also for handling
special situations such as system failure and crushes. They include user access
permissions and disaster recovery procedures as well.
Examples of procedures:
1. User instructions (for users of the application to record data, employ a terminal to
enter or retrieve data, or use the result.)
2. Instruction for preparation of input by data preparation personnel.
3. Operating instructions for computer operations personnel.

3.7. The Reasons for Using Information Technology

No matter how they may be classified, information systems have the following business
values in an organization by supporting business operations, decision-making, and
strategic management:
• Support of business operations.
• Support of managerial decision-making.
• Support of strategic competitive advantage.
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Let’s take a retail store as an example to illustrate this importance.

As a consumer, you have to deal regularly with information systems used to support
business operations at the many retail stores where you shop. For example, most
department stores use computer-based information systems to help them record customer
purchases, keep track of inventory, pay employees, buy new merchandise, and evaluate
sales trends. Store operations would grind to a halt without the support of such
information systems.

Information systems also help store managers make better decisions and attempt to gain a
strategic competitive advantage. For example, decisions on what lines of clothing or
appliances need to be added or discontinued, or what kind of investments they require,
are typically made after an analysis provided by computer-based information systems.

This not only supports the decision making of store managers but also helps them look
for ways to gain an advantage over other retailers in the competition for customers. For
example, store managers might make a decision to invest in a computerized touch-screen
catalog ordering system as a strategic information system. This might attract customers
away from other stores, based on the ease of ordering merchandise provided by such a
computer-based information system. Thus, strategic information helps provide strategic
products and services that given an organization a comparative advantage over its
competitors.

Business values of IT

The impact of IT on a business has been tremendous. One of the advantages of IT

systems for a business is the cost-performance ratio, which is better in case of
computers. The labor cost increases every year but the cost of computer does not
increase. A better and more powerful computer can be bought for the same price
after a year. It is better to use computers for routine jobs as far as possible. The IT
has been used in every business and for every function of a business. Some of the
applications are as follows.
Finance and Accounting: IT has been used for forecasting revenues, determining
the best sources and uses of funds and managing cash and other financial resources.
IT has also been used to analyze investments and perform audits.
Sales and Marketing: IT has been used to develop new services, which may not
exist without IT. IT has helped management of various organizations to determine
the best location for production and distribution facilities. The operational data has
been analyzed using IT to determine the best advertising and sales approaches. The
product prices have been set using IT to get the highest total revenues. In other
words, IT has been used for product analysis and price analysis.
Manufacturing: IT has been extensively used for processing customer orders,
controlling inventory levels, developing production schedules and for monitoring
product quality. A whole new discipline— Computer Aided Design and Computer
Aided Manufacturing has evolved due to application of IT to design and
manufacturing. The manufacturing is not what is used to be due to the use of
computers, Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) dominates the manufacturing
sector.
Human Resource Management: Companies are using IT systems for screening
applicants and conducting various tests.
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Project Management: A range of software packages are available in the market for
managing projects. These software products let the management set the schedules,
milestones, facilitate communication among group members, and monitor the project
progress. These products help in document and report preparation.
Data Analysis: Investment firms heavily use information systems to analyze stocks,
bonds and options to provide better service to their clients.

Global IT Applications
The search for systems economies was usually the initial driving force for global IT
applications in many firms. For instance, an engineering firm wished to use a common
engineering database to share project work between its U.S. and Asian offices. In
addition to anticipated variations in engineering codes and relative costs of materials,
management soon discovered that the Asian project requirements demanded far more
detailed specifications for contractors than had traditionally been required of their U.S.
office. Except for the economies of scale for systems, other divers were also to be
considered. The following are the implications of some other common drivers for the
global IT.
 Global customer -Firms that serve traveling customers (airlines, hotels etc.) find it
necessary to have worldwide customer databases. Corporate customers with global
operations that more and more are demanding integrated worldwide services are
increasingly imposing a similar requirement.
 Global product -The product is either the same through the world (e.g., Coco Cola)
or is assembled from subsidiaries through the world (e.g., security), currency
exchange etc.) . Information systems can provide the ability to manage worldwide
marketing programs.
 Rationalized operation - Different subsidiaries build different parts of the same
product based on availability of skills, raw materials, or favorable business climate.
For example, a computer manufacturer might build software in Japan, monitors in
China, and circuit boards in Cincinnati and the U.S. MIS is used to coordinate the
operations.
 Flexible operations - Operations al-e moved from a plant in one country to a plant in
another. Fort in stance, a computer vendor moves production of personal computers
between plants in respond to labor strife or raw material shortages. Common systems
exist across plants, which facilitates the move.
 Joint resource - National subsidiaries may share certain facilities or people. For
instance, the Chinese subsidiaries for a petroleum company jointly own tankers or
storage tanks. A material resource system is implemented to track the location of joint
resource.
 Risk reduction - Risks associated with currency conversions, multiple global
markets, and multiple traders are alleviated. For instance, a petroleum company
develops a global system for bidding on crude oil contracts, or a multinational bank
implements a global risk management system for currency trading.
 Legal requirements - Information requirements mandated by laws in one or more
countries are consolidated. For instance, financial or environmental regulations
imposed on a subsidiary may necessitate corporate-wide information requirements if
the subsidiary intends to sell or use products manufactured elsewhere.
Global Information Technology spending is expected to grow rapidly during the next
five years. Because of the magnitude of this investment in the world market, many
organizations will be forced to evolve into global corporations all over the world. The
managers that will view these rapid changes in the global market as an opportunity rather
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than a burden will have considerable payoffs. Strategically placed investments in global
information technology will provide an opportunity to increase control and enhance
coordination to their organization while opening access to the new global market.

Information Technology can provide competitive advantage through product

differentiation, unique services, cost reductions, and informed market segmentation. In
addition, productivity is improved through gains in both data processing and workflow
processing procedures. Together automation applications can be evaluated relative to
enhanced profitability. Using these three ‘common sense’ benchmarks provides a beyond
best practices approach to the evaluation of information technology usage.

3.8. Communication Technologies

3.8.1. Data Communication

We all are acquainted with some sorts of communication in our day to day life. For
communication of information and messages we use telephone and postal communication
systems. Similarly data and information from one computer system can be transmitted to
other systems across geographical areas. Thus data transmission is the movement of
information using some standard methods. These methods include electrical signals
carried along a conductor, optical signals along an optical fibers and electromagnetic
areas.

Suppose a manager has to write several letters to various clients. First he has to use his
PC and Word Processing package to prepare his letter. If the PC is connected to the entire
client's PCs through networking, he can send the letters to all the clients within minutes.
Thus irrespective of geographical areas, if PCs are connected through communication
channel, the data and information, computer files and any other program can be
transmitted to other computer systems within seconds. The modern form of
communication like e-mail and Internet is possible only because of computer networking.

Basic Elements of a Communication System

The following are the basic requirements for working of a communication system.
1. A sender (source) which creates the message to be transmitted.
2. A medium that carries the message.
3. A receiver (sink) which receives the message.

In data communication four basic terms are frequently used. They are
 Data: A collection of facts in raw forms that become information after
processing.
 Signals: Electric or electromagnetic encoding of data.
 Signaling: Propagation of signals across a communication medium.
 Transmission: Communication of data achieved by the processing of signals.

Communication Protocols
You may be wondering how do the computers send and receive data across
communication links. The answer is data communication software. It is this software that
enables us to communicate with other systems. The data communication software
instructs computer systems and devices as to how exactly data is to be transferred from
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one place to another. The procedure of data transformation in the form of software is
commonly called protocol.
The data transmission software or protocols perform the following functions for the
efficient and error free transmission of data.
1. Data sequencing: A long message to be transmitted is broken into smaller
packets of fixed size for error free data transmission.
2. Data Routing: It is the process of finding the most efficient route between source
and destination before sending the data.
3. Flow control: All machines are not equally efficient in terms of speed. Hence the
flow control regulates the process of sending data between fast sender and slow
receiver.
4. Error Control: Error detecting and recovering is the one of the main function of
communication software. It ensures that data are transmitted without any error.

Data Transmission Modes

There are three ways for transmitting data from one point to another
1. Simplex: In simplex mode the communication can take place in one direction.
The receiver receives the signal from the transmitting device. In this mode the
flow of information is Uni.-directional. Hence it is rarely used for data
communication.
2. Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode the communication channel is used in both
directions, but only in one direction at a time. Thus a half-duplex line can
alternately send and receive data.
3. Full-duplex: In full duplex the communication channel is used in both directions
at the same time. Use of full-duplex line improves the efficiency as the line turn-
around time required in half-duplex arrangement is eliminated. Example of this
mode of transmission is the telephone line.

Figure.3.7. Data Transmission Modes

Digital and Analog Transmission

Data is transmitted from one point to another point by means of electrical signals that
may be in digital and analog form. So you should know the fundamental difference
between analog and digital signals. In analog signal the transmission power varies over a
continuous range with respect to sound, light and radio waves. On the other hand a digital
signal may assume only discrete set of values within a given range. Examples are
computer and computer related equipment. Analog signal is measured in Volts and its
frequency in Hertz (Hz). A digital signal is a sequence of voltage represented in binary
form. When digital data are to be sent over an analog form the digital signal must be
converted to analog form. So the technique by which a digital signal is converted to
analog form is known as modulation. And the reverse process, that is the conversion of
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analog signal to its digital form, is known as demodulation. The device, which converts
digital signal into analog, and the reverse, is known as modem.

Figgure.3.8: Analog Signal & Digital Signal

Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission

Data transmission through a medium can be either asynchronous or synchronous. In
asynchronous transmission data is transmitted character by character as you go on typing
on a keyboard. Hence there are irregular gaps between characters. However, it is cheaper
to implement, as you do not have to save the data before sending. On the other hand, in
the synchronous mode, the saved data is transmitted block by block. Each block can
contain many characters. Synchronous transmission is well suited for remote
communication between a computer and related devices like card reader and printers.

Following are the major communication devices/media used to establish network

today:
1. Wire Pairs: Wire pairs are commonly used in local telephone communication
and for short distance digital data communication. They are usually made up of
copper and the pair of wires is twisted together. Data transmission speed is
normally 9600 bits per second in a distance of 100 meter.
2. Coaxial Cables: Coaxial cable is groups of specially wrapped and insulted wires
that are able to transfer data at higher rate. They consist of a central copper wire
surrounded by an insulation over which copper mesh is placed. They are used for
long distance telephone lines and local area network for their noise immunity and
faster data transfer.
3. Fiber optics: A strand of fiber-optic cable reflects the light that passes through it
back into the fiber, so light cannot escape the strand. Fiber-optic cables carry
more information, suffer less interference, and require fewer signal repeaters over
long distances than wires. It also immune to the effects of moisture and lighting.
Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances
than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capacity to carry information at
greater speeds; however, it is more difficult to install and modify.

Figure. 3.9 : Wire Pairs, Coaxial Cables, & Fiber Optics

4. Microwave: Microwave system uses very high frequency radio signals to

transmit data through space. The transmitter and receiver of a microwave system
should be in line-of-sight because the radio signal cannot bend. With microwave
very long distance transmission is not possible. In order to overcome the problem
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of line of sight and power amplification of weak signal, repeaters are used at
intervals of 25 to 30 kilometers between the transmitting and receiving end.
5. Communication Satellite: The problem of line-sight and repeaters are overcome
by using satellites which are the most widely used data transmission media in
modern days. A communication satellite is a microwave relay station placed in
outer space. INSAT-1B is such a satellite that can be accessible from anywhere in
India. In satellite communication, microwave signal is transmitted from a
transmitter on earth to the satellite at space. The satellite amplifies the weak signal
and transmits it back to the receiver. The main advantage of satellite
communication is that it is a single microwave relay station visible from any point
of a very large area. In microwave the data transmission rate is 16 giga bits per
second. They are mostly used to link big metropolitan cities.

3.8.2. Computer Network

A computer network is an interconnection of various computer systems located at

different places. In computer network two or more computers are linked together with a
medium and data communication devices for the purpose of communicating data and
sharing resources. The computer that provides resources to other computers on a network
is known as server. In the network the individual computers, which access shared
network resources, are known as workstations or nodes.
Some of the advantages of networks are:
 Resource Sharing- it is to make programs, files, equipment, and data available to
anyone on the network without regard to physical location of the source and the
user.

 Provide High Reliability- by having alternative sources of supply, it supports the

critical function of backup. In the event a computer fails, its counterpart can
assume its functions and workload.

 Cost Minimizing- by using small personal computers and file servers, we replace
early expensive mainframes. In addition, we can share many software programs
rather than buying individual copies, and also we can update the software through
the network.

 Flexible Working Environment- employees can work at home by networking

computers to their office, on trips through their portable computers, travel to
remote offices and use telephones and networks to perform their duties.

Computer Networks may be classified on the basis of geographical area in three broad
categories.
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Networks(MANs)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

1. Local Area Network (LAN): Networks used to interconnect computers in a single

room, rooms within a building or buildings on one site are called Local Area Network
(LAN). LAN transmits data with a speed of several megabits per second (10 6 bits per
second). The transmission medium is normally coaxial cables.
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LAN links computers, i.e., software and hardware, in the same area for the purpose of
sharing information. Usually LAN links computers within a limited geographical area
because they must be connected by a cable, which is quite expensive. People working in
LAN get more capabilities in data processing, work processing and other information
exchange compared to stand-alone computers. Because of this information exchange
most of the business and government organizations are using LAN.

2. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs): are bigger versions of a LAN and normally
uses similar technology. It might cover a group of nearby corporate offices or a city and
might be either private or public. Cable television network is a good example of MAN.
The key aspect of MAN is that there is broadcast medium (two cables) to which all the
computers are attached, which simplifies its design compared to other kinds of networks

3. Wide Area Network (WAN): The term Wide Area Network (WAN) is used to describe
a computer network spanning a regional, national or global area. For example, for a large
company the head quarters might be at Delhi and regional branches at Bombay, Madras,
Bangalore and Calcutta. Here regional centers are connected to head quarters through
WAN. The distance between computers connected to WAN is larger. Therefore the
transmission mediums used are normally telephone lines, microwaves and satellite links.

Some Examples of WAN

1. Ethernet: Ethernet developed by Xerox Corporation is a famous example of
WAN. This network uses coaxial cables for data transmission. Special integrated
circuit chips called controllers are used to connect equipment to the cable.
2. Aparnet: The Aparnet is another example of WAN. It was developed at
Advanced Research Projects Agency of U. S. Department. This Network connects
more than 40 universities and institutions throughout USA and Europe.

Network Topology
The term topology in the context of communication network refers to the way the
computers or workstations in the network are linked together. According to the physical
arrangements of workstations and nature of work, there are three major types of network
topology. They are star topology, bus topology and ring topology.

1. Star topology: In star topology a number of workstations (or nodes) are directly linked
to a central node (see, Figure. 3.10). Any communication between stations on a star LAN
must pass through the central node. There is bi-directional communication between
various nodes. The central node controls all the activities of the nodes. The advantages of
the star topology are:
 It offers flexibility of adding or deleting of workstations from the network.
 Breakdown of one station does not affect any other device on the network.
The major disadvantage of star topology is that failure of the central node disables
communication throughout the whole network.
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Figure. 3.10: Star Topology

2. Bus Topology: In bus topology all workstations are connected to a single

communication line called bus. In this type of network topology there is no central node
as in star topology. Transmission from any station travels the length of the bus in both
directions and can be received by all workstations. The advantage of the bus topology is
that
 It is quite easy to set up.
 If one station of the topology fails it does not affect the entire system.
The disadvantage of bus topology is that any break in the bus is difficult to identify.

Figure. 3.11: Bus Topology

3. Ring Topology: In ring topology each station is attached nearby stations on a point to
point basis so that the entire system is in the form of a ring. In this topology data is
transmitted in one direction only. Thus the data packets circulate along the ring in either
clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. The advantage of this topology is that any signal
transmitted on the network passes through all the LAN stations. The disadvantage of ring
network is that the breakdown of any one station on the ring can disable the entire
system.

Figure. 3.12: Ring Topology

4. Mesh Topology: A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability.
In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by separate
cabling. This configuration provides redundant paths throughout the network so that if
one cable fails, another will take over the traffic. While ease of troubleshooting and
increased reliability are definite pluses, these networks are expensive to install because
they use a lot of cabling. Often, a mesh topology will be used in conjunction with other
topologies to form a hybrid topology.

3.8.3. Internet

The Internet is a network of networks. Millions of computers all over the world are
connected through the Internet. Computer users on the Internet can contact one another
anywhere in the world. If your computer is connected to the Internet, you can connect to
millions of computers. You can gather information and distribute your data. It is very
much similar to the telephone connection where you can talk with any person anywhere
in the world.
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In Internet a huge resource of information is accessible to people across the world.

Information in every field starting from education, science, health, medicine, history, and
geography to business, news, etc. can be retrieved through Internet. You can also
download programs and software packages from anywhere in the world. Due to the
tremendous information resources the Internet can provide, it is now indispensable to
every organisation.

Origin of Internet
In 1969 Department of Defence (DOD) of USA started a network called ARPANET
(Advanced Research Projects Administration Network) with one computer at California
and three at Utah. Later on other universities and R & D institutions were allowed to
connect to the Network. APARNET quickly grew to encompass the entire American
continent and became a huge success. Every university in the country wanted to become
a part of ARPANET. So the network was broken into two smaller parts MILNET for
managing military sites and ARPANET (smaller) for managing non-military sites.
Around 1980, NSFNET (National Science Foundation Network) was created. With the
advancement of modern communication facilities, other computers were also allowed to
be linked up with any computer of NSFNET. By 1990 many computers were looking up
to NSFNET giving birth to Internet.

How Internet functions

Internet is not a governmental organisation. The ultimate authority of the Internet is the
Internet Society. This is a voluntary membership organisation whose purpose is to
promote global information exchange. Internet has more than one million computers
attached to it.

E-mail stands for electronic mail. This is one of the most widely used features of
Internet. Mails are regularly used today where with the help of postage stamp we can
transfer mails anywhere in the world. With electronic mail the service is similar. But here
data are transmitted through Internet and therefore within minutes the message reaches
the destination may it be anywhere in the world. Therefore the mailing system is
excessively fast and is being used widely for mail transfer.

Internet Service Provider (ISP), company that sells access to the Internet, allowing
computer users to send electronic mail (e-mail) and browse the World Wide Web
(WWW), among other tasks. In some cases, ISPs sell dial-up access, providing a phone
number that lets users dial into the Internet via a computer modem. In other cases, they
sell broadband access, a much faster connection to the Internet. Some broadband
services, known as Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL) services, run over standard telephone
lines, while others use cable television lines or wireless connections to orbiting satellites.
Typically, the ISP must visit the user’s home and install the broadband service on the
user’s computer, but some companies offer toolkits that let users install the service on
their own. ISPs typically charge a monthly fee for Internet access, and they often charge
an additional fee for broadband installation.

3.9. Database Management Systems (DBMS)

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Before the database management approach, organizations relied on file processing

systems to organize, store, and process data files. End users became aggravated with file
processing because data is stored in many different files and each organized in a different
way. Each file was specialized to be used with a specific application. Needless to say, file
processing was bulky, costly and nonflexible when it came to supplying needed data
accurately and promptly. Data redundancy is an issue with the file processing system
because the independent data files produce duplicate data so when updates were needed
each separate file would need to be updated. Another issue is the lack of data integration.
The data is dependent on other data to organize and store it. Lastly, there was not any
consistency or standardization of the data in a file processing system which makes
maintenance difficult. For all these reasons, the database management approach was
produced. Database management systems (DBMS) are designed to use one of five
database structures to provide simplistic access to information stored in databases. The
five database structures are hierarchical, network, relational, multidimensional and
object-oriented models.

The hierarchical structure was used in early mainframe DBMS. Records’ relationships
form a treelike model. This structure is simple but nonflexible because the relationship is
confined to a one-to-many relationship. IBM’s IMS system and the RDM Mobile are
examples of a hierarchical database system with multiple hierarchies over the same data.
RDM Mobile is a newly designed embedded database for a mobile computer system. The
hierarchical structure is used primary today for storing geographic information and file
systems.

Figure.3.13:

The network structure consists of more complex relationships. Unlike the hierarchical
structure, it can relate to many records and accesses them by following one of several
paths. In other words, hierarchical structure allows for many-to-many relationships.

Figure.3.14:
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The relational structure is the most commonly used today. It is used by mainframe,
midrange and microcomputer systems. It uses two-dimensional rows and columns to
store data. The tables of records can be connected by common key values. While working
for IBM, E.F. Codd designed this structure in 1970. The model is not easy for the end
user to run queries with because it may require a complex combination of many tables.

Figuer.3.15: Relational database model.

The multidimensional structure is similar to the relational model. The dimensions of the
cube looking model have data relating to elements in each cell. This structure gives a
spreadsheet like view of data. This structure is easy to maintain because records are
stored as fundamental attributes, the same way they’re viewed and the structure is easy to
understand. Its high performance has made it the most popular database structure when it
comes to enabling online analytical processing (OLAP).
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Figure3.16: Multidimensional database model

The object oriented structure has the ability to handle graphics, pictures, voice and text,
types of data, without difficultly unlike the other database structures. This structure is
popular for multimedia Web-based applications. It was designed to work with object-
oriented programming languages such as Java.

A Database Management System (DBMS) is a set of computer programs that controls

the creation, maintenance, and the use of a database. It allows organizations to place
control of database development in the hands of database administrators (DBAs) and
other specialists. A DBMS is a system software package that helps the use of integrated
collection of data records and files known as databases. It allows different user
application programs to easily access the same database. DBMSs may use any of a
variety of database models, such as the network model or relational model. In large
systems, a DBMS allows users and other software to store and retrieve data in a
structured way. Instead of having to write computer programs to extract information, user
can ask simple questions in a query language. Thus, many DBMS packages provide
Fourth-generation programming language (4GLs) and other application development
features. It helps to specify the logical organization for a database and access and use the
information within a database. It provides facilities for controlling data access, enforcing
data integrity, managing concurrency, and restoring the database from backups. A DBMS
also provides the ability to logically present database information to users.

A DBMS is a set of software programs that controls the organization, storage,

management, and retrieval of data in a database. DBMSs are categorized according to
their data structures or types. The DBMS accepts requests for data from an application
program and instructs the operating system to transfer the appropriate data. The queries
and responses must be submitted and received according to a format that conforms to one
_____________________________________________________________________

or more applicable protocols. When a DBMS is used, information systems can be

changed much more easily as the organization's information requirements change. New
categories of data can be added to the database without disruption to the existing system.

Database servers are computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS
and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with
generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. Hardware database
accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in
large volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most
database applications. DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with
built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating
system to provide these functions.

Components of DBMS

 DBMS Engine accepts logical request from the various other DBMS
subsystems, converts them into physical equivalents, and actually accesses the
database and data dictionary as they exist on a storage device.
 Data Definition Subsystem helps user to create and maintain the data
dictionary and define the structure of the files in a database.

 Data Manipulation Subsystem helps user to add, change, and delete

information in a database and query it for valuable information. Software tools
within the data manipulation subsystem are most often the primary interface
between user and the information contained in a database. It allows user to
specify its logical information requirements.

 Application Generation Subsystem contains facilities to help users to

develop transaction-intensive applications. It usually requires that user perform
a detailed series of tasks to process a transaction. It facilitates easy-to-use data
entry screens, programming languages, and interfaces.

 Data Administration Subsystem helps users to manage the overall database

environment by providing facilities for backup and recovery, security
management, query optimization, concurrency control, and change
management.

Features commonly offered by database management systems include:

Query ability
 Querying is the process of requesting attribute information from various
perspectives and combinations of factors. Example: "How many 2-door cars in
Texas are green?" A database query language and report writer allow users to
interactively interrogate the database, analyze its data and update it according
to the users privileges on data.
Backup and replication
 Copies of attributes need to be made regularly in case primary disks or other
equipment fails. A periodic copy of attributes may also be created for a distant
organization that cannot readily access the original. DBMS usually provide
utilities to facilitate the process of extracting and disseminating attribute sets.
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When data is replicated between database servers, so that the information

remains consistent throughout the database system and users cannot tell or
even know which server in the DBMS they are using, the system is said to
exhibit replication transparency.
Rule enforcement
 Often one wants to apply rules to attributes so that the attributes are clean and
reliable. For example, we may have a rule that says each car can have only one
engine associated with it (identified by Engine Number). If somebody tries to
associate a second engine with a given car, we want the DBMS to deny such a
request and display an error message. However, with changes in the model
specification such as, in this example, hybrid gas-electric cars, rules may need
to change. Ideally such rules should be able to be added and removed as
needed without significant data layout redesign.
Security
 Often it is desirable to limit who can see or change which attributes or groups
of attributes. This may be managed directly by individual, or by the assignment
of individuals and privileges to groups, or (in the most elaborate models)
through the assignment of individuals and groups to roles which are then
granted entitlements.
Computation
 There are common computations requested on attributes such as counting,
summing, averaging, sorting, grouping, cross-referencing, etc. Rather than
have each computer application implement these from scratch, they can rely on
the DBMS to supply such calculations.
Change and access logging
 Often one wants to know who accessed what attributes, what was changed, and
when it was changed. Logging services allow this by keeping a record of
access occurrences and changes.
Automated optimization
 If there are frequently occurring usage patterns or requests, some DBMS can
adjust themselves to improve the speed of those interactions. In some cases the
DBMS will merely provide tools to monitor performance, allowing a human
expert to make the necessary adjustments after reviewing the statistics
collected.

Meta-data repository

 Metadata is data describing data. For example, a listing that describes what
attributes are allowed to be in data sets is called "meta-information". The meta-
data is also known as data about data.

Data warehouse

Stores data extracted from operational, external, or other databases of an organization.

The data warehouse serves as the ‘memory’ of the enterprise. But, memory is of little use
without intelligence. The tools that analyze data provide the ‘intelligence’.

Data mining
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Data Mining is the exploration and analysis, by automatic or semiautomatic means, of

large quantities of data in order to discover meaningful patterns and rules.

o A major use of data warehouse databases.

o Data is analyzed to reveal hidden correlations, patterns, and trends.

On-line Analytical Processing (OLAP)

The term, On-line Analytical Processing (OLAP) was coined by E.F. Codd in 1993 to
refer to a type of application that allows a user to interactively analyze data. Online
Analytical Processing (OLAP) is a method of analyzing data in a multi-dimensional
format, often across multiple time periods, with an aim of uncovering the business
information concealed within the data. OLAP enables business users to gain an insight
into the business through interactive analysis of different views of business data that have
been built up from the operational systems. This approach facilitates a more intuitive and
meaningful analysis of business information and assists in identifying important business
trends.

This definition, justifiably, raises the question: how does data mining differ from OLAP?
The main difference lies in quantities of data that can be handled. There are other
differences as well.

NB. Dear learners, for better understanding about DBMS try to read some reference
books.

3.10. Summary

In this unit, we have learnt about Information Technology. And we have discussed its
components i.e. hardware, software, databases, and communication systems in some
detail.
1.11. Review Questions
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1. List and describe the components of information technology?

2. List and describe reasons why information systems are so important for business
today?
3. Describe the main components of a network including hardware and software.
4. Describe various types of networks.
5. Distinguish between LAN and WAN.
6. Write some points on the advantages of networks?
7. What is communication protocol?

8. What is the difference between asynchronous and synchronous transmission?

9. What is computer Network? What are its main objectives?

10. Differentiate between analog and digital transmission of data.
11. Explain in brief different communication media.
12. What is the difference between simplex and full-duplex transmission?
13. Explain what do you understand by database management systems? Describe its
components.
14. Discuss different types of data in database system.