GEM5202 2BEducational 2BAdministration 2band 2BPlanning 2bmay

MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT : EDUCATION
UNIT CODE: GEM 5202
UNIT TITLE: EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING

COURSE OTLINE
GEM 5202: EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND
PLANNING Credit hours: 3
Pre-requisites: None
Purpose
To familiarize students of education with fundamentals of educational administration and planning
Expected Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course unit the learners should be able to: -
i) Discuss the theoretical basis of administration and planning.

ii) Describe the processes of educational administration and planning
iii) Explain factors that promote and inhibit the processes of educational administration and
planning.
iv) Identify major issues affecting economics of educational planning in Kenya and sub Saharan
Africa
v) State the relevance of educational planning in relation to demand driven education
vi) Explain and discuss history rationale and methodology of educational planning.
Course Content
General introduction to the field of educational administration: Theories of administration; school

administration; fundamentals of national education administration; administration of educational
policies; Leadership in educational administration; and The concept of power and authority;. The
structure of the Ministry of Education and related semi autonomous government agencies;
administrative challenges of educational institutions;
. Introduction to Educational Planning: Basic concepts of Educational Planning, Definition of

Educational planning and related terms, , Stages and Cycles in Educational Planning Process,
Conditions for success in Educational Planning Process, Historical background of Educational
Planning, and Rationale for Educational Planning.
Methodologies and Approaches to educational Planning: Traditional Approaches, Social demand

approaches, Manpower requirements and forecasting approach, Rate of Returns and Cost Benefit
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Analysis Approach, Conventional Approaches with special reference to Labour Market Analysis,
Tracer studies, and Cost-effectiveness approach.
Types and levels of Educational Planning, Cycles and Processes:
Macro-Planning in education, centralized, Micro-Planning in education, Decentralized (School

mapping) and Stages of educational planning process.
Current Policies, Trends, Problems and Issues in Educational
Planning: Policies , User charge and deferred cost recovery, structural adjustment programme,
adapting education and training to market Economy, Equity, Gender, Socio-Economic, regional
disparities etc. Relevance, Educated unemployment; efficiency, access, and Equity Participation, and
completion rates, Problems of Unemployment, Scarce Resources, Wastages, Population explosion,
Bad Planning, and Political Interference.
Indicators of equity and efficiency in an educational system: Enrolment Ratio and Non-Schooling gap.
Computation of the following: Repeater rates, Survival and Retention Rates, Drop-out rates, and
Graduation rates.
Teaching / Learning Methodologies: Lectures and tutorials; Group discussion; Demonstration
Instructional Materials and Equipment: Projector; Test books; Design catalogues; Computer
laboratory; Design software; Simulators
Course Assessment
Examination - 60%; Continuous Assessment Test (CATS) - 30%; Total - 100%
Recommended Text Books
i) R K Raghuram (2009); Educational Administration; Crescent Publishing Corporation

ii) D Thakur, D.n. Thakur (2007); Educational Planning And Administration; Deep And Deep
Publications
iii) Bennaar G.A Otiende J.E and Boisvet R (1994); Theory and Practice of Education; Nairobi-
East Africa Educational Publication
iv) Mbiti M David (1992); Foundation of School Administration; Oxford University Press- Nairobi
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Recommended Readings: Educational Planning
i) Internet: UNESCO Sites, IIEP Sites, World Bank Sites

ii) Jones, P.W. (1992) World Bank Financing of Education. Routledge, London.
iii) Ministry of Education Science and Technology (2003). Free Primary Education: Every Child
in School.
iv) Namaswa, G. Mutua, R. (1992) Educational Planning ERAP Nairobi.
v) Psacharopoulos G. (1990) “From Manpower Planning to Market Analysis.‖ International
Labour Review 1992 No. 4 pp. 349 –409. Ed. Xerox
vi) Republic of Kenya (2003). National Action Plan on Education for All. 2003 – 2015 MOEST.
vii) Republic of Kenya (2005), Kenya Education Sector Support programme (KESSP): Delivering
Quality Education and Training to all Kenyans in the 21st Century.
viii) Republic of Kenya (2005). Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005. A policy framework on Education,
Training and Research for the 21st Century.
ix) Republic of Kenya Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005
x) Republic of Kenya, Development Plan 2002 – 2008 Government Printers.
xi) Republic of Kenya, Session Paper No. 6 of 1998 on Educational and Manpower Development
for the Next Decade and Beyond Government Printers
xii) Republic of Kenya/Economic Reforms for 1996/1998 World Bank IMF, policy Framework
Paper (PFP 1996)
xiii) UNESCO (2005) Challenges of Implementing Free Primary Education in Kenya: An
Assessment Report, March 2005.
Text Books for further Reading
i) OlemboWanga and Karagu (1988); Management in Education; Educational Research and

Publication -Nairobi
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Contents
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 12
1.1 Definition of educational administration..................................................................................................... 12
1.2 Historical Background of Educational Administration ............................................................................... 12
1.2.1 Financing: ................................................................................................................................................. 13
1.2.2 Governance: ............................................................................................................................................. 13
1.2.3 Personnel: ................................................................................................................................................ 14
Review Questions.............................................................................................................................................. 14
References for further reading........................................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER TWO: THEORIES OF ADMINISTRATION ................................................................................... 15
2.1 Definition of theory..................................................................................................................................... 15
2.2 The Scientific Management Theory ............................................................................................................ 16
2.2.1 Development of Scientific Management:................................................................................................. 16
2.2.2 Essence of Scientific Management: ........................................................................................................ 16
2.2.3 Criticism: .................................................................................................................................................. 18
2.3 The Classical Theory................................................................................................................................... 19
2.3.1Criticism.................................................................................................................................................... 22
2.4 The Bureaucratic Theory............................................................................................................................. 22
2.4.1 Characteristics of bureaucracy: ................................................................................................................ 23
2.4.2 Criticism: .................................................................................................................................................. 25
2.5 Human Relations Theory ............................................................................................................................ 27
2.5.1 Elements of the Theory ............................................................................................................................ 27
2.5.1 Criticism: .................................................................................................................................................. 27
2.6 The Behavioural Approach ......................................................................................................................... 28
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2.6.1 Contribution of Herbert Simon: ............................................................................................................... 29
2.6.2 Contribution of E. Wight Bakke: ............................................................................................................. 29
2.6.3 Contribution of Chris Argyris : ................................................................................................................ 29
2.6.4 Contribution of Chester Barnard: ............................................................................................................. 29
2.6.5 Criticism................................................................................................................................................... 29
2.7 The Systems Approach ............................................................................................................................... 30
2.7.1 Relevance of Organization Theory .......................................................................................................... 30
Review Questions.................................................................................................................................................. 31
References for further reading............................................................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER THREE: LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION .............................................. 32
3.1 Definition of leadership............................................................................................................................... 32
3.2 Three Classic Leadership Styles ................................................................................................................. 32
3.2.1 The Laissez Faire Leadership Style ......................................................................................................... 33
3.2.2 The Autocratic Leadership Style .............................................................................................................. 33
3.2.3 The Participative/Democratic Leadership Style ....................................................................................... 33
3.3 The Emergent Leadership Style................................................................................................................... 33
3.3.1The Transactional Leadership Style .......................................................................................................... 33
3.3.2 The Transformational Leadership Style ................................................................................................... 34
3.3.3Charisma ................................................................................................................................................... 34
3.3.4 Visionary Leadership ............................................................................................................................... 34
3.3.5 Strategic Leadership ................................................................................................................................. 34
3.3.6 Facilitative Leadership ............................................................................................................................. 34
3.3.7 Leadership Influence Styles ..................................................................................................................... 34
3.3.8 Cross-Cultural Leadership ........................................................................................................................ 34
3.3.9 Coaching ................................................................................................................................................... 34
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3.3.10 Level 5 Leadership.................................................................................................................................. 35
3.3.11 Servant Leadership ................................................................................................................................. 35
3.3.12 Group /Team leadership ........................................................................................................................ 35
3.4 Theories of leadership ................................................................................................................................. 36
3.4.1 Human Relations Contributors................................................................................................................. 36
3.4.2 Theory X Assumptions ............................................................................................................................ 36
3.4.3 Theory Y Assumptions ............................................................................................................................ 37
3.4.4 Comments on Theory X and Theory Y Assumptions .............................................................................. 37
3.4.5 Theory X and Theory Y combined .......................................................................................................... 38
3.5 McGregor and Maslow's hierarchy ............................................................................................................. 38
3.6 Criticisms .................................................................................................................................................... 38
3.7 Emergent Theories of leadership................................................................................................................. 39
3.7.1Trait Theory of leadership ......................................................................................................................... 39
3.7.2 Rise of alternative theories ....................................................................................................................... 39
3.7.3 Reemergence of trait theory ..................................................................................................................... 39
3.7.4 Attribute Pattern Approach ...................................................................................................................... 40
3.7.5 Behavioral and style theories ................................................................................................................... 40
3.7.6 Situational and Contingency Theories ..................................................................................................... 42
3.7.7 Functional theory ..................................................................................................................................... 43
3.7.8 Transactional and Transformational Theories ......................................................................................... 43
3.7.9 Neo-Emergent Theory.............................................................................................................................. 44
3.7.1 Environmental Leadership Theory ........................................................................................................... 44
3.8 Leadership Performance.............................................................................................................................. 45
3.9 Role of Emotions in leadership ................................................................................................................... 45
3.10 Leadership in Formal Organization........................................................................................................... 46
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Review Questions.............................................................................................................................................. 47
CHAPTER FOUR: POWER AND AUTHORITY ............................................................................................... 48
4.1 Definitions................................................................................................................................................... 48
4.2 Types of Organizational Power:.................................................................................................................. 48
Review questions .............................................................................................................................................. 49
References for further reading ......................................................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER FIVE: ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND

RELATED SEMI AUTONOMOUS AGENCIES ................................................................................................ 50
5.1 Role of the ministry of education ................................................................................................................ 50
5.2 Objectives of the Ministry of Education ..................................................................................................... 51
5.3 Related Semi Autonomous Agencies .......................................................................................................... 51
5.4 structure of the Ministry Of Education ....................................................................................................... 51
5.5Administrative Challenges in Educational Institutions ................................................................................ 53
Reference for further reading......................................................................................................................... 56
CHAPTER SIX: EDUCATIONAL PLANNING ................................................................................................. 57
6.1 Definition: ................................................................................................................................................... 57
6.2 Education planning department................................................................................................................... 58
6.2.1 Functions of the Education Planning Department.................................................................................... 58
6.3 Reasons Why Educational Planning is Important for Academic Institutions ............................................. 58
6.4 Historical Background of Educational Planning In Kenya ......................................................................... 59
Reference for further Reading........................................................................................................................... 60
CHAPTER SEVEN: MAJOR APPROACHES TO EDUCATIONAL PLANNING ........................................... 61
7.1Approaches to educational planning ............................................................................................................ 61

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7.1.2 Social Demand Approach: ....................................................................................................................... 61
7.1.3 Social Justice Approach: .......................................................................................................................... 61
7.1.4 Rate of Returns Approach: ....................................................................................................................... 62
7.1.5 Manpower Planning Approach: ............................................................................................................... 62
Review question ................................................................................................................................................ 63
Reference for further reading ............................................................................................................................ 63
CHAPTER EIGHT: TYPES AND LEVELS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING, CYCLES AND PROCESSES
............................................................................................................................................................................... 64
8.1Definitions.................................................................................................................................................... 64
8.2 PROCESS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING .......................................................................................... 64
Review questions ............................................................................................................................................... 67
CHAPTER NINE: CURRENT POLICIES, TRENDS, PROBLEMS AND ISSUES IN EDUCATIONAL

PLANNING .......................................................................................................................................................... 68
9.1 Definition .................................................................................................................................................... 68
9.2Kenyan case ................................................................................................................................................. 69
9.3 Education Policy and Planning ................................................................................................................... 70
9.4 Current Trends in Educational Planning ..................................................................................................... 70
9.4.1Structure of Education, Curriculum and Assessment................................................................................ 70
9.4.2 Rationale of the revised structure ............................................................................................................. 71
9.4.3The new school calendar and term dates................................................................................................... 71
9.4.4 Curriculum: .............................................................................................................................................. 71
9.4.5 Assessment and evaluation: ..................................................................................................................... 72
9.4.6 Access, Relevance, Equity and Quality Education .................................................................................. 72
9.4.7 Standards and Quality Assurance............................................................................................................. 72
9.4.8 National Accreditation and Assessment System ...................................................................................... 73
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9.4.9 National Qualification Framework (NQF) ............................................................................................... 73
9.5.1Financing, Investment and Resource Mobilization ................................................................................... 73
9.5.2Institutional Management and Governance of Education and Training.................................................... 74
9.5.3 Human Capacity Development in Education and Training...................................................................... 74
9.5.4Mentorship and Moulding to nurture national values ............................................................................... 74
9.5.4 Research, Education and Training ........................................................................................................... 75
9.5.5 Science, Technology and Innovation ....................................................................................................... 75
9.5.6Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Education ........................................................... 75
9.5.7Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in Education .................................................................................... 75
9.5.8 Teacher Education and Management ....................................................................................................... 76
9.5.9 Public Private Partnerships....................................................................................................................... 76
9.6.1Regulatory Framework.............................................................................................................................. 76
9.6.2 Recent legislative changes ....................................................................................................................... 77
9.6.3 Cooperation and competition ................................................................................................................... 78
9.6.4Funding for Kenya‘s education system ..................................................................................................... 78
9.6.5 Kenya‘s future .......................................................................................................................................... 79
Kenyan current problems .................................................................................................................................. 81
CHAPTER TEN: INDICATORS OF EQUITY AND EFFICIENCY .................................................................. 83
10.1 Definition .................................................................................................................................................. 83
10.2 Indicators................................................................................................................................................... 87
10.3 Types of indicators ................................................................................................................................ 87
Monitoring and evaluation of education as a system ........................................................................................ 88
Indicators by aspects of education .................................................................................................................... 89
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APPENDIX 1 ........................................................................................................................................................ 92
References ......................................................................................................................................................... 92
APPEDIX 11: SAMPLE TEST PAPERS ............................................................................................................. 95
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to:
1. Define the term educational administration
2. Define the term educational planning
3. Explain the historical background of educational administration
1.1 Definition of educational administration
Educational administration is a discipline within the study of education that examines the
administrative theory and practice of education in general and educational institutions and educators in
particular.
Educational administration is defined as the process of controlling, organizing and directing both
human and material resources in an educational institution. This term is also used by scholars to
describe the study of these processes.
1.2 Historical Background of Educational Administration
The professional beginning for educational administration began in 1947 under the guidance of
Walter Cocking, editor of The School Executive and E. B. Norton, professor of educational
administration at Teachers College Columbia, with the founding of the National Council of
Professors of Educational Administration (NCPEA). The formation of the Cooperative Program in
education administration (CPEA) by 1955 had 30 institutions receive grants to advance the study of
school administration.
In 1954, members of the Cooperative Program in Educational Administration (Middle Atlantic

Region) proposed an organization which would be devoted to improving the professional
preparation of educational administrators. To help establish such an organization, a central office
with part-time staff was established on the campus of Columbia University, financed by a grant
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from the W. K. Kellogg Foundation to Teachers College Columbia.
Between 1956 and 1959, with the help of the staff at the Teachers College office, UCEA's
constitution and by-laws were formulated, the organization's purposes were defined, and additional
financial support was obtained in the form of a five-year grant from the Kellogg Foundation. The
organization was officially founded in 1959 and the UCEA central office moved to The Ohio State
University when a small, full-time staff was hired. In 1984 the central office was moved to Arizona
State University, and in 1991, to The Pennsylvania State University. Since 1996 the central office
has been located at the University of Missouri-Columbia
Since its inception, the Council has worked to improve the professional preparation of
administrative personnel in both continuing education and pre-service programs. UCEA has been a
major contributor to:
 Broadening the content of preparation programs for educational administrators,

 Extending use of more effective methods of inquiry in educational administration,
 Shifting educational administration from an anecdotal orientation to a more scientific one,
leading to generalizations about organization and leadership,
 Developing new instructional materials for administrator programs,
 Fostering exchanges in research and in program development between professors and
administrative leaders in the U.S. and their counterparts in other countries, and
 Continuing efforts toward standards of excellence in research and in preparation programs
for administration.
More recently, the Council also has focused considerable attention on strengthening relationships
among institutions that prepare administrators for service and the school districts and other agencies
in which administrators serve
1.2.1 Financing:
With the expiration in 1969 of a second five-year grant from the Kellogg Foundation, UCEA has
been supported through a combination of membership dues, donations of resources, facilities,
equipment and staff time from member institutions, sales of publications and instructional
materials, and investment income. From time to time, the Council also obtains grants from outside
institutions for special projects.
1.2.2 Governance:
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The Council's governance is vested in two official bodies, the Executive Committee and the
Plenum. The Executive Committee is composed of nine individuals elected from member
institutions. The Executive Committee makes decisions about appointments and compensation of
personnel, develops plans for and makes recommendations to the Plenum, and, when necessary,
makes interim program decisions. Executive Committee Officers consist of a President, whose
activities include presiding at all Plenary Sessions and at Executive Committee Meetings and
delivering a presidential address at the annual convention; the President-Elect, who chairs the
convention; and the Secretary Treasurer The Plenum, comprised of one representative from each
member university, elects the Executive Committee, helps make governance, finance, and
membership decisions, provides linkages with member university faculty and students and
promotes programmatic involvement with UCEA.
1.2.3 Personnel:
UCEA Central Staff are led by the UCEA Executive Director, whose responsibilities include
working with the Executive Committee to build the vision, goals, and activities for UCEA
consistent with it's mission and leading, supporting, managing, and executing the routine work of
UCEA. Central Staff also generally include an Associate Director, an Assistant to the Director, a
Financial Director, and graduate assistants.
Review Questions
Review Questions
1. Define educational administration
2. What is the meaning of the term educational planning?
3. Explain the historical background of educational administration.
References for further reading
Alexander, P. A., & Winne, P. H. (Eds.). (2006). Handbook of educational psychology (2nd ed.).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bransford, J., Stevens, R., Schwartz, D., Meltzoff, A., Pea, R., Roschelle, J., et al. (2006). Learning
theories and education: Toward a decade of synergy. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.),
Handbook of educational psychology (2nd ed., pp. 209–244). Mahwah, NJ: E
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CHAPTER TWO: THEORIES OF ADMINISTRATION
Learning objectives
By the end of the chapter the learner should be able to:
1. Define a theory
2. Discuss the theories of administration
3. Show the importance of each theory
2.1 Definition of theory
Theories are attempts to accurately describe and to successfully predict relationships among elements
of the physical, social and psychological worlds. There are basically two types of theories of
administrative organization.
These are:
1. Universal Design theory – This theory believes on ‗the one vest way‘ of structuring the
organization. The theories included in this section are Scientific Management, Classical Theory
and Bureaucratic Theory.
2. Situational Design Theory – This theory emphasizes the human aspect of the organization.
There are several sub-streams, such as Behavioural Approach, Systems Approach, Structural-
Functional Approach, Human Relations Theory and others.
The first serious thought was made by Fredrick Winslow Taylor to conduct studies in Management of
industry in U.S.A. toward the end of the nineteenth century. The impact of his studies was so great,
that management, which was hitherto considered an art, was given the status of science. An engineer
by profession and training with his varied work experience ranging from a labourer to that of a chief
engineer is regarded as the father of Scientific Management, for it was he who would first advocated
the systematic adoption of the methods of science to problems of management in the interest of higher
industrial efficiency. He believed that best management is a true science, resting upon clearly fixed
laws, rules and principles, as foundation and introduce ‗scientism‘ modern management approaches
and techniques.
Taylor himself did not employ ‗Scientific Management‘ to refer to his thoughts. This concept was first
used by Louis D. Brandies in 1910 and subsequently used by Taylor in his widely known book,
principles and Methods of Scientific Management published in 1911.
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2.2 The Scientific Management Theory
2.2.1 Development of Scientific Management:
In the beginning of twentieth century the working conditions in the factories were chaotic. The workers
were left entirely to themselves in the matter of choosing the methods to be employed for doing the
work. Not only this, they even used to bring their own tools for doing the work. The result was
efficiency and considerable ad hoc planning. It was mainly to fulfill his need and find ways to raise
industrial productivity that Taylor came out with his ideas on scientific Management. Taylor‘s
contribution to the development of scientific Management was needed in his papers. They are as
follows:
1. Piece-Rate System (1895)
2. Shop Management (1903)
3. The Art of Cutting Metals (1906)
4. The Principle of Scientific Management (1911)
With his pragmatic concern for efficiency, he placed emphasis on planning, standardizing and
improving human effort at the level of worker. He was keen to find out scientifically the ‗one best
way‘ of doing each task and thus to increase productivity in the organization.
2.2.2 Essence of Scientific Management:
Taylor emphasized in the interest of social prosperity, close collaboration and deliberate cooperation
between the workers and the management for the application of scientific methods. The four principles
of Scientific Management are:
a) Develop a science for each element of a man‘s work which replaces the old rule-of-thumb
method.
b) Scientifically select and then train, teach and develop the workman, whereas in the past he
chose his own and trained himself as best as he could.
c) Heartily cooperate with other men so as to ensure that all the work is being done in accordance
with scientific principles.
d) There is almost an equal division of work and responsibility between the management and the
workman. The management takes over all work for which it is better fitted than the workman,
while in the past, almost all of the work and the greater part of the responsibility was thrown on
the men.
Taylor‘s Functional Foremanship: Taylor developed the system of functional foremanship in which the
worker receives orders from eight narrowly specialized supervisors. It replaced the ‗linear‘ system or
the military type of organization in which each worker is subordinate to only one boss. He divided the
work not only among workers, but also at supervisory level. There are eight functional bosses – four
will be responsible for planning and the remaining four for the execution. The four execution
functional bosses are
1) The gang-boss
2) The repair-boss
3) The speed-boss
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4) The inspector
The four planning bosses are

a) The order of work and route clerk
b) The instruction card clerk
c) The time and cost clerk
d) The shop disciplinarian
Taylor believed that in this functional type or organization, the foreman can be trained quickly and
specialization becomes very easy. Taylor also prescribed nine qualities of a good ‗foreman‘. They are:
(a) education
(b) special or technical knowledge
(c) manual dexterity and strength
(d) tact
(e) energy
(f) grit
(g) honesty
(h) judgment
(i) Good health.
Taylor considered the philosophy of Scientific Management much more important than mere
mechanism. His major contributions were:
a) Motion-and time study
b) Specialization
c) Standardization
d) Planning
e) Techniques
f) Slide rule and other work-saving implements
g) Work instructions
h) Work standards
i) Piece-rate wage systems
j) Product and implement classification systems
k) Modern cost systems
Mental Revolution: According to Taylor, Scientific Management primarily involves a complete

mental revolution on the part of workers and management as to their duties, towards their work and
towards their fellow workers, and towards all of their daily problems. Without this, scientific
management does not exist. Taylor‘s paper on A Piece-Rate System was considered as the outstanding
contribution to the principles of wage payment. Here, he has elaborated on three things:
a) Observation and analysis of work through time study to set the ‗rate‘ or ‗standard‘
b) A ‗differential rate‘ system of piece work. It means those who produce above standard receive
higher wages than those producing below standard.
c) Paying men and not positions.
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In his paper on Shop Management, he discussed at length workshop organization and management.
The focus is on these underlying principles:
(j) To achieve efficiency, the stress is on to pay high wages and low unit production costs.
(ii) Application of scientific methods to the management problems
(iii) Standardization of working conditions and placing the workers on the basis of
Scientific criteria
(iv) Formal training to workers by management and specific instructions to perform
the prescribed motions with standardized tools and materials
(v) Friendly cooperation between workers and management on the basis of scientific
System.
Taylor‘s paper on The Art of Cutting Metals was considered more important than Taylor‘s other
contributions, because they initiated a major breakthrough in the development of American industry.
In his other experiments he made use of motion and time study and analyzed how workers handled
materials, machines and tools. Motion study, which is the observation of all the motions that comprise
a particular job and the determination of the best set of motions, is a technique of standardization of
work methods. What is the best procedure for doing a job is an example of standardization of work
methods. Time study is the technique to be employed to determine the time-content of a job. Scientific
Management addressed itself to the problems of the ‗Shop Floor‘, that is, the bottom part of an
organization where the work performed is of a repetitive and routine nature. He used scientific fact-
finding methods to determine empirically instead of traditionally the right ways to perform tasks with
the help of stop-watch.
Taylor and his associates such as Henry Gantt and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth wrote books and articles
spreading the principles of Scientific Management far and wide. Gantt became well-known for the
invention of the Gantt Chart on which progress of work could be plotted continuously against time.
Gilbreth‘s system became known as ‗speed work‘ as it involved reduction in the amount of work
through the elimination of unnecessary motions and laid the foundation of modern motion-study
techniques. Gilbreth‘s contribution was the ‗flow process of chart‘. An operation is broken down into
steps that may be performed by several workers. This helps to discover whether some of the steps in
the operation can be eliminated or shortened.
2.2.3 Criticism:
The criticisms on Scientific Management are as follows:

1) The Scientific Management viewed man as a machine. This is a rather degrading view and
unacceptable to modern man.
2) Workers were opposed to time study procedure and standardization of all aspects of their
performance. Greater resistance came from the labour leaders who found in Taylorism a threat
to their role and to the growth of trade union movement.
3) Managers who wanted quick promotions to the high managerial position without any merit
based on higher education opposed Taylor‘s stand, which advocated training by highly trained
experts. They did not appreciate his scornful comments on rule-of-thumb method.
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4) The management thinkers charged that Taylor‘s scientific management was impersonal and
under emphasized the human factor.
5) Accordingly to Taylorism, an employee is motivated by high wages. The underestimates the
meaning of human motivation. Likewise, the assumption that an individual existed isolation
from his social environment is erroneous.
Herberts Simon and March have described the Scientific Management as the ‗Physiological
organization theory.‘ It completely neglects the psychological aspects. Nevertheless, the ideas of
Scientific Management greatly influenced administrative thought and management practices in
subsequent years. Clear delineation of authority and responsibility, the use of standards in control,
separation of planning from operation, the functional organization incentive system of workers, the
principle of management by exception and task specialization – these were Taylor‘s ideas that greatly
influenced management thought in later periods. During the first half of the 20th century a broader
approach to organization was initiated by a group of writers whose interest was chiefly on formal
organization structure and the basic management process. March and Simon have characterized this
body to knowledge as ‗administrative management theory‘. This is also known as the Mechanical
theory or Classical theory or the Structural theory.
2.3 The Classical Theory
This theory has been enunciated most notably by Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick, L.F. Urwick, J.D.
Mooney, A.C. Reiley, M.P. Follet and R. Shelton. These writers argue that administration is
administration regardless of the kind of work undertaken or the context within which it is performed.
The most important concern of this theory is the formulation of certain universal principles of
organization. Henri Fayol: He was one of the earliest writers on the general theory of management. He
believed that there was a single ‗administrative science‘ whose principles were applicable not only to
business but also to government, religious and other organizations. Knowledge of administration rather
than technical knowledge, according to Fayol, is what is needed at higher levels of an organization.
Fayol divided all activities in an organization into the following six groups:
a. Technical activities
b. Commercial activities
c. Financial activities
d. Security activities
e. Accounting activities
f. Managerial or Administrative activities.
Administration, according to him comprises the following five elements:

(i) Planning
(ii) Organizing
(iii) Co-ordination
(iv) Command
(v) Control
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Fayol perceived the administration from a manager‘s viewpoint and confined his analysis to top
managerial functions. His theory is often considered as the first complete theory of management.
Fayol suggests that managers should have the following attributes:
1. Physical,
2. Mental,
3. Moral,
4. General Education,
5. Special Knowledge,
6. Experience.
In his book, General and Industrial Management (1916) he outlined fourteen principles of organization
as listed below:
1) Division of work: It belongs to the natural order, and it increases efficiency.

2) Authority and Responsibility: The occupant of each position should be given enough authority
to carry out all the responsibilities assigned to him.
3) Discipline: Discipline (obedience, application, energy, and essential for the smooth running of
business.
4) Unity of Command: For any action, an employee should have only one boss
5) Unity of Direction: One head and one plan for each activity.
6) Scalar Chain: It stands for the chain of superiors ranging from the topmost authority to the
lowest rank in an organization.
7) Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest: The interest of one employee or group
should not prevail over that of total organization.
8) Centralization: The degree of initiative left to managers varies depending upon top managers,
subordinates and business conditions.
9) Remuneration: The remuneration paid for services rendered should be fair and afford
satisfaction to both personnel and the firm.
10) Order: Right man in the right place – this is how Fayol defined order.
11) Equity: Justice tempered with kindness is called equity.
12) Stability of Tenure: Suitable conditions should be created to minimize turnover of employees.
13) Initiative: Managers must sacrifice their vanity to inspire confidence in the lower ranks so that
all levels show initiative.
14) Esprit de Corps: it is the prevalence of harmony among all members of the organization.
The above principles were meant to raise management to the level of a science. Fayol was concerned
with ‗management‘ and the tasks of the manager unlike Taylor whose main focus was the shop level
worker. Fayol is also a pioneer in suggesting the need for systematic training in administration. He
suggests that training is a continuous process, starting from the employees within an organization. He
considers every superior officer in an organization as a teacher to his immediate subordinates.
He also suggests the term ‗gangplank‘. It merely refers to the need for ‗level jumping‘ in an
hierarchical organization
. Although Fayol places emphasis on formal organization, he is alive to the dangers of conformity to
hierarchy and formalism. He illustrates the problem with reference to the following figure:
20
If ‗F‘ follows the principles of proper channel of communication, he ahs to send his message or file to
‗P‘ through ‗E‘, ‗D‘ and so on, covering nine levels. It is, however, possible for ‗F‘ to use ‗gangplank‘
and avoid going through ‗A‘ and all the other intervening layers as intermediaries. Recourse to
‗gangplank‘ is possible only when the immediate superiors (in the whenever a disagreement develops
between ‗F‘ and ‗P‘, they must turn the matter to their superiors. While suggesting ‗gangplank‘ Fayol
is rather cautious. He feels that it may be less relevant to are less clear than in private organizations.
Fayol‘s line of thought was further elaborated by a number of writers during the 1920‘s and 1930‘s.
The most comprehensive enunciation of the Classical theory is contained in Papers on the Science of
Administration (1937), edited by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick. Luther Gulick summed up the
principles of organization in the word ‗POSDCORB‘. His famous POSDCORB, an acronym contains
the first letters of seven administrative activities as follows:
Planning: The development, in broad outline of the activities to be carried out and the methods of
execution so as to accomplish the purpose set for the enterprise.
Organizing: The establishment of the formal structure of authority, on the basis of which work sub-
divisions are established and co-ordinate for the achieving the defined objective.
Staffing: The entire personnel function of recruiting and training staff, and maintaining favourable
working conditions
Directing: The continuous task of leading the enterprise by making decisions and embodying them in
specific and general orders and instructions
.
Co-coordinating: All important duty of interrelating the various parts of the work
Reporting: The job of keeping superiors informed of the status of the work through
reports and records.
Budgeting: The tasks of fiscal planning, accounting and control
Mooney and Reiley‘s Onward Industry is a pioneering work on the development of organization
theory. Mooney and Reiley‘s formulated four principles of organization. They are:
1) The co-coordinative principle,
2) The scalar principle
3) The functional principle of organizing tasks into departments
4) The staff/line principle for performance advisory and executive functions.
Special mention should be made of Mary Parker Follet. She attached special significance to lateral co-
ordination authority acceptance in an organization, integration of individuals and organization, and
administrative change.
21
2.3.1Criticism
The assumption that all organization can be managed by the same set of rules and principles does not
hold good.
1) This theory is not well-suited to organizations where changes take place in a routine way.
2) It is more concerned with what ought to be and this kept it away from the study of actual
behaviour in organizations.
3) It treats an organization as a closed system, simply unconnected with, and uninfluenced, by its
external environment.
4) It viewed human begins as passive
5) Most of the elements of theory are not supported by empirical evidence.
An important contribution of the classical theorists in general is their attempt to find certain universal
principles of organization. Increased co-ordination of administrative operations and specification of
role brought more predictability and stability in organizational behaviour.
Today the dominant form of organization in the private and public sectors is bureaucracy. The pedigree
of the term ‗Bureaucracy‘ is not quite clear. As Fritz Morstein Marx points out, ―it was first used in the
French form bureaucratie by a French Minister of commerce in operation, spread to Germany during
the 19th century as Burokratie, and has since found its way into English and many other languages.‖
The world ‗Bureaucracy‘ was first coined by Vincent de Gourney (1712-1759), an economist of
France. He had observed: ―We have an illness in France which bids fair to play havoc with us; this
illness is called bureaumania.‖ The Dictionary of the French Academy accepted the word in its 1798
supplement and defined it as ―power, influence of the heads and staff of government bureaux.‖
The word ‗Bureaucracy‘ itself is often used in a negative sense, that is, to characterize organizations
burdened by red-tape and inefficient procedures. Actually, it refers to a specific form of social
organization for administrative purposes. The most systematic study so far of bureaucratic phenomena
is traced back to German sociologist Max Weber. Regarding the origin and nature of his concept
‗organization‘ (Verband) to Weber a person could be said to have ‗power‘ (Macht) if within a social
relationship his own power is exercised for the structuring of human groups, it becomes a special
instance of power called ‗authority‘ (Herrschaft). Thus, Weber distinguished between power and
authority or ‗domination‘. Authority or domination is instrumental in the emergence of Verband. i.e.
organization. The most important aspect of the administration is that it determines who was to give
commands to whom. Thus, ―every form of authority expresses itself and functions as administration
2.4 The Bureaucratic Theory
Weber was interested in a full-blown discussion on bureaucracy as a sociological phenomenon. His

thought needs to be placed in more general context of his theory of domination. Domination refers to a
power relationship between the rulers and the ruled. In any kind of established authority, there exist a
number of beliefs that legitimize the exercise of power in the eyes of the leaders and he led. The other
important element is the notion of the administrative apparatus. Domination when exercised over a
large number of people necessitates an administrative staff which will execute demands and serve as a
22
bridge between the ruler and the ruled. The beliefs about legitimating and the administrative apparatus
constitute the two important criteria for the Weberian construct or typology of dominations, each
corresponding to a particular type of domination.
(a) Charismatic Domination:
Charisma literally means gift of grace, the power exercised, by a leader – may be a prophet, a hero or a
demagogue – substantiating the claim by virtue of his magical powers of heroism or other
extraordinary gift or administrative apparatus is very loose and unstable. It usually consists of the most
faithful followers or disciples who play the role of the intermediary between the leader and the
followers.
(b) Traditional Domination:

It derives its legitimacy from the acceptance of it since hoary past. The persons exercising authority
generally are called ‗Masters‘ who enjoy personal authority by virtue of their inherited status. Their
commands carry legitimacy because of the customs but they can also give orders based on their
personal decision. The persons who obey the orders here are called ‗Followers‘. This kind of
patrimonial authority receives ready obedience because of a peculiar faith in traditional status and
personal loyalty to the dominant person. The administrative apparatus in this kind of domination would
consist of the personal relations, servants and relatives.
(c) Legal Domination:

It is based on the belief in the rightness of law. People obey the laws because they believe that these
are enacted by a proper objective procedure. The typical administrative apparatus corresponding to this
kind of domination is bureaucracy. These rules delineate in a rational way the hierarchy, the rights and
duties of every position and the methods of promotion, recruitment and other conditions of service.
Weber believed that all these three types of domination claim legitimacy as long as the ‗ruled‘ accept
them. The authority cases to carry legitimacy when the rulers do illegal things ignore the traditions and
lose charisma respectively. Of the three types of authority, Weber preferred the legal type of
domination or authority, Weber preferred the legal type of authority because of inherent rationalities in
it. Weber never defined bureaucracy. He only described its characteristics. To him bureaucracy is ―an
administrative body of appointed officials.‖
2.4.1 Characteristics of bureaucracy:
Hierarchical arrangement of offices or positions (i.e., a pyramid like structure with each lower office
under the control of a higher one)
1) The staff members are engaged in the discharge of only the impersonal duties of their offices
they are personally free.
2) Division of labour, with specified spheres of competence legitimized as official duties and
powers
3) Written rules for carrying out assigned tasks, to be applied uniformly.
4) Impersonality – officials are subject to an impersonal order and formally established norms of
conduct and act according to these rules in their contacts with others, inside and outside the
organization.
5) Officials are appointed on the basis of a contract
23
6) The functions of the offices are clearly specified.
7) Officials are selected on the basis professional qualifications, ideally substantiated by a
diploma gained through competitive examination.
8) They have a money salary, and usually pension rights. The salary is graded according to
position in the hierarchy. The official can always leave the post, and under certain
circumstances it may also be terminated.
9) The official‘s post is his sole or major occupation.
10) There is a career structure, and promotion is possible both by seniority or merit, and according
to the judgment of superiors.
11) The official may appropriate neither the post nor the resources that go with it
12) He is subject to a unified control and disciplinary system.
The above features constituted Max Weber‘s ideal, pure or most rational type of bureaucracy. Four
factors seem to have mainly influenced Weber in his wide-ranging discussion on bureaucracy. They
are:
1) the historical, technical and administrative reasons for the process of bureaucratization
particularly in western civilizations;
2) the impact of the rule of law upon the functioning of the bureaucratic organization
3) the occupational position and typical personal orientation of bureaucratic officials as an elite
group; and
4) the most important attributes and consequences of bureaucracy in the modern world,
particularly of governmental bureaucracy.
5)
In designing the legal-rational authority system, Weber formulated the following structuring
propositions:
1) Official tasks are organized on a continuous, regulated basis
2) These tasks are sub-divided into functionally distinct spheres, each furnished with the requisite
authority and sanctions.
3) Offices are arranged hierarchically
4) Official work is conducted according to the rulers which are either technical or legal
5) The resources of the organization are quite distinct from those of the members as private
individuals.
6) The holder of an office cannot appropriate the office
7) Administration is based on written documents.
8) Legal authority system can take many forms, but are seen at their purest in a bureaucratic
administrative staff.
9)
Bureaucracy provides a conceptualization of a form of social organization with certain characteristics.
It can be examined from three different points of view:
a) Structural characteristics:
This structural dimension has attracted the most attention in the discussion on bureaucracy. The
features like division of labour, hierarchy and rules have been identified as important aspects of
structure.
24
b) Behavioural characteristics:
Rationally (the most rational means of achieving imperative control over human beings), impersonality
and neutrality (support to the political regime it serves) are the important aspects of behaviour.
c) Instrumental characteristics:
Bureaucracy has been looked at from the pint of view of achievement of purpose. As Peter Blau
suggests, it should be considered as an ―organization that maximizes efficiency in administration or an
institutionalized method of organized social conduct in the interests of administrative efficiency.‖
2.4.2 Criticism:
Bureaucracy produces a number of unintended consequences or dysfunctions. The criticism is:

(i) Rigidity: Critics claim that it is rigid, static and inflexible. Compliance with rules may provide
the cover to avoid responsibility for failures.
(ii) Impersonality: Bureaucracy emphasized mechanical way of doing things. Rules and regulation
are glorified in place of employee needs and emotions.
(iii) Ideal type: The ideal type is a mental construct that cannot be found in reality. It is an
abstraction that exaggerates certain features and de-emphasizes certain others with a view
to conveying an image or an idea.
(iv) Displacement of objectives: As organizational procedures become more formalized and
individuals more specialized, means often become confused with ends.
(v) Red tape: Bureaucratic procedures cause in-ordinate delays and frustration. By encouraging
conformity to rules and regulations, bureaucracies leave nothing for original or innovative
behaviour.
(vi) Bureaupathology: The bureaucratic structure has also been criticized for encouraging what
Victor Thompson called ‗bureaupathology‘. He believes that bureaucratic structures permit
counter-productive personal insecurities to flourish and that same managers try to protect
their authority and position by aloof, ritualistic behaviour. This is pathological because it
can prevent the organization from meeting its goals.
R.K. Merton argues that demands on officials to conform to bureaucratic regulations lead to ritualism,
defensiveness, rigidity and difficulties in dealing with the public. This stream culminates in M.
Crozier‘s The Bureaucratic Phenomenon (1964) in which the author uses bureaucracy to mean ―an
organization that cannot correct its behaviour by learning from its errors.‖ Any assessment of Weber
has to take into account the entire corpus of his writings, especially his political writings, where Weber
appears as a critic of bureaucracy in real life politics. Mary Parker Follet is an important author of
20thcentury. Her writings, however, do not wholly confirm to the work of other scholars of the
administrative school. She talked of organization as a social system and management as a social
process. She attached great importance to the psychological and social factors. She talked of lateral co-
ordination, integration of individual and organization, administrative change, etc. She has often been
described as the bridge between the classical theory and the behavioural approach organizational
analysis. Chester Barnard, a contemporary of Elton Mayo stated his views in his book The Functions of
the Executive
25
He worked in various capacities both in Government and private administration. He is considered the
spiritual father of the social system school, which influenced many organizational thinkers of the 20 th
century.
Barnard defined organizations as ―a system of consciously co-ordinate personal activities of two or

more persons held together by a capacity to generate a common purpose, by a willingness on the part
of its members to contribute to its processes, and by effective communications. He argued that
organizations function through an equilibrium of contributions and inducements. He disapproves the
theory of economic man, and instead proposes the theory of contribution-satisfaction and equilibrium,
by which an individual contributes his activities to the operation of an organization. Inducements, the
incentives or satisfactions are offered by the organization. Efficiency depends on organizations‘
capacity to offer this inducement in sufficient quantities to maintain the equilibrium of the system.
Barnard maintains that in a modern society the contributors to an organization always are only a small
minority actually having positive willingness and a preponderance of persons is negative in their
commitment. Barnard rejects the traditional concept of authority and introduces acceptance as the basis
of authority. He points out that the ultimate test of authority and introduces acceptance as the basis of
authority. He points out that the ultimate test of authority lies in whether orders are accepted by those
who receive them.
According to Barnard, ―leadership refers to the quality of the behaviour of individuals, whereby they
guide people in their activities, in organized efforts." Barnard thought that formal organizations are
artificial systems and they grew out of informal organizations which are natural systems.
It is said that the neo-classical emphasis on the human factors of organizations constitutes a major
contribution to modern theory. The Human Relations theory has often been described as the Neo-
classical theory. It was built on the base of the classical theory. The basic assumption of this theory is
that psychological and social aspects of the worker as an individual and his work group ought to be
emphasized. The influence of Pierre Janet and Sigmund Freud, was profound on the studies of Elton
Mayo.
The trace of the human relations movement can be found even in ancient literatures. The greatest
influence of this theory came from the Hawthorne experiments carried out in the U.S.A. under the
guidance of Elton Mayo in late 20's and early 30's of this century. The findings were first published in
Management and the Worker (FJ. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson) in 1939. Mayo started his
first major research in a textile mill near Philadelphia in 1923. He named the study 'The First Inquiry'.
The result of the study was the elimination of the problem of physical fatigue by the introduction of
rest periods. In the first Hawthorne experiment, workers operating under a piece-rate system were
observed, to see whether higher wages motivated them to work more. It was found that the workers
worked to a point, they felt, would ensure them of an adequate income, and then refused to work more
due to the fear that over production may lead to retrenchment.
In another experiment, some female workers were isolated from the rest and placed under observation.
Their levels of productivity under diverse working conditions were carefully measured. But under all
physical changes in their work environment the production of these girls showed a continually upward
rise. This proved that there was no positive correlation between the working conditions and
26
productivity and the girls were conscious of the fact that they had been selected for a special
experiment.
2.5 Human Relations Theory
The Hawthorne experiments which were conducted from 1924-1932 proved that social or human
relationships among the workers were more important in determining productivity than were changes
in working conditions. The high morale of the 'test group' workers appeared to be responsible for the
productive increases. A worker's feelings about himself and his work group were of the utmost
importance.
About the complaints of the worker's 'Ventilation therapy' was seen as important. The Human
Relations theory focuses on what is called informal organization and the productivity of the workers
increased where the sentiments of the informal group were in harmony with the objectives of the
formal organization. Other significant finding is the importance of communication system, particularly
to facilitate workers to motivate fellow worker.
2.5.1 Elements of the Theory
: The important elements of Human Relations theory are as follows:

(a) The Individual:
This theory emphasizes differences among individuals. For them each worker is unique. Each worker
brings to the job situation certain attitudes, beliefs and way of life, as well as certain skills, technical,
social and logical. The emotions and perceptions are recognized as important.
(b) Work Groups (Informal Organizations) :
This theory focuses its attention on the social aspects of man whose overriding need is seen as
desire to belong, to be accepted by, and stand well in his groups. Mayo concluded that man's social
situation in his work group ranked first and the work was incidental. The informal organization
means natural groupings of people in the work situation.
(c) Participative Management:
It means participation of the workers in decision-making about their work conditions. Workers discuss
with supervisors and influence decisions that affect them. This participation results in higher
productivity.
2.5.1 Criticism:
(i) Peter F. Drucker criticised human relationists for their lack of awareness of economic
dimension.
(ii) Benedics and Fisher have argued that Mayo's failure as a social scientist arises in large measure
from his failure to define sharply the ethical presuppositions of his scientific work
(iii)This theory has been criticized mainly on the ground of its
i. Philosophy
ii. Scientific validity
iii. Short sightedness
27
iv. Over-concern. With happiness
v. Anti-Individualist (The discipline of the boss is simply replaced by the
discipline of the group forcing the individual to sacrifice his personal identify
and dignity.)
Contribution:
1) It introduced the idea of the organization as an open system.
2) It emphasized the importance of employee attitudes.
3) It revolutionized the management training.
4) Mayo critically examined the employee employer relations, stability of the labour, supervision,
etc., of the industrial workers.
Taken as a whole, the significance of Hawthorne Investigation was in discovering the informal
organization which it is now realized exists in all organizations.
2.6 The Behavioural Approach
In Public administration', behaviouralism as a distinct line of study started in the 1930‘s along with the
Human Relations Movement. The mechanistic orientation of the traditionalists has been
counterbalanced by the humanistic view of the behavioural scientists. Berelson and Steiner have
defined the behavioural sciences thus:
"By the behavioural sciences we mean the disciplines of anthropology, psychology and sociology -
minus and plus: Minus such specialized sectors as physiological psychology, archaeology, technical
linguistics, and most of physical anthropology; Plus social geography, some psychiatary, and the
behavioural parts of economics, political science, and law. In short, we are concerned here with the
scientific research that deals directly with human behaviour."
The behavioural scientists have been contributing to organizational dynamics since the days of the
Hawthorne studies. Carl Rogers, J.L. Moreno, Kurt Lewin, and A.H. Maslow are some of the great
names in this school. Rogers is well-known for his clinical approach to counseling therapy, and
Moreno for his studies of interpersonal relations. Lewin pioneered the action research approach to
organizational development. Maslow's theory of motivation has exerted strong influence on studies of
organizational behaviour:
Salient Features
This approach has the following salient features:
1. Its literature is descriptive rather than prescriptive, with the studies on motivation being
an exception.
2. Increased attention is paid to the individual based on more realistic approach concerning
motivation, decision-making process and the nature of authority.
3. Stress is laid on informal relationship and communication patterns among members of
an organization.
4. It is mainly concerned with quantification, and formal theory constructions.
5. Its emphasis, is on empirical study based on methods such as field study, laboratory
Experiments or use of other statistical methods
28
6. It is inter-disciplinary in character and makes considerable use of propositions drawn
from other social sciences.
2.6.1 Contribution of Herbert Simon:
a) Simon has been basically concerned with the behaviour of organization as goal-oriented and
adaptive entities.
b) He focuses on the cognitive aspects of organizational operation and emphasizes on Problem
solving and rational choice
c) He introduced the concept of 'satisfying' behaviour in organizational situations.
2.6.2 Contribution of E. Wight Bakke:
He identified the individual goals as security, progress and justice in respect of internal harmony
understanding, autonomy, integration and respect. He was interested in the realities' of organizational
life. According to Bakke, the individual seeks to use the organization as a means to further his own
goals, whereas the organization tries to use the
individual to attain its own goals. The 'personalizing process' by which the individual makes use of the
organization, and the 'socializing process' by which organization puts the individual to its own use get
mixed up in real life. This is what Bakke called the 'fusion process'.
2.6.3 Contribution of Chris Argyris :
He speaks of a basic incompatibility between the needs of a mature personality

and the requirements of a formal organization designed on the classical principles of rigid task
specialization, span of control, and unity of command. Strict adherence to classical principles,
according to him, is likely to create an organization that will tend to make the employees dependent
and passive.
2.6.4 Contribution of Chester Barnard:
He developed an equilibrium theory

of organization by suggesting that the organization exists by maintaining an equilibrium between the
contributors and satisfaction of its participant members. Both material inducements and psycho-social
rewards are important. According to Barnard, efficiency in organization is a personal matter related to
individual's satisfaction and effectiveness is related to the accomplishment of a common organizational
authority. Authority to his, is a matter of acceptance, of the superior role of the supervisors by the
subordinate.
Other contributions have come from Maslow's ideas on hierarchy of needs, McGregor (his theory X,
and theory Y), Likert and Herzberg.
2.6.5 Criticism
29
a. It has limited utility in the analysis of all types of administrative phenomena.
b. It is applicable t6 small social groups whereas the study of Public administration deals with
larger communities.
c. The total exclusion of values from the study of administrative problems and phenomena will
make the study of Public administration rather irrelevant to the vital issues of the Modern age.
Despite these criticisms, the behavioural scientists have given a new orientation to administrative
thought by focusing attention on the role of the individual, leadership, group dynamics, motivation and
satisfaction, More importantly, many of the behavioural scientists are now active in the role of change
agents.
Modern theory, also called systems analysis of organizations, developed largely since the 1950s. The
origin of general systems theory is traced to the thinking of the biologist Ludwig Von Bertalanffy, in
the twenties. It aimed at the unification of science and scientific analysis. General Systems theory is an
attempt to join up the different approaches in science (traditional, behavioural and management
science) and thus, to provide a broad macroscopic view of different types of systems.
2.7 The Systems Approach
Weber defines a system as "A set or arrangement of things so related or connected as to form a unity or
organic whole." A system is thus a unified whole having a number of inter-dependent parts or sub-
systems and it has identifiable boundaries that distinguish it from its surrounding environment in which
'it is embedded, and with which it interacts. Features of Social System
1. Social systems are open systems as they are in constant interaction with their environment. By
contrast physical and mechanical systems arc closed in relation to their environment.
2. Boundaries of social organizations are not easily identifiable. It has to be understood from their
activities and functions in real life situations. Physical and mechanical systems have easily
identifiable boundaries.
3. Closed systems have the general tendency toward 'entropy' and disorganization; open systems,
on the other hand, have the tendency to develop through greater internal differentiation and
move towards higher levels of organization. Most social systems fall in this latter category.
2.7.1 Relevance of Organization Theory
The Systems approach is particularly relevant to the study of complex public organizations that have
elaborate structures and that are embedded in larger social, political and economic environments. An
organization survives and grows by'urawing inputs from the' environment which are processed
internally to produce its output. C. West Churchman provides five basic considerations in relation to
the systems approach to management.
These are:
1. The total objectives of the system and the measures of system performance.
2. The system's environment acting as constraints.
3. The system's resources that are put to use in performance.
4. The system's components and their goals and activities.
5. The management of the system (the regulation and decision-making aspect).
30
The systems view of organization was prominent in the writings of M.P. Follet, Chester Barnard.
Herbert Simon's decision-making scheme follows the Systems approach which was further elaborated
by him and his associates later. Philip Selznick has used the systems framework in his studies of
governmental and other complex organizations
Review Questions
1. Define the term theory
2. Discuss the theories of administration using relevant examples.
Review Questions

Handbook of educational psychology (2nd ed., pp. 209–244). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Greeno, J. G. (2006). Learning in activity. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the
learning sciences (pp. 79–96). New York: Cambridge University Press.
31
CHAPTER THREE: LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
Learning objectives
By the end of the chapter the learner should be able to
I. Define the term leadership

II. Discuss the various leadership styles
III. Compare and contrast mc Gregors theory of leadership and maslows
3.1 Definition of leadership
Leadership has been described as, ―the process of social influence in which one person can enlist the
aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task." Definitions more inclusive of
followers have also emerged. Alan Keith stated that, "Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for
people to contribute to making something extraordinary happen." Tom DeMarco says that leadership
needs to be distinguished from posturing.
Leadership style refers to a leader's behaviour. It is the result of the philosophy, personality and
experience of the leader. When developing your leadership skills; one must soon confront an important
practical question, "What leadership styles work best for me and my organization?" To answer this
question, it's best to understand that there are many from which to choose and as part of your
leadership development effort; you should consider developing as many leadership styles as possible.
Over the years the philosophical terminology of "management" and "leadership" have, in the
organizational context, been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings. Debate
is fairly common about whether the use of these terms should be restricted, and generally reflects an
awareness of the distinction made by Burns (1978) between "transactional" leadership (characterized
by e.g. emphasis on procedures, contingent reward, management by exception) and "transformational"
leadership (characterized by e.g. charisma, personal relationships, creativity).
The following sections discuss several important aspects of leadership including a description of what
leadership is and a description of several popular theories and styles of leadership. This article also
discusses topics such as the role of emotions and vision, as well as leadership effectiveness and
performance, leadership in different contexts, how it may differ from related concepts (i.e.,
management), and some critiques of leadership as generally conceived.
3.2 Three Classic Leadership Styles
One dimension of has to do with control and one's perception of how much control one should give to
people. The laissez faire style implies low control, the autocratic style high control and the
participative lies somewhere in between.
32
3.2.1 The Laissez Faire Leadership Style
The style is largely a "hands off" view that tends to minimize the amount of direction and face time
required. Works well if you have highly trained and highly motivated direct reports. Free reign leader
does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself as shown; such a leader allows maximum freedom
to subordinates, i.e., they are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods. A
Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little time to
converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more experience or
expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a
highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic or
laissez-faire style may be more effective. The style adopted should be the one that most effectively
achieves the objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members.
3.2.2 The Autocratic Leadership Style
The autocratic style has its advocates, but it is falling out of favor in many countries. Some people
have argued that the style is popular with today's CEO's, who have much in common with feudal lords
in Medieval Europe. Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized
in the leader, as with dictator leaders.
They do not entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. The autocratic management has
been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as
only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to himself until he feels it is
needed to be shared with the rest of the group.
3.2.3 The Participative/Democratic Leadership Style
It's hard to order and demand someone to be creative, perform as a team, solve complex problems,
improve quality, and provide outstanding customer service. The style presents a happy medium
between over controlling (micromanaging) and not being engaged and tends to be seen in
organizations that must innovate to prosper. The democratic leadership style favors decision-making
by the group as shown, such as leader gives instruction after consulting the group.
They can win the cooperation of their group and can motivate them effectively and positively. The
decisions of the democratic leader are not unilateral as with the autocrat because they arise from
consultation with the group members and participation by them.
3.3 The Emergent Leadership Style
3.3.1The Transactional Leadership Style
The approach emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo; almost in
opposition to the goals of the transformational leadership. It's considered to be a "by the book"
approach in which the person works within the rules. As such, it's commonly seen in large,
bureaucratic organizations.
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3.3.2 The Transformational Leadership Style
The primary focus of this leadership style is to make change happen in:
 Our Self,
 Others,
 Groups, and
 Organizations
3.3.3Charisma is a special leadership style commonly associated with transformational leadership.

While extremely powerful, it is extremely hard to teach.
3.3.4 Visionary Leadership
The leadership style focuses on how the leader defines the future for followers and moves them toward
it.
3.3.5 Strategic Leadership
This is practiced by the military services such as the US Army, US Air Force, and many large
corporations. It stresses the competitive nature of running an organization and being able to out fox
and outwit the competition.
3.3.6 Facilitative Leadership
This is a special style that anyone who runs a meeting can employ. Rather than being directive, one
uses a number of indirect communication patterns to help the group reach consensus.
3.3.7 Leadership Influence Styles
Here one looks at the behaviors associated how one exercises influence. For example, does the person
mostly punish? Do they know how to reward?
3.3.8 Cross-Cultural Leadership
Not all individuals can adapt to the leadership styles expected in a different culture; whether that
culture is organizational or national.
3.3.9 Coaching
A great coach is definitely a leader who also possesses a unique gift--the ability to teach and train.
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3.3.10 Level 5 Leadership
This term was coined by Jim Collins in his book Good to Great: Why Some Company’s Make the Leap
and Other Don’t. As Collins says in his book, "We were surprised, shocked really, to discover the
types of leadership required for turning a good company into a great one." What he seems to have
found is what The Economist calls "The Cult of the Faceless Boss."
3.3.11 Servant Leadership
Some leaders have put the needs of their followers first. For example, the motto of the Los Angeles
Police Department, "To Protect and Serve." reflects this philosophy of service. One suspects these
leaders are rare in business.
3.3.12 Group /Team leadership
In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this
situation, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. Some organizations have
taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see
the traditional leadership of a boss as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the
maintenance of the boss becomes too expensive - either by draining the resources of the group as a
whole, or by impeding the creativity within the team, even unintentionally
A common example of group leadership involves cross-functional teams. A team of people with
diverse skills and from all parts of an organization assembles to lead a project. A team structure can
involve sharing power equally on all issues, but more commonly uses rotating leadership. The team
member(s) best able to handle any given phase of the project become(s) the temporary leader(s).
Additionally, as each team member has the opportunity to experience the elevated level of
empowerment, it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success.
Leaders who demonstrate persistence, tenacity, determination and synergistic communication skills
will bring out the same qualities in their groups. Good leaders use their own inner mentors to energize
their team and organizations and lead a team to achieve success.
According to the National School Boards Association (USA)
These Group Leadership or Leadership Teams have specific characteristics:
Characteristics of a Team
 There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members.

 There must be interpersonal relationship. Members must have a chance to contribute, learn
from and work with others.
 The member must have the ability to act together toward a common goal.
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Ten characteristics of well-functioning teams:
 Purpose: Members proudly share a sense of why the team exists and are invested in
accomplishing its mission and goals.
 Priorities: Members know what needs to be done next, by whom, and by when to achieve team
goals.
 Roles: Members know their roles in getting tasks done and when to allow a more skillful
member to do a certain task.
 Decisions: Authority and decision-making lines are clearly understood.
 Conflict: Conflict is dealt with openly and is considered important to decision-making and
personal growth.
 Personal traits: members feel their unique personalities are appreciated and well utilized.
 Norms: Group norms for working together are set and seen as standards for everyone in the
groups.
 Effectiveness: Members find team meetings efficient and productive and look forward to this
time together.
 Success: Members know clearly when the team has met with success and share in this equally
and proudly.
 Training: Opportunities for feedback and updating skills are provided and taken advantage of
by team members.
3.4 Theories of leadership
3.4.1 Human Relations Contributors
Theory X and Theory Y are theories of human motivation created and developed by Douglas
McGregor at the MIT Sloan School of Management in the 1960s that have been used in human
resource management, organizational behavior, organizational communication and organizational
development. They describe two very different attitudes toward workforce motivation. McGregor felt
that companies followed either one or the other approach. He also thought that the key to connecting
self-actualization with work is determined by the managerial trust of subordinates.
Douglas McGregor in his book, "The Human Side of Enterprise" published in 1960 has examined
theories on behavior of individuals at work, and he has formulated two models which he calls Theory
X and Theory Y.
3.4.2 Theory X Assumptions
The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can.
 Because of their dislike for work, most people must be controlled and threatened before they
will work hard enough.
 The average human prefers to be directed, dislikes responsibility, is unambiguous, and desires
security above everything.
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 These assumptions lie behind most organizational principles today, and give rise both to
"tough" management with punishments and tight controls, and "soft" management which aims
at harmony at work.
 Both these are "wrong" because man needs more than financial rewards at work, he also needs
some deeper higher order motivation - the opportunity to fulfill himself.
 Theory X managers do not give their staff this opportunity so that the employees behave in the
expected fashion.
3.4.3 Theory Y Assumptions
 The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.
 Control and punishment are not the only ways to make people work, man will direct himself if
he is committed to the aims of the organization.
 If a job is satisfying, then the result will be commitment to the organization.
 The average man learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility.
 Imagination, creativity, and ingenuity can be used to solve work problems by a large number of
employees.
 Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average man
are only partially utilized.
3.4.4 Comments on Theory X and Theory Y Assumptions
These assumptions are based on social science research which has been carried out, and demonstrate
the potential which is present in man and which organizations should recognize in order to become
more effective.
McGregor sees these two theories as two quite separate attitudes. Theory Y is difficult to put into
practice on the shop floor in large mass production operations, but it can be used initially in the
managing of managers and professionals.
In "The Human Side of Enterprise" McGregor shows how Theory Y affects the management of
promotions and salaries and the development of effective managers. McGregor also sees Theory Y as
conducive to participative problem solving.
It is part of the manager's job to exercise authority, and there are cases in which this is the only method
of achieving the desired results because subordinates do not agree that the ends are desirable.
However, in situations where it is possible to obtain commitment to objectives, it is better to explain

the matter fully so that employees grasp the purpose of an action. They will then exert self-direction
and control to do better work - quite possibly by better methods - than if they had simply been carrying
out an order which the y did not fully understand.
The situation in which employees can be consulted is one where the individuals are emotionally
mature, and positively motivated towards their work; where the work is sufficiently responsible to
allow for flexibility and where the employee can see her or his own position in the management
hierarchy. If these conditions are present, managers will find that the participative approach to problem
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solving leads to much improved results compared with the alternative approach of handing out
authoritarian orders.
Once management becomes persuaded that it is under estimating the potential of its human resources,
and accepts the knowledge given by social science researchers and displayed in Theory Y assumptions,
then it can invest time, money and effort in developing improved applications of the theory.
McGregor realizes that some of the theories he has put forward are unrealizable in practice, but wants
managers to put into operation the basic assumption that:
 Staff will contribute more to the organization if they are treated as responsible and valued
employees.
3.4.5 Theory X and Theory Y combined
For McGregor, Theory X and Y are not different ends of the same continuum. Rather they are two
different continua in themselves. Thus, if a manager needs to apply Theory Y principles, that does not
preclude them from being a part of Theory X & Y.
3.5 McGregor and Maslow's hierarchy
McGregor's work was based on Maslow's hierarchy of needs. He grouped Maslow's hierarchy into
"lower order" (Theory X) needs and "higher order" (Theory Y) needs. He suggested that management
could use either set of needs to motivate employees. As management theorists became familiar with
Maslow's work, they soon realized the possibility of connecting higher level needs to worker
motivation. If organizational goals and individual needs could be integrated so that people would
acquire self-esteem and, ultimately, self-actualization through work, then motivation would be self-
sustaining. Today, his Theory Y principle influences the design of personnel policies, affects the way
companies conduct performance reviews, and shapes the idea of pay for performance. According to the
Douglas McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y article, "He is the reason we use the term 'human
resources' instead of personnel department" says Brzezinski. "The idea that people are assets was
unheard of before McGregor."]
3.6 Criticisms
Today the theories are seldom used explicitly, largely because the insights they provided have
influenced and been incorporated by further generations of management theorists and practitioners.
More commonly, workplaces are described as "hard" versus "soft." Taken too literally any such
dichotomy including Theory X and Y seem to represent unrealistic extremes. Most employees (and
managers) fall somewhere in between these poles. Naturally, McGregor was well aware of the
heuristic as opposed to literal way in which such distinctions are useful. Theory X and Theory Y are
still important terms in the field of management and motivation. Recent studies have questioned the
rigidity of the model, but McGregor's X-Y Theory remains a guiding principle of positive approaches
to management, to organizational development, and to improving organizational culture.
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3.7 Emergent Theories of leadership
Students of leadership have produced theories involving traits, situational interaction, function,
behavior, power, vision and values,[5] charisma, and intelligence among others.
3.7.1Trait Theory of leadership
The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has been ongoing for centuries. History's greatest
philosophical writings from Plato's Republic to Plutarch's Lives have explored the question of "What
qualities distinguish an individual as a leader?" Underlying this search was the early recognition of the
importance of leadership and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain
individuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the "trait
theory of leadership."
This view of leadership, the trait theory, was explored at length in a number of works in the previous
century. Most notable are the writings of Thomas Carlyle and Francis Galton, whose works have
prompted decades of research. In Heroes and Hero Worship (1841), Carlyle identified the talents,
skills, and physical characteristics of men who rose to power. In Galton's (1869) Hereditary Genius, he
examined leadership qualities in the families of powerful men. After showing that the numbers of
eminent relatives dropped off when moving from first degree to second degree relatives, Galton
concluded that leadership was inherited. In other words, leaders were born, not developed. Both of
these notable works lent great initial support for the notion that leadership is rooted in characteristics of
the leader.
For decades, this trait-based perspective dominated empirical and theoretical work in leadership.[6]
Using early research techniques, researchers conducted over a hundred studies proposing a number of
characteristics that distinguished leaders from non leaders: intelligence, dominance, adaptability,
persistence, integrity, socioeconomic status, and self-confidence just to name a few.
3.7.2 Rise of alternative theories
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, however, a series of qualitative reviews of these studies (e.g., Bird,
1940; Stogdill, 1948; Mann, 1959) prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the
driving forces behind leadership. In reviewing the extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while
some traits were common across a number of studies, the overall evidence suggested that persons who
are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subsequently, leadership
was no longer characterized as an enduring individual trait, as situational approaches (see alternative
leadership theories below) posited that individuals can be effective in certain situations, but not others.
This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades.
3.7.3 Reemergence of trait theory
New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately
reestablish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership. For example, improvements
in researchers' use of the round robin research design methodology allowed researchers to see that
individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks. [11] Additionally,
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during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses, in which they
could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies. This advent
allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive and parsimonious picture of previous leadership
research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership
researchers revealed the following:
 Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks
 Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits as:
 intelligence
 adjustment
 extraversion
 conscientiousness
 openness to experience
 general self-efficacy
While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained popularity, its reemergence has not been
accompanied by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks.[6]
Specifically, Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still:
1. Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality traits, to the
neglect of cognitive abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and problem-
solving skills
2. Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
3. Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over
time and those that are shaped by, and bound to, situational influences
4. Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity
necessary for effective leadership
3.7.4 Attribute Pattern Approach
Considering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers have begun to adopt a
different perspective of leader individual differences - the leader attribute pattern approach. In contrast
to the traditional approach, the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists' arguments that
the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as
an integrated totality rather than a summation of individual variables. In other words, the leader
attribute pattern approach argues that integrated constellations or combinations of individual
differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond
that explained by single attributes, or by additive combinations of multiple attributes.
3.7.5 Behavioral and style theories
In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set
of behaviors, evaluating the behavior of 'successful' leaders, determining behavior taxonomy and
identifying broad leadership styles. David McClelland, for example, Leadership takes a strong
40
personality with a well developed positive ego. Not so much as a pattern of motives, but a set of traits
is crucial. To lead; self-confidence and a high self-esteem is useful, perhaps even essential.[Kevin
Mick]
Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of
leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-
year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence
regarding the type of group decision making, praise and criticism (feedback), and the management of
the group tasks (project management) according to three styles: (1) authoritarian, (2) democratic and
(3) laissez-faire. Authoritarian climates were characterized by leaders who make decisions alone,
demand strict compliance to his orders, and dictate each step taken; future steps were uncertain to a
large degree. The leader is not necessarily hostile but is aloof from participation in work and
commonly offers personal praise and criticism for the work done. Democratic climates were
characterized by collective decision processes, assisted by the leader. Before accomplishing tasks,
perspectives are gained from group discussion and technical advice from a leader. Members are given
choices and collectively decide the division of labor. Praise and criticism in such an environment are
objective, fact minded and given by a group member without necessarily having participated
extensively in the actual work. Laissez faire climates gave freedom to the group for policy
determination without any participation from the leader. The leader remains uninvolved in work
decisions unless asked, does not participate in the division of labor, and very infrequently gives praise.
The results seemed to confirm that the democratic climate was preferred.
The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by Robert
Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different leadership styles, based on the leaders'
concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.
B.F. Skinner is the father of Behavior Modification and developed the concept of positive
reinforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a
behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior in the future. The following is an example of how
positive reinforcement can be used in a business setting. Assume praise is a positive reinforcer for a
particular employee. This employee does not show up to work on time every day. The manager of this
employee decides to praise the employee for showing up on time every day the employee actually
shows up to work on time. As a result, the employee comes to work on time more often because the
employee likes to be praised. In this example, praise (i.e. stimulus) is a positive reinforcer for this
employee because the employee arrives (i.e. behavior) to work on time more frequently after being
praised for showing up to work on time.
The use of positive reinforcement is a successful and growing technique used by leaders to motivate
and attain desired behaviors from subordinates. Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich,
Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement to increase productivity. Empirical
research covering the last 20 years suggests that reinforcement theory has a 17 percent increase in
performance. Additionally, many reinforcement techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive,
providing higher performance for lower costs.
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3.7.6 Situational and Contingency Theories
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Social scientists argued
that history was more than the result of intervention of great men as Carlyle suggested. Herbert
Spencer (1884) said that the times produce the person and not the other way around. This theory
assumes that different situations call for different characteristics; according to this group of theories,
no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, "what an individual
actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in
which he functions."
Some theorists started to synthesize the trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of
Lewin et al., academics began to normalize the descriptive models of leadership climates, defining
three leadership styles and identifying which situations each style works better in. The authoritarian
leadership style, for example, is approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the "hearts and minds" of
their followers in the day-to-day management; the democratic leadership style is more adequate in
situations that require consensus building; finally, the laissez faire leadership style is appreciated by
the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leader does not "take charge", he can be perceived as a
failure in protracted or thorny organizational problems. Thus, theorists defined the style of leadership
as contingent to the situation, which is sometimes, classified as contingency theory. Four contingency
leadership theories appear more prominently in the recent years: Fiedler contingency model, Vroom-
Yetton decision model, the path-goal theory, and the Hersey-Blanchard situational theory.
The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader's effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational
contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorableness (later
called "situational control"). The theory defined two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish the
task by developing good-relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as
their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented). According to Fiedler, there is no ideal
leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership
orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task,
and high leader position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that
task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favourable or unfavourable situations, whereas
relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favourability.
Victor Vroom, in collaboration with Phillip Yetton (1973 and later with Arthur Jago (1988), developed
a taxonomy for describing leadership situations, taxonomy that was used in a normative decision
model where leadership styles were connected to situational variables, defining which approach was
more suitable to which situation This approach was novel because it supported the idea that the same
manager could rely on different group decision making approaches depending on the attributes of each
situation. This model was later referred as situational contingency theory
The path-goal theory of leadership was developed by Robert House (1971) and was based on the
expectancy theory of Victor Vroom. According to House, the essence of the theory is "the meta
proposition that leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates'
environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to
subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance. The theory identifies four leader
behaviors, achievement-oriented, directive, participative, and supportive, that are contingent to the
42
environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to the Fiedler contingency model, the
path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the
four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a
contingency theory, as it depends on the circumstances, but also as a transactional leadership theory, as
the theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and the followers.
The situational leadership model proposed by Hersey and Blanchard suggests four leadership-styles
and four levels of follower-development. For effectiveness, the model posits that the leadership-style
must match the appropriate level of followership-development. In this model, leadership behavior
becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader, but of the characteristics of followers
as well
3.7.7 Functional theory
Functional leadership theory (Hackman & Walton, 1986; McGrath, 1962) is a particularly useful
theory for addressing specific leader behaviors expected to contribute to organizational or unit
effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group
needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have
contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion (Fleishman et al., 1991; Hackman & Wageman, 2005;
Hackman & Walton, 1986). While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team
leadership (Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001), it has also been effectively applied to broader
organizational leadership as well (Zaccaro, 2001). In summarizing literature on functional leadership
(see Kozlowski et al. (1996), Zaccaro et al. (2001), Hackman and Walton (1986), Hackman &
Wageman (2005), Morgeson (2005)), Klein, Zeigert, Knight, and Xiao (2006) observed five broad
functions a leader performs when promoting organisation's effectiveness. These functions include: (1)
environmental monitoring, (2) organizing subordinate activities, (3) teaching and coaching
subordinates, (4) motivating others, and (5) intervening actively in the group's work.
A variety of leadership behaviors are expected to facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying
leader behavior, Fleishman (1953) observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors' behavior in
terms of two broad categories referred to as consideration and initiating structure. Consideration
includes behavior involved in fostering effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would
include showing concern for a subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating
structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could
include role clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those
standards.
3.7.8 Transactional and Transformational Theories
Eric Berne first analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of Transactional
Analysis.
The transactional leader (Burns, 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish
for the team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group
agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is
43
given to the leader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired
level and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached.
The transformational leader (Burns, 1978) motivates its team to be effective and efficient.
Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or
goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and uses chain of command to get the job done.
Transformational leaders focus on the big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care
of the details. The leader is always looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the company's
vision.
3.7.9 Neo-Emergent Theory
The Neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses that leadership is
created through the emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders, not through the true
actions of the leader himself. In other words, the reproduction of information or stories form the basis
of the perception of leadership by the majority. It is well known that the great naval hero Lord Nelson
often wrote his own versions of battles he was involved in, so that when he arrived home in England he
would receive a true hero's welcome. In modern society, the press, blogs and other sources report their
own views of a leader, which may be based on reality, but may also be based on a political command,
a payment, or an inherent interest of the author, media or leader. Therefore, it can be contended that the
perception of all leaders is created and in fact does not reflect their true leadership qualities at all.
3.7.1 Environmental Leadership Theory
The Environmental leadership model (Carmazzi) describes leadership from a Group dynamics
perspective incorporating group psychology and self awareness to nurture "Environments" that
promote self sustaining group leadership based on personal emotional gratification from the activities
of the group. The Environmental Leader creates the psychological structure by which employees can
find and attain this gratification through work or activity.
It stems from the idea that each individual has various environments that bring out different facets
from their own Identity, and each facet is driven by emotionally charged perceptions within each
environment… The Environmental Leader creates a platform through education and awareness where
individuals fill each other‘s emotional needs and become more conscious of when, and how they affect
personal and team emotional gratifications. This is accomplished by knowing why people "react" to
their environment instead of act intelligently.
"Environmental Leadership is not about changing the mindset of the group or individual, but in the
cultivation of an environment that brings out the best and inspires the individuals in that group. It is
not the ability to influence others to do something they are not committed to, but rather to nurture a
culture that motivates and even excites individuals to do what is required for the benefit of all. It is not
carrying others to the end result, but setting the surrounding for developing qualities in them to so they
may carry each other." Carmazzi
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The role of an Environmental Leader is to instill passion and direction to a group and the dynamics of
that group. This leader implements a psychological support system within a group that fills the
emotional and developmental needs of the group.
3.8 Leadership Performance
In the past, some researchers have argued that the actual influence of leaders on organizational
outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders (Meindl &
Ehrlich, 1987). Despite these assertions however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners
and researchers that leadership is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute
to key organizational outcomes (Day & Lord, 1988; Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008). To facilitate
successful performance it is important to understand and accurately measure leadership performance.
Job performance generally refers to behavior that is expected to contribute to organizational success
(Campbell, 1990). Campbell identified a number of specific types of performance dimensions;
leadership was one of the dimensions that he identified. There is no consistent, overall definition of
leadership performance (Yukl, 2006). Many distinct conceptualizations are often lumped together
under the umbrella of leadership performance, including outcomes such as leader effectiveness, leader
advancement, and leader emergence (Kaiser et al., 2008). For instance, leadership performance may be
used to refer to the career success of the individual leader, performance of the group or organization, or
even leader emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. While these
aspects may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion should depend on the
applied/research focus.
3.9 Role of Emotions in leadership
Leadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the
social influence process. In an organization, the leader's mood has some effects on his/her group. These
effects can be described in 3 levels:
1. The mood of individual group members. Group members with leaders in a positive mood
experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood. The
leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the mechanism of emotional
contagion.Mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which charismatic
leaders influence followers
2. The affective tone of the group. Group affective tone represents the consistent or homogeneous
affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the
individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis. Groups with
leaders in a positive mood have a more positive affective tone than do groups with leaders in a
negative mood
3. Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and task strategy. Public expressions of
mood impact how group members think and act. When people experience and express mood,
they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals, intentions, and attitudes through their
expressions of moods. For example, expressions of positive moods by leaders signal that
leaders deem progress toward goals to be good. The group members respond to those signals
cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the group processes.
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In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the leader improve
the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were other findings
Beyond the leader's mood, her/his behavior is a source for employee positive and negative emotions at
work. The leader creates situations and events that lead to emotional response. Certain leader behaviors
displayed during interactions with their employees are the sources of these affective events. Leaders
shape workplace affective events. Examples – feedback giving, allocating tasks, resource distribution.
Since employee behavior and productivity are directly affected by their emotional states, it is
imperative to consider employee emotional responses to organizational leaders Emotional intelligence,
the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others, contributes to
effective leadership in organizations. Leadership is about being responsible.
3.10 Leadership in Formal Organization
An organization that is established as an instrument or means for achieving defined objectives has been
referred to as a formal organization. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and reflected in
subdivisions of the organization. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up
this work structure. Thus, the formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to
relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's definition, entry and subsequent
advancement is by merit or seniority. Each employee receives a salary and enjoys a degree of tenure
that safeguards her/him from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher his
position in the hierarchy, the greater his presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in
the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. It is this bureaucratic structure
that forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the
organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context
of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure. The informal organization expresses
the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership. Their objectives and goals may or may
not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension
of the social structures that generally characterize human life — the spontaneous emergence of groups
and organizations as ends in themselves.
In prehistoric times, humanity was preoccupied with personal security, maintenance, protection, and
survival. Now humanity spends a major portion of waking hours working for organizations. Her/His
need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of
belonging continues unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization
and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders.
Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization. Their personal qualities, the
demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their
leadership within one or several overlay structures. Instead of the authority of position held by an
appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a
person to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a
46
stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of
a means of punishment.
A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific result. It is not dependent on
title or formal authority. (elevos, paraphrased from Leaders, Bennis, and Leadership Presence, Halpern
& Lubar). Leaders are recognized by their capacity for caring for others, clear communication, and a
commitment to persist. An individual who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to
command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of his position. However, she or he must
possess adequate personal attributes to match his authority, because authority is only potentially
available to him. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an
emergent leader who can challenge her/his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead.
However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever
wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only b y gaining a formal position in the
hierarchy, with commensurate authority. Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to
willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level.
Review Questions
Review Questions
I. Differentiate leadership and management giving relevant examples
II. Discuss the three classical leadership theories
III. Imagine you are the principal in Bidii High school dicuss how you would
apply Mc Gregors theory X and y managing the human resource.
47
CHAPTER FOUR: POWER AND AUTHORITY
Learning objectives
  Differentiate the terms power and authority
  Discuss the different types of power
4.1 Definitions
Power: the ability of a person or a group to influence the beliefs and actions of other people. It is the
ability to influence events. Power can be personal power. A person gets his personal power from his
personality or from his expert knowledge. Doctors, Lawyers, Engineers, Programmers, etc. get their
power from their expertise and professional knowledge. Power can also be legitimate or official power.
This power comes from a higher authority.
Authority: the right given to a manager to achieve the objectives of the organization. It is a right to get
the things done through others. It is a right to take decisions. It is a right to give orders to the
subordinates and to get obedience from them. A manager cannot do his work without authority.
Authority cannot be bought or sold, given or taken away. Authority is about who you are as a person,
your character, and the influence you've built with people [it is one's expression of one's self, which is
treated thoroughly by WarrenBennis in OnBecomingaLeader] Power erodes relationships. You can get
a few seasons out of power, even accomplish some things, but over time power can be very damaging
to relationships there are times when we must exercise power in firing a bad employee [for example -
but] we had to resort to power because our authority had broken down [WattsHumphrey also
acknowledges the risks of power]."
According to Patrick J. Montana and Bruce H. Charnov, the ability to attain these unique powers is
what enables leadership to influence subordinates and peers by controlling organizational resources.
The successful leader effectively uses these power(s) to influence employees, and it is important for
the leader to understand the uses of power to strengthen the leadership functioning.
4.2 Types of Organizational Power:
 Legitimate Power refers to the different types of professional positions within an organization
structure that inherent such power. E.g. Manager, Vice President, Director, Supervisor, et
cetera. These levels of power commands to the hierarchical executive levels within the
organization itself. The higher position such as President of the company has a higher power
than the rest of professional positions in the hierarchical executive levels.
48
 Reward Power given the power to managers that attain administrative power over a range of
rewards. Employees whom work for managers desire the reward from the manager, they will be
influenced by receiving them as the product of work performance. The rewards may be the
obvious—pay raise or promotions.
 Coercive Power given the manager's ability to punish an employee whom did not follow the
company policy, loss of profit, et cetera. Punishment can be determined range of mild to
serious punishment... a mild punishment is a suspension and serious punishment is actual
termination.
 Expert Power an expert power attained by the manager by their own talents such as skills,
knowledge, abilities, or previous experience. Any of these managers has the power within the
organization will be very valuable and important manager in the company.
 Charisma Power a manager has a charisma that will positively influence on workers, and
admired manager that creates the opportunity for interpersonal influence. A person has
charisma, and this will confer great power as a manager.
 Referent Power a power that gained by association. This person with whom he or she is
associated or has a relationship, often referred to assistant or deputy.
 Information Power a person who has possession of important information at a important time
when such information is needed to organizational functioning. Someone who has this
information knowledge has genuine power. Manager's secretary would be in a powerful
position if a secretary has information power
Review questions
Review questions
Differentiate the terms power and authority giving relevant examples
Using appropriate illustrations show how you can use power to

achieve educational objectives in your institution
Okumbe J.A.(1999)Educational Management Theory and practice .Nairobi University Press .Nairobi
,Kenya
49
CHAPTER FIVE: ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE MINISTRY OF
EDUCATION AND RELATED SEMI AUTONOMOUS AGENCIES
Learning objectives
I. Explain the role of the ministry of education

II. Identify and explain the role of the semi autonomous agencies related to the
ministry of education
III. Describe the structure of the ministry of Education
5.1 Role of the ministry of education
The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST) is responsible for providing education
to its citizens (Ministry of Education, 2008). The ministry‘s tasks include employment of teachers for
government schools, distribution of learning resources, and implementation of education policies. The
education sector takes up about 30% of the government‘s annual expenditure accounting for the largest
share of the annual budget. However, much of the expenditure goes toward higher education and
teacher training. University education falls under the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology.
The ministry‘s mandates are: 1) Science Technology Innovation (STI) Policy; 2) Research
development, research authorization; and 3) Coordinating Technical Education (TE). Among other
roles, the higher education ministry is responsible for improving the quality, relevance, equity and
access to higher education and technical training and to enhance the capacity of the national STI
system towards demand driven STI, quality higher education and technical education services
(Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology, 2009).
MoEST is responsible for several sectors in education including: 1) Early Childhood Development and
Pre-Primary Education; 2) Primary Education; 3) Special Needs Education; 4) Secondary Education;
5) Teacher Education (Primary Teacher Education, Diploma Teacher Education, and In-Service
Training Program); 6) University Education; 7) Non-Formal Education and Adult Education; and 8)
Technical and Vocational Education and Training.
The vision of the Ministry is to provide ―quality education for development," while its mission is ―to
provide, promote and co-ordinate lifelong education, training and research for Kenya's sustainable
development.‖ MoEST focuses on certain priority areas, notably attaining Universal Primary
Education (UPE) by 2105 within the context of the wider objective of the UNESCO/World Bank
initiative Education for All (EFA) (Ministry of Education, 2008; UNESCO, 2006).
50
5.2 Objectives of the Ministry of Education
The Ministry has several objectives:
1. Achieve EFA by 2015;
2. Achieve transition rate of 70% from 57% for primary to secondary school;
3. Enhance access, equity and quality in primary and secondary education; and
4. Develop a national strategy for technical and vocational education and training leading to the
rehabilitation of the physical facilities and equipment and making sure that vocational and
technical institutions are appropriately equipped by 2010;
5. Expand public universities and increase the number and proportion of all students studying
science subjects to 50%, with at least one third being women by 2010; and
6. Achieve 50% improvement of adult literacy by 2015 (Ministry of Education, 2008).
5.3 Related Semi Autonomous Agencies
The Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD), a semi-autonomous governmental agency,

is responsible for educational research and development of the curriculum. KICD is focused on
providing quality, relevant and affordable educational and training programs in response to a changing
social, economic and technological environment. The initiatives are met through continual research,
evaluation, assessment and the monitoring processes . KICD works closely with the Kenya National
Examination Council (KNEC), the examining body responsible for developing and assessing national
exams at various levels of learning including the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) and
Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) (Kenya National Examination Council, 2008). The
Teachers Service Commission (TSC) is responsible for teacher recruitment, human resources services,
and place of government employed teachers (Ministry of Education, 2008). KICD is responsible for: 1)
Conducting research and evaluation in education and training; 2) Designing and developing curriculum
for all levels of education and training below the university level; 3) Developing learning resources,
including books, manuals, and multimedia resources; 4) Conducting in-service training of teachers and
trainers on new curriculum and trends in education and training; 5) Conducting dissemination
programs for education administrators, evaluators, book publishers and other stakeholders; 6) Carrying
out evaluation of books to access their suitability; and 7) Developing on consultancy basis, programs
for schools, colleges, organizations and technical training institutions.
5.4 structure of the Ministry Of Education
Prior to joining primary school, children between the ages of three and six are required to attend pre-
primary (pre-unit) for one or two years. The main objective of pre-primary education is to cater to the
total development of a child, including the physical, spiritual, social, and mental growth, brought about
through formal and informal interaction with the parents and the community taking a leading role. A
focus of pre-primary education has been health, nutrition, care, and basic education. Programs are run
through partnership with the government, district-based agencies, local communities and external
agencies.
Primary school is the first phase of the 8-4-4 education system and serves students between the ages of
6-14 years. The main purpose of primary education is to prepare students to participate in the social,
political and economic well being of the country, and prepare them to be global citizens ("Education
Info Center," 2006). The new primary school curriculum has therefore been designed to provide a
51
more functional and practical education to cater to the needs of children who complete their education
at the primary school level and also for those who wish to continue with secondary education. In
addition it caters to students who wish, and have the means, to continue on with secondary school
education. Primary education is universal and free but not compulsory. A major goal of primary
education is to develop self-expression, self-discipline, and self-reliance, while at the same time
providing a rounded educational experience. At the end of the eighth year, the Kenya Certificate of
Primary Examination (K.C.P.E.) is taken and the results are used to determine placement at secondary
school on a merit basis. K.C.P.E. candidates are examined in seven subjects including subjects: 1)
Kiswahili; 2) English; 3) Mathematics; 4) Science and Agriculture (SCA); 5) Home Science and
Business Education (HSBE); 6) Geography, History and Civics (GHC); and 7) Art, Craft and Music
(ACM) (Education Info Center, 2006; Ministry of Education, 2008).
Primary schools are both public (government supported) and private (individuals and religious
organizations). The two categories of primary schools are day schools and boarding schools with most
being day schools. Although many schools were built through Harambee effort, a majority of the
primary schools are in the public sector and depend on the government budget to fund their expenses.
This includes providing teachers and meeting their salaries. The government expenditure on school
supplies, books, equipment, uniforms, and maintenance is limited and is mainly financed through
school fees, fund-raising, and individual parent responsibility (Buchmann, 1999).
Secondary school education begins around the age of fourteen. However due to delayed primary
school entry and limited educational schools and facilities, many students especially those from rural
areas experience late admission into the education system years. Secondary school education in Kenya
is aimed at meeting the needs of the students who terminate their education after secondary school and
also those who proceed onto tertiary education ("Education Info Center," 2006). Hence, the much of
the 8-4-4 curriculum focuses on job-oriented courses which focus on business and technical education.
Initially, the 8-4-4 system required students to prepare and take the 13 subjects in primary school and
12 subjects in secondary school but after review over the heavy load, it was reduced to eight and seven
subjects respectively.
The required secondary school subjects are categorized into five groups as follows:
Group 1: English, Mathematics, and Kiswahili;
Group 2: Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Physical Sciences, and Biological Sciences;
Group 3: History and Government, Geography, Christian Religious Education, Islamic Religious
Education, Social Studies and Ethics, and Hindu Islamic Education;
Group 4: Home Science, Art and Design, Agriculture, Woodwork, Metalwork, Building
Construction, Power Mechanics, Electricity, Drawing and Design, and Aviation Technology; and
Group 5: French, German, Arabic, Music, Accounting, Commerce, Economics, Typewriting and
Office Practice.
52
Students are required to take all three subjects in Group 1 and at least two 1 subjects from Group 2.
They are also required to select subjects in the other three remaining area. The selection of subjects is
dependent upon what each of the individual schools offers. This is in turn dependent upon the
resources and teachers available in the individual schools. At the end of the fourth year in secondary
school, the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Examination (K.C.S.E.) is taken in the mandatory and
elective subjects above in preparation for tertiary and higher education.
At the secondary level, the number of boarding schools is higher than at the primary school level.
Public secondary schools are funded by the government, local communities, or NGOs and are managed
through boards of governors and parent-teacher associations. The private schools on the other hand are
established and managed by private individuals or organizations. Many private secondary schools still
follow the British education system, offering British O-levels, A-levels, and International
Baccalaureate programs. Others schools follow the follow the American education system. These
British and American school systems mainly prepare students who plan on attending university abroad.
For students who go on to higher education in Kenya, there are seven public universities and 17 private
universities with either full or interim charter. In addition to adding technical courses at the primary
and secondary school level, vocational education has been a focus of the education system. The
MoEST has developed a national strategy for technical and vocational education and training aimed at
the rehabilitation of physical facilities and equipment and ensuring that vocational and technical
institutions are appropriately equipped by 2010 (UNESCO, 2006) and there many two and three
colleges which offer certificate diploma programs. These public and private colleges offer technical
hands-on skills in various fields including, engineering, medical sciences, nursing, education, computer
science, mass communication, tourism, and business.
5.5Administrative Challenges in Educational Institutions
1. When free primary education (FPE) was introduced, the enrollment significantly rose from 5.9
to 7.2 million. However, most schools were not equipped to handle the large numbers of
students in terms of the number of teachers, physical classroom space, and learning resources
(Mukudi, 2004). In some schools, some classes now have as many as 80-100 students and this
has led to a dramatic increase in the number of privately owned and operated schools that target
families who can afford to pay school fees.
2. In 1998 the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) made recommendations to
restructure public institutions to streamline efficiency. One change the government made was
to reduce human resources including a freeze on hiring new teachers by the TSC and this
resulted in a significant shortage of teachers. Since 2003, the TSC has been working to retain
teachers, and the first full recruitment of about 40,000 was proposed for the 2007 fiscal year.
However, the education system still has a shortage of about 60 000 primary school teachers
(African Path, 2008; Oketch and Rolleston, 2007).
3. Despite a sizable portion the budget being allocated to the education sector, the government
still relies on donor-funding.
4. There are many cultural demands and practices that influence full participation in both the
domestic and school environment, as many children are also responsible for domestic chores.
Although the initial enrollments have been higher in the last five years, there is still the danger
53
of dropout rates not being fully under control (Oketch and Rolleston, 2007). One positive
outcome of FPE, however, has been the significant increase in the number of girls in school.
5. Maintaining the quality of education is a challenge that the government continues to address.
With large class sizes and competing resources, parents with financial means pulled their
children out of public schools and enrolled them in private schools.
6. Education, Gender, and Health
Kamaara (1999) notes that one of the threats facing youth in developing countries is reproductive
health and the data in Kenya indicates that 17% of girls between age 15 and 19 have at least one child.
Kamaara also reports on a national study which found that about 36% of all pregnant young women
aged 15-24 visiting antenatal care clinics had a sexually transmitted disease. Health education has
since been integrated into the curriculum through subjects such as biology and social ethics
(International Bureau of Education, 2004).
UNESO, UNICEF, and other non-governmental organizations have been conducting research aimed at
improving female access to education. Buchmann (2000) reports that determinants of educational
inequality are generally informed by three perspectives: economic, resource constraints, and cultural
perspectives. Each of these perspectives has been used to explain educational decision making in
developing countries, and each predicts participation in formal schooling. In the case of Kenya,
cultural norms and gender stereotypes do hinder girls' participation in school, where typically
mathematics and science are seen as ‗boys subjects‘ while home science is a ‗girls‘ subject‘. Some
reports (Lloyd, Mensch, and Clark, 2000) indicate that although Kenya has high levels of primary
school enrollment, data show that as girls enter secondary school, their teenage years their enrollment
begins to fall compared to that of boys.
Regional disparities in education are closely related to, and often compounded by other socioeconomic
factors. Beginning in the colonial period some groups, especially the nomadic and pastoralist groups
have historically been marginalized, while those groups that had more interaction with the British
during the colonial reign were exposure to Western-based education and economic systems earlier.
Initially, formal education was linked to Christianity but beginning in the 1970s, the government made
accommodations for Muslim students. This was done by acknowledging Madras and religious schools,
and later in the 1980s by introducing Hindu and Islamic Religious Education and classes in the
curriculum (Alwy and Schech, 2004; Buchmann, 2000). The government and various NGOs are
currently working to make accommodations for children from nomadic, pastoralist, and other
underrepresented groups by increasing resources, teachers, and building more boarding schools for
them.
The prevalence of disability in Kenya is mainly due to limited preventive and rehabilitation services.
The government has taken measures to cater to the quality of special education in the country and the
MoEST has adopted an integration policy that provides children with special needs, both physical and
mental to cater for in regular schools (Ministry of Education, 2000). Presently, there are 57 primary
schools for children with disabilities which enroll a total of 8000 children. There are an additional 103
integrated units in mainstream primary schools, three high schools for students with physical
disabilities, two high schools for students with hearing disabilities, and one high school for students
with visual disabilities
54
In one study, data indicated that 52% of children orphaned by AIDS were not in school, compared with
2% who were not orphaned. Of the orphaned children, 56% of the girls and 47% of boys were likely to
drop out of school within 12 months of a parent‘s death. Although the government has put measures in
place to enable orphaned children access to FPE, the children still have health and emotional needs, as
many of their caretakers (often grandparents) do not have the economic means (Nyambedha,
Wandibba, and Aagaard-Hansen, 2001). Further, the Children‘s Act passed in 2001 to address the
needs of children has not been fully implemented due to limited financial resources and lack of
capacity. The government is however working closely with UNESCO, UNICEF and other NGOs to
cater to the children‘s needs.
7. Underutilization of ICT
. In many developing nations lack of ICT policy, poor ICT project management, and corruption has
led to ineffective implementation, adoption of different systems and standards, duplication of effort,
and waste of technology resources. Efforts are often uncoordinated and initiatives are often in
competition with each other rather than complementing each other. In addition there are many
unsustainable ICT programs where schools have computers that do not work as resources that are often
redirected and misuse (Ford, 2007; Kessy et al., 2006).
The cultural context of ICT adoption, language barriers, and attitudes toward ICT affect the rate at
which it is adopted. Perceived difficulty in the integration of ICT in education is based on the belief
that technology use is challenging, its implementation requires extra time, technology skills are
difficult to learn, and the cost of attaining and maintain resources is prohibitive (Fourie and Alt, 2002).
For instance, as Ford (2007) notes humanities teachers are the most resistant to computers. Limited
skilled human resources and students‘ limited computer knowledge which is precipitated by the
reluctance or inability for schools to introduce ICT often result in limited use of resources, creating a
vicious cycle (Kessy et al., 2006). Further, Ford (2007) states that in many instances teachers believe
that using computers deprives students of the time needed to study for their national examinations and
that computers disrupt the traditional structure of the classroom.
In Kenya International Education Journal 5(2), 266-274. ding educational opportunities stems from a
lack of financial resources, rising foreign debt, and a limited distributive capacity. Further, nations in
Africa have not been able to supply ample schools, teachers, and resources to keep up with this
demand, resulting in compromised quality of education. In addition, many African governments face
the predicament of educational expansion that corresponds with economic development.
55
Review questions
Review questions
1. Using relevant examples explain the role of the Ministry of

Education
2. Discuss the structure of the ministry of education
3. With illustration discuss the administrative challenges in
management of education in Kenya
Reference for further reading
Amutabi, M. N., 2003. Political interference in the running of education in post independence Kenya:
A critical retrospection. International Journal of Educational Development 23, 127–144.
Buchmann, C., 1999. The state and schooling in Kenya: Historical developments and current
challenges. Africa Today 46 (1), 95-117.
Buchmann, C., 2000. Family structure, parental perceptions, and child labor in Kenya: What factors
determine who is enrolled in school. Social Forces 78 (4), 1349-1378
56
CHAPTER SIX: EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Learning objectives
i. Define educational planning
ii. Explain how the department of educational planning was formed and its
functions
iii. Explain the historical development of educational planning in Kenya.
6.1 Definition:
Educational planning, in its broadest generic sense, is the application of rational, systematic analysis to
the process of educational development with the aim of making education more effective and efficient
in responding to the needs and goals of its students and society. Educational planning deals with the
future, drawing enlightenment from the past.
Planning is a continuous process, concerned not only with where to go but with how to get there and
by what best route. Its work does not cease when a plan gets on paper and has won approval. Planning,
to be effective, must be concerned with its own implementation – with progress made or not made,
with unforeseen obstacles that arise and with how to overcome them. Plans are not made to be carved
in stone but to be changed and adapted as the occasion warrants. As plans for one period move into
action, planning for the next must be under way, nourished by feedback from the first.
Planning is, or should be, an integral part of the whole process of educational management, defined in
the broadest sense. It can help the decision-makers at all levels - from classroom teachers to national
ministers and parliaments - to make better-informed decisions. It can do this by helping them see more
clearly the specific objectives in question, the various options that are available for pursuing these
objectives, and the likely implications of each. Planning can help to attain larger and better aggregate
results within the limits of available resources.
However, planning must use a wide-angle lens through which a great many interlocking variables can
be put in focus and all of them seen as parts of a dynamic organic whole as a system susceptible of
system analysis.
Planners must first see what room the decision-makers have, right now, for manoeuvre. They must
look, for instance, at the state of the society, where it wants to go, and what it will require,
educationally, to get there; at the nature of the students, their needs, aspirations and practical prospects;
at the state of knowledge itself and the state of the educational art and technology; and not least of all
at the innate ability of the educational system to examine itself critically and to take intelligent action
to improve its own performance. And he had anticipated (we were in the 1970s): If traditional
57
educational systems continue to pursue the simplistic expansionist strategy of making themselves
larger in their old image, they will compound the already serious maladjustments between themselves
and their society, they will waste resources, exacerbate the crisis that already grips them, fail in their
mission, jeopardize their own survival and impose untold penalties on future generations.
6.2 Education planning department
The Education Planning Department in Kenya is entrusted with the responsibility to ensure the
efficient delivery of sustainable and quality education throughout the education system, from
preschools through to tertiary-level institutions.
6.2.1 Functions of the Education Planning Department
 detailed planning for the provision of accommodation needs at each level of the education
system
 annual participation in budget preparation for each sector of the education system
 fashioning proposals for capital investment
 developing systems and procedures for effective delivery of school programs
 engagement in the formulation of policies/initiatives
 assessing and prioritizing the training needs of the education system
 Conducting research as a means of improving the quality of education and teacher training in
the education system where necessary.
This led to the establishment of The EPAC (Education Planners Advisory Committee) in November
2007. The Members of the original EPAC Committee are - Ms. Jennifer Palmer Crawford, Ms. Clarice
Cotton, Mrs. Jeanette Maitland, Mrs Carlene Morton, Mr. Freddy Knight, Mr. Calwyn Morton, Mr. Ian
Gregory Morson, Mr. Steve Laplace and Mr. Quinton Morton. "The committee was deemed necessary
to assist in enhancing our education system ... The committee brings together individuals with varied
experiences and a passion to enhance the education process.‖
Research supports our belief that the process of education is most effective and efficient when all
stakeholders are involved: When the community (Church, Private sector Parents, Teachers, Youths,
Adults) are involved they are more likely to embrace and support our efforts at the Ministry of
Education.
6.3 Reasons Why Educational Planning is Important for Academic Institutions
The developments taking place and the increasing complexity of the educational system have made
educational planning an absolute necessity.
The nation today faces problems such as population explosion, increasing aspirations among different
sections of the society, man-power needs, mismatch between educational products and the demands of
the economy, dwindling resources, ecological imbalances and haphazard applications of scientific
developments.
58
These problems place demands on the system of education for solutions. In order that the system of
education meets these problems, planning becomes imperative and the competence to plan becomes
mandatory.
Educational planning is an absolute necessity because:
(1) It ensures success of the institution. It takes into consideration the important issues, conditions,
constraints and factors in education. Its focus is on future objectives, vision and goals. It is proactive in
nature in that it emphasizes perception and ability to apply theory and profit from it in advance of
action.
It clarifies goals and the means to achieve those goals. Thus it eliminates trial-and-error process,
reduces chances of failure and ensures success. In other words, it provides intelligent direction to
activity.
(2) The scarcity of financial and other non-material resources poses a challenge to education. Planning
is a response to such challenges and explores the possibilities of alternative uses and optimum
utilization of limited resources.
(3) Effective and efficient planning saves time, effort and money.
(4) It is a co-ordinated means of attaining pre-determined purposes.
(5) Education is a public service demanded by the public and supplied by the government. For any
government effort of such a large magnitude as education, planning is absolutely necessary.
(6) Educational planning is one of the components of the overall national socio-economic
development. The over-all planning has to provide the objectives of education and the finances for
educational development for accomplishing these objectives.
6.4 Historical Background of Educational Planning In Kenya
After gaining independence from Britain in 1963, the newly independent nation of Kenya faced the
enormous challenge of mapping out strategies for reconstruction, and laying a foundation for national
unity from the existing cultural diversity. The limited availability or denial of formal education
opportunities to Kenyan Africans during the colonial era generated a lasting demand for schooling
after independence (Eshiwani, 1993; Sheffield, 1973).
The new government formed the first education commission, the Ominde Commission,3 to formulate a
new education policy for Kenya. The commission established guidelines for the newly independent
nation and initiated ―a beginning of a continuous planning in Kenya‖ (Ominde Report, 1965, p. 10)
[AQ: not in Refs. Is this cited as ―Kenya Government, 1965‖?]. A major theme that emerged from the
first part of the Ominde report was that the political and social role of education in independent Kenya
were made evident in the utilitarian, social, cultural, and personal goals of education. The Commission
made 160 policy recommendations that stressed the role of education in nation-building and promoting
national unity through emphasis on cultural and social values, and integrating education with national
economic planning (Ominde Report, 1965; [AQ: not in Refs. Is this cited as ―Kenya Government,
59
1965‖]. Eshiwani, 1993; Sheffield, 1973). The Ominde Commission was first among the many
education commissions that would later characterize the way the Kenya government would deal with
education changes.
There were numerous subsequent major reviews and official reports that came over the years, but the
1998 Commission of Inquiry chaired by Dr. Davy Koech performed the most intensive and extensive
inquiry into the education system. The Commission visited all of the districts in Kenya between
August 1998 and August 1999 and collected information from members of the public and specialized
groups and individuals, including educationalists and representatives from the civil society, religious
organizations, and politicians. Despite the intensive, extensive, and comprehensive nature of the Koech
Report, the government of Kenya never implemented its recommendations. Instead, the Ministry of
Education argued that the report was not implementable, citing cost, structural, and institutional
limitations.
The rejection of the Koech Report brought into question Kenya‘s respect for education planning,
curriculum development, and recognition of professionalism in research (Amutabi, 2003).
Notwithstanding the rejection of the Koech Report, the Kenya government, under external pressure to
implement Structural Adjustment Programs4 (SAPs), indicated in a 2001 education report that ―The
development of education in general and providing quality for all in the country is difficult, if not
impossible, under the implementation of the SAPs‘ requirements, for example, cost sharing and
liberalization of the economy‖ (Kenya Ministry of Education, 2001, p. 10). However, the report also
mentioned that inadequate policy based on the inherited education system and legal frameworks and
statements have negatively affected the development of quality basic education.
According to the Ministry of Education, education in Kenya ―to a large extent still has a colonial
orientation, promotes rote learning and is still elitist,‖ and ―the process of policy making, planning and
implementation does not seem to be based on systematic evaluation of the education sector based on
available information‖ (Kenya Ministry of Education, 2001, p. 12). The challenges in education are
impacted by the multiethnic nature of Kenya‘s population, and any meaningful reforms in any sector
including education must address the challenges of a multiethnic society
Review questions
Review questions
1. Define the term educational planning
2. Explain the rationale for educational planning
3. Discuss the historical development of educational planning
and its implication on Kenya’s education system
Reference for further Reading
.Kenya Government (1965). Ominde Education Report. Nairobi, Kenya: Government Printer.
Kenya Government (2000). Koech Education Report. Nairobi, Kenya: Government Printer.
Kenya, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2004). Annual Report. Nairobi, Kenya:
Government Printer.
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CHAPTER SEVEN: MAJOR APPROACHES TO EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Learning Objectives
 Discuss the approaches to educational planning citing their strength and
weaknesses
7.1Approaches to educational planning
There are four major approaches to educational planning.
7.1.2 Social Demand Approach:
This approach was used in the Robbins Committee Report on Higher Education in Britain. In India too,
this approach is a popular one while opening new schools and colleges in particular.
In this method are involved the following steps:
a. To estimate the proportion of students completing school education and are likely to enter into
higher education.
b. To estimate how many of these successful school leaving students would actually apply for
admission to colleges.
c. To determine how many of the applicants should be given admission to higher education.
d. To determine the length and duration of the study.
Thus, the major issue involved in this approach is to forecast future demands for seats keeping in mind
social and educational trends as well as demographic changes. The underlying assumption in this
approach is that expansion of education is beneficial to the economy and thus, additional expenditure
on education would not create a burden too heavy to bear.
This approach is more prevalent in those societies which favour traditional cultural values, where
decisions are taken on the basis of public opinions (in a fragile polity and sometimes in a democracy)
and in societies where the social environment is generally pessimistic in nature.
The approach is based on currently expressed preferences and does not take into account public
expenditure on education vis-a-vis the benefits as the demand for education may far exceed the
resources available in a vast country like India. Also, it sometimes leads to a mismatch between the
output of higher education and the demands of the economy.
7.1.3 Social Justice Approach:
This approach emphasizes justice to the disadvantaged sections of society and is based on Article 45 of
the Indian Constitution. This approach is aimed at making special provisions for the socially,
economically and educationally disadvantaged communities for a longer duration. This includes
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opening Ashram schools for tribal areas, special concessions and scholarships, incentives and
relaxation.
7.1.4 Rate of Returns Approach:
According to this approach, investment in education should take place in such a way that the returns
from the investment are equal to the returns from other kinds of investment of capital, e.g., investment
in industry. This principle is known as ‗equi-marginal returns‘ in economic theory and could be
extended to educational sector.
This approach treats education as an investment in human capital and uses rate of returns as a criterion
in allocation of financial resources. The approach implies that if the rate of return is low, expenditure
on education should be curtailed.
However, in reality, it is difficult to apply this approach to education due to problems associated with
measuring rate of returns in education.
An educated person‘s earnings or rate of returns depend upon his/her innate intelligence, parental
socio-economic status, motivation and aspirations. Hence, it is not easy to attribute the rate of returns
only to education acquired. Hence, this approach is least frequently applied to education.
7.1.5 Manpower Planning Approach:
In this method, the general demand for and the capacity of supply of human resources in different
streams of and at different levels of the educational sector are estimated.
The approach asserts that the system of education produces the right quality of human resources with
desirable knowledge, attitudes and skills in the right numbers and thus, education is directly linked
with economic development.
The application of the manpower planning approach depends on these factors:
(a) An appraisal and analysis of the existing employment conditions and the system of education,
(b) Planning the system of education vis-a-vis the manpower needs of the economy, and
(c) Using the financial resources (which are limited) in an optimum way so as to fulfill the demands of
the employment sector without incurring wastage on account of unemployment.
(d) Making an appraisal of the number of students enrolled, the number of existing teachers and their
qualifications, enrolment in teacher education institutions (availability of future teachers), as well as
the existing number of school buildings, equipments, infrastructure and other facilities.
(e) The requirements of the employers regarding occupational and/ or professional qualifications for
employees, their levels of training and abilities should also be assessed.
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The manpower planning approach takes note of the fact that the teaching profession requires
approximately 60% of the highly qualified human resources of a country which competes with the
demand for manpower in other economic sectors.
A detailed projection of the demand for human resources is difficult due to the uncertainty of
productivity trends. Some developed countries such as Norway, France and Sweden estimate their
future manpower needs so as to meet the demands of the economy whereas others such as Great
Britain estimate the numbers to be educated on the basis of students‘ demand.
Review question
Review question
Discuss the approaches to educational planning using relevant examples
Reference for further reading
Nuthall, G., & Alton-Lee, A. (1990). Research on teaching and learning: Thirty years of change.
Elementary School Journal, 90, 547–570.
Sawyer, R. K. (Ed.). (2006). The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
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CHAPTER EIGHT: TYPES AND LEVELS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING,
CYCLES AND PROCESSES
Learning objectives
i. Differentiate between macro and micro planning
ii. Explain the educational planning process
8.1Definitions
Macro-planning focuses on the broad dimensions of the system and its relationships with the
economy and society
Micro-planning applies to the inner processes of the system and to its numerous subsystems.
Planning the locations of schools – An instrument of educational policy J. Hallak has presented in a
remarkable way the conceptual framework of his study and he ponders over the school mapping
procedure : participation or bureaucratic monopoly? He puts forward the idea that «the adoption of the
school map (considered as a methodology of planning the location of schools) means accepting a set of
rules which influence the very principles of educational planning.
On the one hand, there must be no authoritarian planning systems centralized in the capital and
handing down its directives on where the schools are to be located without any possibility of
‗censorship‘ at regional level; equally, there must be no acceptance of a decentralized and partisan
planning system favouring some areas to the detriment of others and producing inconsistency between
national goals and steps taken at area level. What is needed is a hybrid system offering the advantages
of both….The adoption and the use of the school map pose two problems of task-sharing, the first
being ‗vertical‘ i.e. as between government departments and those in charge centrally and locally, and
the other ‗horizontal‘ i.e. as between the social groups concerned at each level where decisions are
taken. This procedure gives rise to three appreciable dangers:
(i) The danger of increasing bureaucratic monopoly of the planning system;
(ii) The danger of legitimizing decisions that is fundamentally inequitable and antidemocratic;
(iii) The danger that the power will be assumed by the best organized and most powerful
groups.
And concluding: It would be a curious paradox indeed if a decision in favour of participation should
have led to democracy‘s being killed off.
8.2 PROCESS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Process of Educational Planning has 14 stages which includes
(1)Pre-planning stage
(2)Planning stage
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(3)Diagnosis (4)Formulation
of Policy (5)Assessment of
future needs (6)Costing of
needs
(7)Target setting
(8)Feasibility testing
(9)Plan formulation
(10)Plan elaboration
(11)Plan implementation
(12)Plan evaluation,
(13)Revision and
(14)Re-planning
Pre-planning precedes the actual planning.

Pre-planning stage during our lives, we plan for many situations: education, weddings, having a
family, vacations and retirement. No doubt about it – planning ahead for important events is smart.
Besides, it just feels good knowing the details that Pre-planning involves Examining, understanding,
and documenting the environment and objectives.
Planning Stage
Planning means, looking ahead and checking out future courses of action to be followed. It is a
preparatory step. It is a systematic activity which determines when, how and who is going to perform a
specific job. It is deciding best alternative among others to perform different managerial functions in
order to achieve predetermined goals. It is also deciding in advance what to do, how to do and who is
to do it. Planning bridges the gap between where we are to, where we want to go.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis constitutes an unavoidable part of the plan execution process. It is a thorough analysis of
facts and problems in order to gain understanding and gain future planning. It is a sort of critical
analysis of the nature of something. A opinion is formed by such analysis.
Formulation of Policy
Policy formulation is the development of effective and acceptable courses of action for addressing
what has been placed on the policy agenda. There are two parts to this definition of policy formulation:
Effective formulation means that the policy proposed is regarded as a valid, efficient, and
implementable solution to the issue at hand. If the policy is seen as ineffective or unworkable in
practice, there is no legitimate reason to propose it. Policy analysts try to identify effective alternatives.
This is the analytical phase of policy formulation.• Acceptable formulation means that the proposed
course of action is likely to be authorized by the legitimate decision makers, usually through majority-
building in a bargaining process. That is, it must be politically feasible. If the policy is likely to be
rejected by the decision making body, it may be impractical to suggest it. This is the political phase of
policy formulation.
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Assessment of Future Needs
Assessing future needs is not only about projecting the numbers. Policy-makers need also to address
the issues of recruiting, educating, distributing, retaining, motivating and managing, which implies
improving the knowledge about the expectations and behaviors of health workers.
Formulation of Policy
There are, then, two aspects to policy formulation: the analytical and the political. Formulation of
Policy First, effective policy alternatives, presumably based on sound analysis, must be conceived and
clearly articulated. Second, a political choice among these alternatives must be made: The policy must
be authorized through a political process, such as legislation or regulation. Both phases ---analysis and
authorization --comprise policy formulation.
Costing of Needs Cost is an important consideration in . . . providing for the equitable distribution of
financial burden among interested parties. Costing of needs supports legislation and numerous policy
instruments. It provides guidance and practical advice on preparing costing information and is based
on a consistent approach. It will support the departmental cost information needs and will contribute to
accountability, transparency, strengthened decision-making and informed risk-taking. Cost analysis is
a management process which can be used to provide information useful to• effective decision-making.
Target Setting Target

Setting involves establishing specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-targeted goals. It is an
effective tool for making progress by ensuring that participants in a group with a common tar are
clearly aware of what is expected from them. On a personal level, setting targets helps people work
towards their own objectives—most commonly with financial or career-based goals. ―Target setting
provides a sense of direction and purpose"(Goldstein, 1994, p. 96). ―Target setting capitalize on the
human brains amazing powers: Our brains are problem-solving, goal-achieving machines
Feasibility Testing
The feasibility test brings in a series of practical constraints by asking whether the selected alternative
can be implemented given time, financial, legal, personal, and social constraints. By focusing the
decision-maker on these constraints, the feasibility test helps to integrate ethical considerations with
other aspects of a decision.
Feasibility TestingSteps in Applying the Feasibility Test
Time: Is there a deadline within which your solution has to be enacted? Is this deadline fixed or is it
negotiable?
Financial: Are there cost constraints on your solution? Are these fixed or are they negotiable?
Legal: Does your proposed alternative violate any laws or regulations? Are the legal constraints in line
with the results of your ethical evaluation? If not, what can you do to align them?
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Personal: Do the personalities of the people involved offer any constraints? For example, would your
supervisor be open to persuasion, negotiation, or compromise? Or is he or she a dogmatic, close-
minded, and inflexible person?
Social, Cultural, or Political: Consider where your solution is being implemented. How would its
impact be viewed through the social, cultural, and political milieu in which it is being enacted? Think
of these issues using the several levels of analysis in the Impacts framework.
Plan Formulation
Plan formulation is a repetitive, or iterative, process of identifying alternative plans that achieve a set
of planning objectives and allows those plans to be modified as more information becomes available.
Each subsequent alteration of this process provides an opportunity to refine and sharpen the planning
focus.
Plan Elaboration Plan elaboration involves the execution of the plan with painstaking attention to
numerous parts. It is also termed as plan details written carefully and with richness of detail.
Plan Implementation The next stage is of plan implementation. The planners and implementers
(communities and their enablers) should decide on how they are going to implement a project, which is
the strategy. Agreeing on the strategy involves determining all items (inputs) that are needed to carry
out the project, defining the different groups or individuals and their particular roles they are to play in
the project. These groups and individuals that undertake particular roles in the project are called"
actors."
Plan evaluation, revision and re-planning At the end the plan is evaluated and a judgment is made
about the overall quality and accomplishment of the plan against the re-defined objectives. In the light
of this evaluation the plan is revised and re-planning is done, where and when needed. So this is a sort
a cyclical process that goes on.
Review questions
Using relevant examples discuss the various types of educational planning

Referring to the educational planning in Kenya, explain the educational planning
Review questions
process
Hallak, Jacques – La mise en place de politiques éducatives : rôle et méthodologie de la carte

scolaire UNESCO, 1976 / Planning the location of Schools An instrument of educational
policy, UNESCO / IIEP, 1977
Kenya, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2004). Annual Report. Nairobi, Kenya:
Government Printer.
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CHAPTER NINE: CURRENT POLICIES, TRENDS, PROBLEMS AND ISSUES
IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Learning Objectives
I. By the end of the chapter the learner should be able to:
II. Define the term educational policy
III. Identify the current trends in educational planning
Explain the problems and issues in educational planning
9.1 Definition
Education policy is the principles and government policy-making in educational sphere as well as the
collection of laws and rules that govern the operation of education systems.
Education occurs in many forms for many purposes through many institutions. Examples include early
childhood education, kindergarten through to 12th grade, two and four year colleges or universities,
graduate and professional education, adult education and job training. Therefore, education policy can
directly affect the education people engage in at all ages.
Examples of areas subject to debate in education policy, specifically from the field of schools, include
school size, class size, school choice, school privatization, tracking, teacher education and certification,
teacher pay, teaching methods, curricular content, graduation requirements, school infrastructure
investment, and the values that schools are expected to uphold and model.
Education policy analysis is the scholarly study of education policy. It seeks to answer questions about
the purpose of education, the objectives (societal and personal) that it is designed to attain, the methods
for attaining them and the tools for measuring their success or failure. Research intended to inform
education policy is carried out in a wide variety of institutions and in many academic disciplines.
Important researchers are affiliated with departments of psychology, economics, sociology, and human
development, in addition to schools and departments of education or public policy. Examples of
education policy analysis may be found in such academic journals as Education Policy Analysis
Archives.
National policies are indeed the road maps of practices in education in any country. However, the
degree to which they succeed will depend on certain variables; environment, resources, political,
economic capacity and the implementation process
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9.2Kenyan case
Kenyan education has been guided by policy guidelines since independence.Policy documents have
been in the form of commissions, presidential working parties, committees and development plans to
guide education practice. To enhance clarification we shall also provide connection to international
trends which the government has consulted, e.g. international conventions such as those of UNICEF,
and the development partners (Oduol 2006).
In Kenya, since independence, education was always predominantly a government responsibility

which provided most resources required as per policy. However, over the years resources have
dwindled and the needs have been exponential. The challenge has been the growth in public schools to
keep up with population increase but the resources have not improved significantly. Government
response had been to create and introduce policy measures such as cost sharing so that education could
still be provided albeit with many challenges for poorer families
Growth in both primary and secondary schools has stretched the government's capacity to provide
education services. Resource provisions have entailed teachers, school buildings and checking of
school fees and levies to manageable levels. The cost sharing policy relieved the government but
pressure persists because demand for teachers continues due to increase in student enrolment, while
checked by natural teacher attrition. The Free Primary Education (FPE) is a case in point that was
implemented by the current government when it came to power in 2003. The growth in primary school
enrolment demanded an expanded teaching force, new classrooms and building of more schools or
other approaches to provide learning. The Arid and Semi Arid regions that are sparsely populated
present new paradigms beyond current practice to provide access, parity and inclusive education to a
nomadic population. The challenges to government therefore, given the above scenario are enormous
as questions of sustainability become ever more pointed.
There are issues also related to the genesis of the policy in place. Is the policy needs-based or is it
externally inspired and generated? If external, how grounded or domesticated is it, if it is to achieve the
necessary support for growth and sustainability. Many Third World economies have continued to
struggle with the result that development partners have often supplemented local economies to meet
policy implementation. However, there have been controversies over the external support that
sometimes comes with strings. When not fulfilled the support may be withheld, which may undo other
successes in substantive areas of the economy
In Kenya education has served several functions, among which are; to unify the country and create
nationhood (single curriculum, single instructional language); provide basic skills at basic education;
to create purpose and determination among citizens and to be developmental and incremental (provide
equity, access, efficiency and gender parity)
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9.3 Education Policy and Planning
UNESCO provides support to the Department of Planning of the Ministry of Education Youth and
Sport (MoEYS) to strengthen the capacity of the educational policy makers and educational planners
both at the national and sub-national levels. In the year 2011, there is a strong focus on education
planning and budgeting, and developing/reviewing Education Strategic Plan (ESP).
Under the UNESCO support, four main activities are set in the Annual Operation Plan 2010 of the
MoEYS Planning Department, aimed to:
a) Strengthen the coordination in planning at the national level
b) Improve the capacity of educational planners at the provincial level
About 35 MoEYS senior leadership from the Director General to the Minister levels participated in a
retreat focused on policy planning and aid effectiveness, with facilitators from UNESCO Bangkok and
the ESWG. At the provincial level, about 90 participants (Provincial Education Deputy/Directors,
Planning Officers) from all 24 provinces participated in the hands-on-training and exchanged their
knowledge and experience in planning development at this level. Some UNESCO publications related
to planning design and coordination in a sector-wide context were translated into Khmer language for
sharing among the MoEYS Departments and Provincial Education Offices.
These activities will have impact in enhancing the MoEYS capacities in sector-wide policy and
planning and more effective and efficient management following the Paris Declaration on Aid
Effectiveness. They will be helpful to enhance the smooth coordination of the preparation and review
of the Education Strategic Plan, preparation of the Annual Operation Plan and the Annual Education
Congress of the Ministry.
9.4 Current Trends in Educational Planning

The Government‘s commitment to the provision of quality education and training to its citizens at all
levels cannot be over emphasized. Vision 2030 singles out education and training as the vehicle that
will drive Kenya into becoming a middle-income economy. In addition, the Constitution, 2010 has
provided for free and compulsory basic education as a human right to every Kenyan child. It is because
of this, that the Government took some action that has created a lot of dialogue on the education sector
in recent months. A task force was formed in 2010 to aligh the education to the vision 2030.
9.4.1Structure of Education, Curriculum and Assessment

The TF noted that the current system of education, curriculum and assessment does not include Early
Childhood Development and Education (ECDE). In addition, the quality of education was not clearly
spelt out so that the curriculum delivery could focus on development of specific expected competences
to be assessed.
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In view of this, it was found necessary to recommend a more flexible and comprehensive structure for
Kenya‘s education system and curriculum reform to specify the expected competences at every level of
learning. The recommended structure is 2 years of Pre-primary, 6 years of Primary (3 years lower and
3 years upper), 6 years Secondary (3 years junior and 3 years senior), 2 years minimum of Middle level
Colleges and 3 years minimum University education. As a whole this structure will have two cycles;
Basic Education cycle of 14 years which is free and compulsory, and a Higher Education cycle.
9.4.2 Rationale of the revised structure

The rationale for the revised structure is to ensure learners acquire competences and skills that will
enable them to meet the human resource aspirations of Vision 2030 by offering a choice of subject
pathways at the end of the Elementary School phase; ensure the attainment of 100% transition rate
from primary to secondary, thereby reducing wastage by introducing automatic progression to the
junior secondary phase based on the acquisition of core skills and competences (literacy, numeracy and
communication skills).
The revised structure will also focus on early identification and nurturing of talent in individual
learners at the end of the junior secondary phase; allow for specialization at the end of junior
secondary; introduce a system of Competence Assessment Tests (CATS) measuring knowledge, skills
and competences, the results of which will be cumulative and form part of a formative assessment
process, the credits from which will be accumulated in the summative assessment at the end of each
phase. This is distinct from the present situation where students either pass or fail and exit the system.
9.4.3The new school calendar and term dates

It is recommended that the school year be divided into three terms of three months each as follows:
Term I - September to November, Term II - January to March, Term III - May to July. The TF noted
that the months of July and August have minimal public holidays allowing for ample time for
management of examinations.
9.4.4 Curriculum:
Aligning the curriculum to address the aspirations of the Constitution, Vision 2030 and the East
African Community treaty was prioritized. It was proposed that the content for basic education should
be designed with a view of equipping the learners with relevant knowledge that emphasizes on
technology, innovation and entrepreneurship (Vision 2030), the development of their full capacities,
living and working in dignity, enhancing the quality of their lives, making informed decisions and
continuing with learning as a lifelong engagement.
The Task Force recommended major reforms of the curriculum to align it with the Constitution and to
ensure that the aspirations of Vision 2030 are met; Structure the curriculum within a skills and
competences framework that identifies the knowledge, skills and competences all learners will acquire,
and which will provide both vertical and horizontal coherence.
It also proposed for the development of a progressive assessment framework that identifies the
knowledge, skills and competences that will be assessed for each level of education and called for the
revision of the curriculum and textbooks to ensure skills and competences are emphasized as proposed.
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9.4.5 Assessment and evaluation:
On assessment and Evaluation, the TF noted that the current summative assessment at the end of every
cycle does not measure learners‘ abilities. School-based assessments need to be strengthened so that
regular and cumulative assessment in the form of Competence Assessment Tests (CATs) is put in
place; the current education system is examination based and that the assessment has little regard to
moulding good citizens and for self-reliance.
There is need, therefore, to introduce competency-based assessment in line with a competency based
curriculum. Revision of curriculum and textbooks is proposed to ensure skills and competences are
emphasized. The TF noted that assessment is not seen as part of the teaching and learning process but
as a sieve to determine those who can move to higher education where the limited available space
dictates the teaching/learning process towards examinations as opposed to competences applicable to
life.
Achievement at Kenya Primary Education Certificate (KPEC) level and Kenya Junior Secondary
Education Certificate (KJSEC) will be considered in Senior Secondary School admission and
streaming.
Schools will be ranked based on holistic assessment on performance indicators built around the
following areas: academic, co-curricular activities, quality of management, operations and maintenance
of physical facilities, environmental care, learners‘ services and community outreach programmes. The
Cabinet Secretary will give a report on these indicators during a national education day. The process
should start from institutions through the county to the national level.
The Task Force recommends that KNEC is renamed the Kenya Educational Assessment Council
(KEAC) and strengthened to address all matters related to management and administration of
assessments in the country.
Competency Assessment Tests (CATs) by teachers are to be supported with a national
framework/guidelines or test-bank by KEAC to be made available online on a regular basis. These will
make the CATs standard and de-emphasize the many private examination papers being sold all over
the country. Management and administration of examinations leave room for malpractices.
9.4.6 Access, Relevance, Equity and Quality Education
Access, equity, quality and relevance are fundamental characteristics that define and drive systems of
education and training. In this regard, the TF recommends the expansion of access to education at all
levels; undertaking of major curriculum reviews; abolition of all school levies which discriminate
against poor households; review of capitation grants to be in line with inflationary trends and the
establishment of a National Council for Nomadic Education in Kenya (NACONEK).
9.4.7 Standards and Quality Assurance
While enrolment rates at primary and secondary levels have increased, learning achievements were
found to be below the expected standards as schools are not regularly inspected and as such teachers
and school management in general are not held accountable for the declining educational achievements
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in the country. The TF therefore recommended that a semi-autonomous Education Standards and
Quality Assurance Commission (ESQAC) be established. This would report to the Cabinet Secretary.
It will be the national custodian of standards and quality in education and it will hold to account all
service providers across the education sector.
The Commission for Higher Education (CHE) assumes responsibility for Standards and Quality
Assurance across all universities and other institutions of higher learning.
9.4.8 National Accreditation and Assessment System
The TF recommended that the National Assessment Centre be adequately funded to facilitate effective
administration of necessary studies and learning achievement tracking. In addition, an effective
mechanism for dissemination and implementation of findings be developed.
It noted that the National Assessment Centre needs to be institutionalized, aligned with the new
structure of education and capacitated to manage and administer National Summative Assessment for
each cycle.
The TF calls for a review of the KNEC Act and other related Acts to address current and future
challenges in examination administration and other issues regarding governance of examinations
including the marking exercise. It also recommends that assessments that are diagnostic in nature
should be enhanced to effectively evaluate learner achievements at all levels of education and
maintains that Universities should focus on degree and postgraduate courses and avoid certificate
courses.
9.4.9 National Qualification Framework (NQF)
The TF proposes the setting up of a National Qualification Framework for determining and assessing
the level of achievement and competences of learners who have gone through different learning
systems or different education structures. In order to achieve this, a National Qualification Authority
(NQA) should be established by law.
The system shall set standards and benchmarks to be used to assess learner achievements
comparatively. These benchmarks are then used to compare the achievements of a learner or the grade
the learner is to be placed within the education systems and in the world of work.
9.5.1Financing, Investment and Resource Mobilization
The TF recommends that Government continue reducing the cost of education to households through
the provision of teachers, teaching and learning materials and grants to schools to cover operational
and maintenance expenses under the Free Primary education (FPE) and Free Day Secondary Education
(FDSE) policy; capitation grants be allocated to learners in ECDE, primary, secondary, special needs
education, adult education and not-for-profit non-formal schools that meet set criteria; that TIVET be
brought into mainstream education so that the students can benefit from mainstream financing and
enhanced skills development.
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The TF calls for the diversification and institutionalization of university education funding sources to
include government (grants, education bond and loans), private sector, development partners,
scholarships, bursaries, financial institutions, income generating activities and philanthropy;
encouragement of local, regional and international public private partnerships in financing education
and for investment in teacher professional development.
9.5.2Institutional Management and Governance of Education and Training
The TF identified challenges at three levels, namely: national, county and institutional management.
The Task Force thus recommended for improved coordination, accountability and increased
community/stakeholder participation in planning, implementation, management and governance of
education at all levels.
It called for the creation of a post for the Director General of Education who will be the chief technical
advisor (or head of technical functions) to the Ministry and answerable to the PS and proposed for the
establishment of eight key directorates to steer the Ministry in achieving its core functions.
The Task Force recommended that County Education Boards (CEB) and county directors of education
be established and their functions and memberships be defined.
9.5.3 Human Capacity Development in Education and Training
With regard to human capacity development, the Task Force observed that the Ministry is currently
heavily understaffed in terms of the technical cadre staff as it operates at less than half of the
establishment. This shortfall is compounded by the creation of new administrative structures in the
recent past.
The Task Force recommended that a clear human resource policy be developed to adequately address
staff matters related to terms and conditions of service including recruitment, capacity building,
promotion, deployment and redeployment in all cadres. This will enhance staff retention and boost the
morale and motivation of staff. Senior staff at National and County levels should be competitively
sourced.
It proposed that TIVET institutions be strengthened in terms of infrastructure with clear guidelines on
their staff development.
9.5.4Mentorship and Moulding to nurture national values
The TF noted that despite the importance of mentorship and moulding in the education sector, obvious
gaps remain apparent. In particular, it is not clear where the responsibility lies among education
stakeholders and those assigned have not put in place an effective programme. There is no clear policy
or guidelines on mentorship by the government save for what takes place under guidance and
counseling, which is not comprehensive enough.
It recommended that proper positioning of mentoring and moulding at all levels with a clear policy and
legislation be put in place and partnership and collaboration with the relevant stakeholders including
parents and local communities be encouraged. It further proposed that national values be mainstreamed
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in the curriculum and institutional managers and teachers be provided with necessary resources to deal
with emerging issues such as substance abuse, violence and national values and cohesion.
9.5.4 Research, Education and Training
The TF observes that research is ‗mystified‘ and remains a preserve of few Ministries and/or academic
institutions - like universities where it is mainly at postgraduate level. Funding for research
programmes remains very low. It is not a priority and therefore remains lowly resourced in terms of
finances, material and human resources. Social research is yet to be recognized as a planning and
management tool in education and other sectors of development.
The TF recommended that research be institutionalized by teaching basic research skills among
teachers and be cascaded to lower levels including ECDE levels, to encourage critical, independent and
investigative thinking among young learners and for the development of a clear policy and legal
framework on research.
9.5.5 Science, Technology and Innovation
Science, Technology and Innovation (ST&I) are key and critical in the achievement of Kenya‘s Vision
2030. The Task Force identified challenges that need to be addressed to facilitate activities that are
suitable for the delivery of desired levels of growth and technological advancement. Science,
Technology and Innovation should be harnessed to stimulate industrial initiatives for increased and
sustained economic growth.
Among recommendations it made included adequate and well trained staff in ST&I be put in place and
for the curriculum to be regularly reviewed to meet skills demands that are constantly changing.
9.5.6Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Education
The TF noted that only about 2% of schools in the country have the necessary ICT infrastructure. It
recommended that ICT institutional framework be strengthened to allow efficient integration of ICT in
the entire education sector with enhanced ICT capacity at all levels and for the establishment of a
National Centre for ICT Integration in Education (NACICTIE) and be devolved to counties. It also
called for the provision of technical backup in ICT initiatives in government learning educational
institutions.
9.5.7Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in Education
Open and Distance Learning is merely mentioned in the current Sessional Paper No.1 of 2005 and
lacks policy framework for implementation. There is minimum use of Open and Distance Learning
approaches in Primary and Secondary schools in Kenya - even in areas where physical and socio-
economic barriers hinder access - especially among the difficult to reach communities.
The TF recommended that the Government facilitates the establishment of a national university
dedicated to Open and Distance Learning. It also proposed that the government explores the possibility
of adopting distance and open learning approaches including home schools at all levels of the national
education system and for the developme3nt of relevant materials in e-learning.
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9.5.8 Teacher Education and Management
The general consensus is that Teacher Education in Kenya has not kept pace with developments that
have occurred throughout most developed countries. A policy framework for teacher education is
lacking, while at the same time teacher education and the teaching profession are not well defined as
few teachers have a clearly defined career development plan.
The Task Force recommended for teaching and teacher education be professionalized and called for
government to grant public universities full academic and professional responsibility for the TTCs.
Among other recommendations were that government makes Continuing Professional Development
(CPD) of teachers and teacher educators a contractual entitlement.
9.5.9 Public Private Partnerships
Public private partnership in education is a mutual collaboration between the government and the
private sector that could help reduce public spending, increase access, equality, equity in the provision
of education. In this case, the private sector is instrumental in supplementing government efforts in
providing services in the education sector.
The TF therefore recommended for the creation of a revolving fund which would be accessed by
members at a lower interest rate for both short term and long term interest in education projects and
proposed that the government provides adequate incentives to private investors in education so that
they are able to effectively contribute to improving access, quality, equity and relevance.
9.6.1Regulatory Framework
Since independence in 1963, the Government of Kenya has committed itself to providing an education
system that guarantees the right of every learner to quality and relevant education. In an effort to
provide quality education, the Government has laid down regulatory mechanisms mainly within the
Education Act Cap. 211 and other legal instruments, although, these have generally proved inadequate.
In this regard, the TF recommended that there be a single Ministry of education and an inter-
ministerial committee to coordinate all ministries and non- line departments that have a stake in the
regulation of educational matters. It also called for the eight directorates for education to be entrenched
in law including student‘s councils and Parent Teacher Associations.
It finally called for the appointment of a Committee of educational experts to guide the implementation
of education reforms contained in the report.
Recent developments in Kenya paint a picture of expanding student mobility programmes as well as a
rapidly growing higher education system that is nevertheless struggling to keep up with surging
demand for post-secondary places.
The Kenyan government clearly sees education as an important component of the country‘s future,
even as it grapples with the challenges of transforming and expanding its education system while also
ensuring appropriate support and opportunities for a growing student population.
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9.6.2 Recent legislative changes
In September Margaret Kamar, Minister of Higher Education, Science and Technology, signed The
Universities Bill 2012, which, according to University World News, ―seeks to introduce radical
changes to higher education‖ such as:
 Abolishing the decades-old Commission for Higher Education (CHE), which has hitherto
regulated the sector, and replacing it with the Commission for University Education (CUE).
 The CUE would advise government on university education policy, undertake accreditation
inspections, monitor and evaluate the state of university education and ensure compliance with
set standards.
 Additional new bodies running the educator sector would include the Universities Funding
Board, to coordinate financing of universities; the Kenya Universities and Colleges Central
Placement Service, to handle admissions to public universities and colleges; and the Technical
and Vocational Education (TVET) Funding Board, to handle funding of the TVET sector – a
role previously left in the hands of individual, middle-level colleges.
Editor’s Note: in January, the bill was signed into law, bringing public universities, which were
previously governed by specific acts of parliament, under the same law as private institutions.
Kenyan authorities, in partnership with the EAC (East African Community), are also promoting more
student mobility. To that end, in November 2012, education ministers from Kenya, Burundi, Rwanda,
Tanzania and Uganda met in the Rwandan capital Kigali, and after three years of negotiations,
approved the Inter University Council for East Africa (IUCEA) Bill 2012.
This bill, which has been forwarded to the EAC Council of Ministers for approval, repeals IUCEA Act
2009, aims to achieve a unified university system in the region, and enables the building of a system
allowing students access to learning and mobility across East Africa. It‘s just one example of various
subsets of African nations banding together to bolster the prospects of their higher education sectors.
Such harmonisation efforts could help to avoid accreditation disputes, such as the recent trouble
thousands of Kenyan graduates of Kampala International University in Uganda have been having upon
learning that their qualifications would not be recognised because some courses had not been cleared
by the CHE.
The Council of Ministers also adopted a proposed 2013-14 budget of US $1,894,400 to launch the East
African Science and Technology Commission (EASTECO), and another US $2,009,041 to launch the
East African Kiswahili Commission. The commissions will be based in Rwanda and Tanzania,
respectively.
Such intraregional cooperation in developing nations is becoming the norm. Just last month ICEF
Monitor reported on a similar phenomenon in Asia, where a credit transfer system was enacted by
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higher institutions in the Greater Mekong Sub-region. The cooperative moves in East Africa are in line
with a global trend, and could have a education substantial impact on student recruitment.
9.6.3 Cooperation and competition
Though East African governments have agreed to regional development initiatives, the universities
themselves often compete for students. Dr Patrick Mbataru of Kenyatta University noted in a recent
interview with University World News that, because Ugandan universities are the most aggressive
recruiters in the region, Kenyan institutions have begun to adopt the same approach.
Perhaps the most interesting example of this is provided by Mount Kenya University, which has made
moves to open a branch campus in the Somaliland capital Hargeisa. Somaliland is a self-declared
independent state unrecognised by the United Nations, which broke from Somalia after years of civil
strife. Mount Kenya University‘s bold move was driven by competition in East Africa.Dr Mbatura
pointed out,
9.6.4Funding for Kenya’s education system
The roots of higher education in Kenya date only from 1956 with the founding of Nairobi‘s Royal
Technical College, a school that would in 1970 become the country‘s first university – The University
of Nairobi.
Today the story has considerably more depth. Kenya has:
 52 public, private and constituent university college institutions.

 A total student population of 251,000, up from 81,000 in 2003.
 A one-year increase of 20% in newly enrolled students for the 2012-13 academic session.
 79,000 students in 40 technical and vocational institutions, up from 34,000 in 2003.
 The top universities in East Africa in the area of ICT (Information and Communication
Technology), according to a CPS International survey.
In addition to increased student mobility plans, the current Kenyan government has increased funding
for state universities by 36%, and President Mwai Kibaki said in November 2012 that the government
would upgrade thirteen of the constituent colleges into full-fledged universities, increasing the number
of public universities from seven to twenty.
Kenya‘s 2012-13 budget included US $35.2 million in funding for HELB (Higher Education Loans
Board), up from US $28.2 million in 2011-12, with the goal of making educational loans available to
thousands more students. Nearly 54,000 students in national and village polytechnics and technical
training institutes will be eligible to benefit.
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9.6.5 Kenya’s future
In 2008, President Mwai Kibaki launched a development programme entitled Kenya Vision 2030.
Though most of the recent educational reforms and funding are separate from that ambitious
programme, the goals are the same – to create a globally competitive and prosperous nation with a high
quality of life.
Despite the recent hiccups, Kenya is making strides towards successfully reorganising and
strengthening its tertiary education sector. By 2020, the number of Kenyans with a university degree is
expected to exceed those without any formal education – quite a leap for a country whose first
university is only forty-two years old.
9. 5 Problems and issues in Educational planning
Lack of connection between desired education practices and actual education practices
Education practices are affected by policy guidelines. Perhaps the biggest challenge here is the lack of
connection between desired education practices as espoused in policy and the actual education
practices on the ground. Disconnect between the two dichotomies, brings into fore the state of skills
that the schools are supposed to engender. The latest and most dramatic public policy is the Free
Primary Education (FPE), which came at the time when education in Kenya had become too expensive
for ordinary citizens. In particular, both primary and secondary schools regardless of being private or
public were beset by ever-rising school fees. The 2003 FPE initiative brought relief but it has had
challenges.
Lack of sustainabilitySustainability,parity,access and equity and full implementation
Initially, the initiative brought back to school many students that had either dropped out of school or
never started school because of high fee levies. Today we have an 84-year-old man who decided to
start school because he never had a chance in his youth. He is one of a few octogenarians braving the
morning chill to get to school by 8 am. There are others in their teens or young adults, still others,
married women opting to relegate child and house minding in exchange of school uniform and
homework. Free Primary Education initiative has indeed created a lot of excitement and interest.The
government put out a roll out strategy to address the FPE initiative in the Kenya Education Sector
Strategic Plan 2003-2007 whose goals are:
 Attainment of Education For All by 2015

 Universal Primary Education by 2005
 Transition rate from primary to secondary of 70% by 2007
 Reduced disparity in participation
 Increased quality and relevance to National Development needs and aspirations
 Improved access.
That Free Primary Education is actually compulsory was evidenced by one man in 2007, who had to
spend time in jail for not adhering to this rule and another violently losing his child to the authorities
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who yanked the child away from the herd of cattle and sheep the only livelihood of the poor blind
pastoralist father. The poor ailing man had sent other children to school but had designated this one to
stay home as his father?s eyes and minder. Because the incidence was nationally televised the event
depicted an old forlorn man left destitute. This brings to fore the need for policies to be interconnected
and supportive to enhance chances of success. Here the sustainability of the policy was very different
from the sustainability of the individual family.
Conflict of intended intentions and the outcome
Following the National Conference on Education in November 2003, the Sessional Paper No.1 2005
was developed to guide the government. This Sessional paper looked at the history of the policy
documents that have guided education since independence in 1963 to date. Among the policies were,
the Ominde Report of 1964 that ?recognized education as a basic human right and a powerful tool for
human resource and national development. While the Kamunge Report of1988 ?focused on improving
education financing, quality and relevance. In this Sessional Paper No1 2005 the government is
emphatic on certain issues and states that "it will take affirmative action to compensate for historical
and emerging inequalities and disparities in all areas in "nation building". This is a very powerful
statement that implies major changes in practice if the political will for success is to prevail.
Unfortunately, current practice is still far from reflecting the policy intentions and there are other
policies in operation that seem to negate the same spirit of equity creation.
Policies have therefore a long tradition in guiding the government to implement its intentions. But
policy making is different from policy implementation; and policy implementation is very different
from policy sustainability.
Ethnic Inequalities
In pre-independent Kenya, minority non-Africans, mostly Europeans and Asians, held key Positions in
government and the private sector. Political independence was an opportunity for African Kenyans not
only to receive sovereignty, but also to expect higher participation in the government. However, at
independence, Kenya adopted a British-styled constitution and inherited a poorly trained work force
responsible for a new nation faced with meeting the needs of the diverse ethnic groups with variegated
interests (Sheffield, 1973). As a result, after independence, most of the non-Africans were retained in
the workforce as expatriates. Nevertheless, expectations of African Kenyans were high, and for the
new government, priorities established in expenditure patterns were of direct relevance to the
opportunity for members of various ethnic groups to compete in the marketplace for political and
economic positions. While the allocation of resources and provision of social services to the citizens
were crucial issues, one area of concern that was never addressed was the geographically defined
ethnic pattern (land distributions) that would later and periodically become a major source of ethnic
conflicts.
The existence of ethnic and racial imbalances during the colonial era in Kenya emanated from the
British colonial policy of indirect rule.6 This was a tactical policy that provided for sharing of power
between the colonial government and the local leaders to provide protection for the Christian
missionaries and the British settlers from any potential local hostilities (Parker, 1950). The British
80
colonial government held the view that through the system of indirect rule, the Natives 6would enjoy a
significant share in their own government.
Political interference
British settlers allocated themselves most of the fertile land in Kenya, while ―restrictions on Native
landholding, urging and even forcing the Natives to work, limitation on Native production of certain
crops,and considerable racial discrimination in government services, education, and social life have
had unfortunate effects, especially in Kenya‖ (Parker, 1950, p. 21). This manner of patronage was
inherited by the African Kenyan leaders of the new government and resulted in the uneven distribution
and re-distribution of national resources, especially the re-allocation of former white land7 in the Rift
Valley province, by Jomo Kenyatta, the first president of Kenya.
When Kenyatta, a member of the Kikuyu ethnic group, assumed office as president of Kenya, there
seemed to be a notion held by the rest of Kenyans that the Kikuyu were in power, and it was apparent
that the Kikuyu people exploited this notion to their political and economic benefit. During Kenyatta‘s
rule, legislative elections enabled local and regional elites to move in and out of Parliament and power
as the regime allowed competing leaders to vie openly for local supremacy under the one-party state.
Orvis (2001) compared this style of administration to the late colonial period, where the central
government, often using repressive tactics, largely limited politics to few selected ethnic groups,
particularly in central Kenya, which included the Kikuyu, Embu, Meru, and Kamba. Similarly,
President Moi, who proved to be a far shrewder political operative than anyone had imagined, quickly
set out to replace systematically the existing Kikuyu political elite with his followers from the Kenya
African Democratic Union (KADU), particularly from his own Kalenjin ethnic group.
Tribal clashes
In 1992, tribal groupings emerged with demands for equity and inevitably caused political tensions in
various parts of Kenya, particularly in the Rift Valley Province. This is a practice that post-
independent Kenyan leaders have often used to maintain status quo, while appearing to settle disputes
among ethnic groups involved in power struggles to secure control of the nation‘s resources. It is
evident that the ongoing struggle for resources, particularly land, among the various ethnic groups has
created a destabilizing and volatile situation.
Despite government efforts to unify all ethnic groups, ethnic considerations still dominate and the fight
for equal access to resources results in such a precarious situation; it hampers progress and constantly
creates a source of potential conflict. After the December 2007 presidential elections, the situation
spilled over, degenerating into inter-ethnic violence.
Kenyan current problems
Amidst rapid advancement and restructuring, there have been some problems in the higher education
sector. The growth of public universities and the expansion of their curricula is wiping out some
vocational schools, reducing options for secondary level graduates who may not be qualified for or
financially able to attend universities.
Also hurt have been teacher training colleges and Government Training Institutes (GTIs), which have
been taken over by universities and no longer offer certificate courses. The space has been filled by
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commercial colleges, which have been criticised by some employers for turning out poorly equipped
graduates.
Universities face problems as well – space, labs, and computers are at a premium. Administrators are
dealing with surging numbers of students seeking admissions. Finance Minister Njeru Githae said in
his budget policy statement for 2012-13, ―The sector‘s biggest challenges include inadequate
infrastructure and staffing, slow pace of ICT integration and dealing with accelerated admissions to
universities.‖
Review questions
Review questions
1. Define the term educational policy
2. Explain how educational planning is aligning itself with the vision 2030
3. Discuss the problems and issues of educational planning citing relevant
examples
Kenya Education Sector Support Programme 2005-2014

Oduol, Truphena. 2006 Towards the making of education policy in Kenya: Conclusions and
implications. International Education Journal, 2006, 7(4) 466-479.
Amutabi, M. N. (2003). Political interference in the running of education in post independence

Kenya: A critical retrospection. International Journal of Educational Development 23,
127–144.
Blanton, R., Mason, D. T., & Athow, B. (2001).[AQ: is this the Athow ref?] Colonial style and
post-colonial ethnic conflict in Africa. Journal of Peace Research, 38(4) 473–491.
Ntarangwi, M. (2003). The challenges of education and development in post-colonial Kenya.

Africa Development, 27(3, 4), 211–228.
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CHAPTER TEN: INDICATORS OF EQUITY AND EFFICIENCY
Learning objectives
 Define the terms indicator, equity and efficiency
 Explain how equity and efficiency can be measured in
education
10.1 Definition
Indicators are usually numbers we can use to compare performance especially related to a benchmark
figure or target. They tell us how we are progressing towards a goal, and performing as compared to
others.
Equity and efficiency are terms that contain both a philosophical and an operational component. In
the broader social context, equity refers to equality of opportunity, fairness, and social justice. In the
context of educational finance, equity is a dual funding principle which acts as a means of ensuring
that as much equality as possible is built into in the provision of educational services and as much
fairness as is administratively feasible is applied to sharing the taxation burden for education among
the general citizenry. Efficiency is often integrated into the more popular term of accountability which
measures outputs. There, efficiency is related to cost-benefits, cost-effectiveness, and cost-utility in
terms of both inputs and outputs.
Equity
Equity is a social term rather than an economic one and is defined in relation to inequities or
inequalities in the distribution of wealth or resources, and the adjustments which are required to allow
for more equitable redistribution. Brown (1981) succinctly explained the issue. In areas where low
levels of income exist, citizens have to be taxed more heavily in order to provide a standard of public
services similar to that available in wealthier communities where the tax burden is lighter. Such an
imbalance is considered unfair in terms of the current climate of social justice, necessitating a
redistribution of tax revenues (p. 16). Redistribution permits equal treatment of equals in terms of
access to the benefits of public spending which Brown referred to as one of the most universally
accepted rules in public finance (p. 41). The rule is contrary to the benefit principle of public taxation
which extends from the commercial principle that people should pay for goods and services according
to the amount they use.
In public education, inequalities in the distribution of wealth exist within school districts and between
districts, resulting in an imbalance in access to benefits. In this context, the benefits refer to
educational opportunity. To apply the benefits received principle described above to the financing of
public education would not be regarded as equitable in modern society because too much of a tax
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burden would be placed on people with low ability to pay, e.g., large families and low income families
(Brown, 1982, p. 43). To adjust for these imbalances in fiscal capacity and taxation burdens, and in
order to facilitate equalized educational opportunity, the concept of financial equalization in
educational finance is observed.
Financial equalization underlies the concept of equity in education. Strayer and Haig (1 923), two
pioneers of educational finance in the United States, whose dichotomous definition of equalization is
still utilized, articulated it as equalization of educational opportunity and equalization of school
support. In the extreme, this is interpreted to mean that every child within a state's borders should have
equal access to educational facilities, programs and services but that the tax burden to provide them
should be evenly distributed among all the state's taxpayers (cited in Johns and Morphet, 1975, p.
210). These two dimensions, according to Johns and Morphet, are the embodiment of most
educational finance plans. The allocation dimension relates to the formula used by the central
government to allocate funds to school districts, and the revenue dimension refers to the sources of
school revenue and the types of taxes imposed by central governments and local governments (p.
215). Garms, Guthrie, and Pierce (1978) regarded equity in education in the context of equality of
educational opportunity. Equality could only be assured when enough money was provided or
available to the school district to provide comparable programs to students when the different needs of
the students and the differences in the cost of providing the programs were taken into account (p. 187).
In the Canadian context, Brown (1989) defined educational equity in terms of 'fairness to children and
to taxpayers" (p. 65). This way, individuals were to be given an equal chance to develop their potential
through education regardless of any condition which caused variation in their individual needs, and the
financial burden was to be apportioned according to ability to pay (p. 65). Geographical boundaries in
both cases were not to be restraining factors.
Finally, Michaud (1989) encapsulated the commonly accepted ideas of educational equity in his three
separate classifications of the concept:
1. The conservative view which relates to the provision of universal access to education. The concern
for equity ends when the educational services are made available (p. 128).
2. The liberal view which holds that education should not only be made available universally, but its
quality should be the same in each community (p. 129).
3. The social view which promotes the differences between pupils. Pupils have different needs and
should be treated differently and financed independently according to those needs (p. 130).
The differing versions of the definition of equity vary only in degrees. Two basic themes are
commonly acknowledged; namely, equality of access to educational resources and opportunity, and
equal sharing of the tax burden to pay the costs of equalized access.
Efficiency
At the core of this concept is value for the education dollar. Garms et al. (1978) referred to it as
ensuring that the education dollar is well-spent (p. 211). Brown (1 989) gave the term two meanings:
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achieving educational goals in a cost-effective manner and measuring educational outputs by
comparing graduation rates with enrolments (p. 65). Johns and Morphet (1975) described how the
concept was treated historically in educational finance plans. They referred to Updegraff (1922) who
promoted the idea that the extent of the state's contribution to education be dependent on the level of
local contribution through local taxation (p. 209). They also referred to Morrison (1933) who
advocated abolishing all school districts in favour of state run schools. His model proposed that the
state would become the unit for taxation and administration of public schools. School financing would
be primarily through the income tax because it was the most equitable form of tax the state could use
(p. 215).
In more recent educational literature, the term efficiency has been enveloped by the more composite
concept of accountability. There, the term tends to get lost in the terminology maze of goals and
objectives, educational outputs, program evaluation, and resource rationalization, among others.
Conceptually, efficiency refers to outputs in relation to inputs. In an operational sense it means the
elimination of systemic factors that cause waste in the use of resources or delay in the provision of
services. Some examples of systemic waste as offered by the federal government's current
constitutional proposals include bureaucratic overlap, excessive regulations, convoluted decision-
making, counterproductive intervention in provincial mandates by the federal government, and
ineffective and secretive budgetary processes (pp. 2-11).
In Canadian education, Brown (1981) perceived efficiency strategies to be evident in attempts by

central governments and school districts to reduce the per pupil costs of education, to centralize
decision-making, and to incorporate economies of scale (cost reductions through optimal
organizational size) in the production and provision of educational services. He indicated that "the
disappearance of small rural schools and the consolidation of school boards in all Canadian provinces
provides dramatic evidence that there have been perceived economies of scale in the delivery of
educational services" (p. 11). The object is to produce greater technical efficiency. As he notes, "the
technically efficient school board would be one just large enough to achieve given educational
objectives at the lowest attainable cost per pupil' (p. 21).
The concept of efficiency has two primary dimensions. One entails a prior systematic attempt to
provide for effective planning, allocation, and management of resources to education. The other is an a
posteriori strategy. It involves the measurement of benefits derived from provision of the resources. In
educational finance plans, the former strategy may be more systemically integrated than is evaluation
after the fact.
Equity vs Efficiency
Is the concept of equity compatible with the concept of efficiency or are the terms mutually exclusive
and incompatible? Brown (1981) included the notion of local freedom of choice along with equity and
efficiency and said that all three goals may be compatible to some extent. But, "they tend to become
incompatible if any one of them is pursued without adequate recognition of the need to achieve the
other two objectives in reasonable and politically acceptable degrees" (p. 109). He believed that if
achieving technical efficiency were of utmost concern - that is, rationalizing the structure of education
through closing small schools, consolidating school districts and attempting to achieve economies of
scale in the production of educational services - the goal of equity would be ignored (p. 22). On the
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other hand, "equity carried to the point of total equality in all aspects of life will impair freedom of
choice and utility, and total freedom tends to destroy equity and impair efficiency" (Brown, 1989, p.
64). To be compatible, a balance would need to be struck between maximizing technical efficiency
with maximizing the individual and social benefits of education as well as maximizing the distribution
of resources and public services.
Equity in all respects may be impossible. As early as 1905 when finance plans for public education
were still in a conceptual stage of development, Cubberley acknowledged that while "theoretically, all
the children of the state are equally important and are entitled to have the same advantages, practically
this can never be quite true' (p. 17). The objective was to equalize the advantages to all as nearly as
could be done with available resources.
The various equity finance plans that have been developed in public education are deficient in one
respect or other. Brown (1 981, and 1989) has already been cited in relation to the difficulty of striking
a balance between supply and demand of educational services and the exigencies of achieving
technical efficiency. Garms et al. (1978) outlined the following reasons why wealth equalization plans
for educational finance are never implemented in their ideal form:
1. A politically acceptable way has not been found to accomplish recapture, i.e., excess funds raised in
school districts through supplementary assessment being returned to the state for redistribution. In
practice, wealthy districts are guaranteed a minimum amount of state funds through political
expediency (p. 208).
2. Weighting programs suffer because of the difficulty in assessing program costs. The weighting
concept permits extra funding to school districts for special needs students. It relates to the ratio of the
cost of providing a basic special educational program to that of providing a basic normal program. A
normal student could have a weight of 1.0 for funding purposes, and a special needs student a weight
of 1.5. Funding is given based on the count of weighted students instead of actual students (pp. 200-
201).
3. Cost equalization is difficult to sort out from demands for higher quality programs, especially the
demand for more highly qualified teachers (p. 209).
4. The property tax, on which wealth equalization is based, is considered a regressive tax.
Assessments are improperly set, administration of the tax is inadequate, and the fiscal burden for many
people is beyond their ability to pay (p. 211).
The general principle of equity may also be declining as a goal of public policy. Brown (1989)
indicated the evidence in this direction was compelling. Equity, including educational equity, is either
being downgraded or "put on hold" at both the national and provincial levels because of competition
from other sources (p. 64). In most provinces, health and social services have surpassed education in
terms of budgeted dollars, and at the federal level, postsecondary funding has been curtailed to an
unprecedented degree in the last two years because of general fiscal restraints. According to Brown
(1989), the national average of total spending for elementary and secondary education as a percentage
of total provincial and local government spending in all provinces declined steadily from 22.12% in
1970 to 14.75% in 1986 (p. 72). This decline was considered to be much greater than could be
86
accounted for by the 17% decline in student enrolments over the same period. Contributing factors
were more rapid growth in spending for competing services (health care and social services) and
"perhaps some decline in the policy importance of education associated with reduced emphasis on the
goal of equality in society" (p. 72).
In the United States, Johns and Morphet (1975) indicted that historically, equity in educational
financing has not been achieved. They indicated that both Cubberley (1905) and Mort (1931) had
found in the respective periods that most states had not provided adequate finance plans for equalizing
educational opportunity. Nor had the situation changed overall by 1968-69 when the National
Education Finance Project arrived at the same conclusion (p. 225).
10.2 Indicators
Broadly speaking, indicators indicate. Indicators enhance our understanding of situations and issues by
transforming raw data into meaningful information. Indicators can help us to identify problems and
issues, and to define targets and strategies, policies and plans to reach those targets. When used to set
benchmarks, indicators can serve as a guide to monitor progress toward achieving a goal. Indicators
can help us to make rational and informed decisions about how to reach the targets on time, to decide
how to solve problems, and to evaluate progress and outcomes. Indicators can, therefore, act as
―measuring rods‖ for comparing situations over time and between different localities,
population groups, levels of education or sexes. Indicators can provide a more objective basis for
measuring progress towards targets, and are essential for any monitoring system.
The concept of using indicators in the education system was clearly articulated by Oakes (1986) who
said, ―An education indicator tells something about the performance or health of the education sys-
tem.‖ This concept applies equally well to a school or the management of education in a local area.
Understanding the health of an education system requires more than just a simple count of the number
of schools, students and teachers. This is illustrated in example 1 above. This table shows that the
number of enrolments in a country increased from 325,781 to 367,061 between 2003 and 2007. This
was a total increase of 41,280 students over a period of four years. Year-on-year, this represents an
average annual increase of about 10,000 students, or around 3 per cent. These figures indicate steady,
positive growth in enrolment – this is good.
10.3 Types of indicators
 Quantitative and qualitative measurement

87
 Monitoring and evaluation of education as a system
 Aspects of education
 Measurement scale
Quantitative and qualitative indicators
Quantitative indicators describe objects and phenomena using only numbers. Qualitative indicators can
use symbols, verbal, visual, textual as well as numerical information to depict a state, or an
observation. Quantitative and qualitative indicators may complement each other to help develop a
more complete understanding of the object or phenomena we are studying.
Many qualitative observations can also be expressed in quantitative terms. For example, student
performance may be measured by the scores they obtained in a test or examination. evaluative
statements like ‗Very satisfactory‘, ‘Satisfactory‘ and ‗not satisfactory at all‘ can be scored
respectively 3, 2 and 1 in surveys or evaluations (see example 6 on teacher performance evaluation in
Module A1). These numerical scores describe a qualitative observation, but may also be used to
quantitatively compare performance and calculate summary indicators such as average scores.
But not all objects or phenomena can be expressed using numbers, like feelings, sentiments or
nuances. Sometimes it can be difficult, if not impossible, to use indicators to clearly tell the difference
from one quality to another. Also, quality is often judged based on an individual‘s subjective
perception and personal preferences. For example, one person may prefer geography to mathematics,
but he/she could not put a numeric value to describe precisely how much, in numeric terms, it is more
important to put more efforts in geography classes than in mathematics classes.
Some qualitative indicators can be derived by identifying the component characteristics of

quality. When assessing the eFA goal of ‗quality of education‘, a combination of indicators will have
to be used. For example, education quality is often evaluated by looking at the number or percentage of
qualified teachers a school has, because it is believed that the more there are qualified teachers at
school, the better the quality of teaching/learning will be. The percentage of qualified teachers can
therefore be taken as a qualitative indicator of education quality, but expressed in quantitative form.
Because quality of education is a highly complex issue, using only one indicator, such as the percent-
age of qualified teachers, can give only a partial if not also biased understanding. Additional indicators
on the availability, conditions and use of school facilities and teaching/learning materials, and on other
school and home factors affecting children‘s learning outcome may be needed.
Critical analysis of education quality using indicators will therefore have to be conducted using quite a
wide range of both quantitative and qualitative indicators.
Monitoring and evaluation of education as a system
Education indicators can be broadly classified into:
 input indicators
 process indicators
 output/outcome indicators
88
 impact indicators
Input and process indicators are used for monitoring whether appropriate education policies have
been issued, and adequate resource inputs have been allocated and implemented. Output, outcome
and impact indicators are used to evaluate the results, effectiveness and impact of education policies
and their implementation.
In an education system, input indicators focus on the human, financial and material resources that
have been assembled and channeled into educational activities. Such resource inputs are used to
organize the provision of educational services in order to create intermediate outputs such as classes
and learning activities. examples of education input indicators include the percentage of government
budget allocated to education, pupil-teacher ratios, pupil-classroom ratios, percentage of pupils without
textbooks, etc.
In an education system, process indicators show how the resource inputs discussed above have
been utilized to deliver educational services. These indicators show what actually happened in the
classroom and during teaching/learning processes. Students‘ attendance rate at school, average number
of class hours they participated in as a percentage of official class hours, and the frequency of use of
teaching/learning materials are some examples of process indicators. Other process indicators may
include repetition rates and dropout rates.
Outcome indicators are used to evaluate the end results of all the educational inputs and
processes. Outcome indicators measure how effectively education policies and strategies were imple-
mented by measuring actual progress against the goals and targets that were set in education plans.
Outcome indicators may also be used to evaluate the degree of access to educational services and the
degree of satisfaction with the services received. examples of outcome indicators include intake rates,
enrolment ratios, completion rates and the GPi.68 At the end of the school year, the percentages of stu-
dents who successfully completed their studies, and of those who have acquired defined knowledge
and competencies, indicate the main output of education.
Impact indicators show the effects of education on the well being of individuals, families,
communities, the nation and society as a whole. Literacy rate is an example of an impact indicator
because it shows the proportion of the populations who have learnt to read, write and comprehend
written text and who can continue to learn using written words. Other impact indicators include those
that measure the effect of increased knowledge and skills, emotional development, and the impact of
changes in students‘ values, attitude and behaviour on their family, community, society and nation.
Indicators by aspects of education
A third way to organize education indicators is by re-grouping them according to the key aspects of
education, such as:
 School characteristics, environment and facilities

 Access and participation
 Retention and progress within the education system
 Teaching and learning resources
89
 Teaching-learning processes
 Quality of education
 Equity
 Learning achievement and outcomes
 Impact of Education
3.4
Measurement scales
Several types of measurement scales can be used to classify indicators. There are typically four scales
of measurement:
 Nominal scale
 Ordinal scale
 Interval scale
 Ratio
The nominal scale distinguishes objects and phenomena by naming each one. A typical example
is to distinguish the gender of students by ‗male‘ or ‗female‘, or the type of school ownership with the
options of ‗government school‘, ‗private school‘ or ‗community school‘.
Ordinal scales are used for ranking and comparisons. However, an ordinal scale only shows the
order of items but does not display the degree of difference between them. if, for example, you are
asked to rank your preference for apples, oranges and pears, you may put these fruits in an order of
preference, but cannot clearly indicate the degree to which you prefer one fruit to another.
90
An interval scale can help to visualize the degree of difference between items. The interval scale
indicator includes intervals of measurement so that finer comparisons can be made. A test score is, for
example, an interval scale indicator. While using the interval scale, there is an underlying assumption
that intervals are equally divided. if student A receives a test score of 10 out of 100, and student B
receives that of 50, can it be said that student B understands the subject five times better than student
A? The answer is ‗not really.‘ because the measurement of students‘ understanding of one topic
depends on the structure, contents and design of the test, and the students‘ conditions when taking
tests. care must therefore be taken when analysing interval scale indicators.
A ratio scale indicator can help to solve this comparison problem. With ratio scale indicators, the
degree of different between different items can be shown. For example, if the height of student A is
100 cm and the height of student B is 150 cm, then we can say that student A‘s height is 66 per cent of
student B‘s height. in this example, the ratio scale offers a clearer understanding about the degree of
difference between one item and another. Other typical ratio scale indicators include pupil-teacher
ratios, intake rates and enrolment ratios.
Review questions
Review questions
1. Differentiate the term equity ad efficiency
2. Using relevant examples explain how equity and efficiency can be measured in
education
Brown, W.J. (1981). Education Finance in Canada. Ottawa: Canadian Teachers' Federation.
Brown, W.J. (1989). Education finance and the interplay of competing goals. In Scrimping or
Squandering: Financing Canadian Schools. Eds. S.B. Lawton and R. Wignall. Toronto: The
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.
91
APPENDIX 1
References
Cubberley, E.P. (1905). School Funds and Their Apportionment. New York: Teachers College,
Columbia University.
Garms, W.I., Guthrie, J.W., & Pierce, L.C. (1978). School Finance: The Economics and Politics of
Public Education. Engle-wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Government of Canada (1991). Shaping Canada's Future Together: Highlights. Ottawa:

Minister of Supply and Services. Catalogue number CP22-25.
Johns, R.L., & Morphet, E.L. (1975). The Economics and Financing of Education (3rd. ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Michaud, P. (1989). Equity of educational finance in eastern Ontario. In Scrimping or

Squandering: Financing Canadian Schools. Eds. S.B. Lawton and R. Wignall. Toronto: The
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.
Kenya Education Sector Support Programme 2005-2014Oduol, Truphena. 2006 Towards the making
of education policy in Kenya: Conclusions and implications. International Education Journal, 2006,
7(4) 466-479.
American Journal of International Law. (1921). Convention Revising the General Act of Berlin,
February 26, 1885, and the General Act and Declaration of Brussels, July 2, 1890. The
American Journal of International Law, Vol. 15, No. 4, Supplement: Official Documents
(Oct., 1921), 314–321
Amutabi, M. N. (2003). Political interference in the running of education in post independence

Kenya: A critical retrospection. International Journal of Educational Development 23,
127–144.
Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (2002). The empire writes back: Theory and practice in
postcolonial literatures (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Banks, J. A. (1993). Multicultural education: Historical development, dimensions, and practice.

Review of Research in Education, 19 3–49.
Blanton, R., Mason, D. T., & Athow, B. (2001).[AQ: is this the Athow ref?] Colonial style and
post-colonial ethnic conflict in Africa. Journal of Peace Research, 38(4) 473–491.
.
Nieto, S. (2004). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education.
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
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Ntarangwi, M. (2003). The challenges of education and development in post-colonial Kenya.
Africa Development, 27(3, 4), 211–228.
Parker, G. G. (1950). A summary of British native policy in Kenya and Uganda, 1885–1939. The
Journal of Negro Education, 19(4), 439–448.
Sheffield, J. R. (1973). Education in Kenya: A historical study. New York: Teachers College
Columbia University Press.
Alwy, A., and Schech, S,( 2004) Ethnic inequalities in education
Bunyi, G., 2006. Real Options for Literacy Policy and Practice in Kenya [Electronic Version].
Retrieved March 4 2008, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001459/145956e.pdf
Department of Youth Training, 2008. Ministry of State for Youth Affairs. Retrieved April 2, 2008,
from http://www.youthaffairs.go.ke/
Desai, S., and Alva, S. 1998. Maternal education and child health: Is there a strong causal relationship.
Demography, 35 (1), 71-81.
Free Primary Education in Kenya: One of Kibaki‘s Trump Cards? April 11 2007. African Path,
Retrieved March 19, 2009 from http://www.africanpath.com/p_blogEntry.cfm?blogEntryID=584
Free Secondary Schools for Kenya, Feb 11, 2008. BBC News. Retrieved from
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7239577.stm
.Kamaara, E., 1999. Reproductive and sexual health problems of adolescent girls in Kenya: A
challenge to the church. Reproductive Health Matters, 7 (14), 130-133.
Kenya Institute of Education, 2009. About the Kenya Institute of Education. Retrieved March 19,
2008, from http://www.kie.ac.ke/about/index.php
Kenya National Examination Council, 2008. KNEC. Retrieved March 19, 2008, from
http://www.examscouncil.or.ke
Lloyd, C. B., Mensch, B. S., and Clark, W. H., 2000. The effects of primary school quality on school
dropout among Kenyan girls and boys. Comparative Education Review, 44 (2), 113-147.
Ministry of Education, 2008. About the Ministry. Retrieved March 11, 2008, from
http://www.education.go.ke/Resources.htm
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, 2008. Mandate. Retrieved March 19, 2009 from
http://www.scienceandtechnology.go.ke/
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Elementary School Journal, 90, 547–570.
94
APPEDIX 11: SAMPLE TEST PAPERS

UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS
SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATION FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF
EDUCATION
PG/ADM/411: EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING
TIME: 2HOURS
INSTRUCTIONS:
Answer any THREE (3) questions
Q. 1 (a) Explain the importance of educational policy. (5marks)
(b) Argue for and against the policy recommendations made by Phelps Stokes and Fraser in relation to
the development of education for the Africans.(18 marks)
Q. 2 ‗The Ominde report laid the foundation of modern education in Kenya.‘ Do you agree or disagree.
Support your position. (23 marks)
Q. 3 Some of the critical challenges facing the Ministry of Education today relate to equity, access,
quality and relevance of education. Discuss.(23 marks)
Q. 4 ‗The poor management of secondary schools in the country can be attributed to the Board of
Governors. Do you agree or disagree? Support your position.
Q. 5 Compare and contrast the pre-independence and post independence educational policies.
(23 marks)
95
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS
SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATION FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF
EDUCATION
PG/ADM/411: EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING
TIME: 2HOURS
INSTRUCTIONS:
Answer any THREE (3) questions
1a) Differentiate between the following (8marks)
i. Educational administration and educational planning

ii. Leadership and management
iii. Power and authority
iv. Equity and Efficiency
b.)Identify the strengths and the weaknesses of the following
i. Scientific management theory (6marks)

ii. Beauracratic management theory (6marks
c.). Identify the role of the Ministry of Education (5marks)
d) Outline the importance of Educational planning (5marks)
2a) Discuss the contribution of Human Relations Theory to Educational Administration.(12marks)
b) Explain the historical development of educational planning in Kenya.(8marks)
3a) Power and authority are very important to any leader. Discuss (10marks)
b) Discuss the administrative problems in education.(10marks)
4a) The success of any organization is dependent on the leadership. Sustantiate (10marks)
5a) There are various approaches to educational planning. Discuss four of them(10marks)
b)Fredrick Tylor is said to be the father of scientific management. Explain(10marks)
96

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MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY

UNIT CODE: GEM 5202

UNIT TITLE: EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING

PLANNING Credit hours: 3

To familiarize students of education with fundamentals of educational administration and planning

Expected Learning Outcomes

i) Discuss the theoretical basis of administration and planning.

General introduction to the field of educational administration: Theories of administration; school

. Introduction to Educational Planning: Basic concepts of Educational Planning, Definition of

Methodologies and Approaches to educational Planning: Traditional Approaches, Social demand

Types and levels of Educational Planning, Cycles and Processes:

Macro-Planning in education, centralized, Micro-Planning in education, Decentralized (School

Current Policies, Trends, Problems and Issues in Educational

Teaching / Learning Methodologies: Lectures and tutorials; Group discussion; Demonstration

Examination - 60%; Continuous Assessment Test (CATS) - 30%; Total - 100%

Recommended Text Books

i) R K Raghuram (2009); Educational Administration; Crescent Publishing Corporation

i) Internet: UNESCO Sites, IIEP Sites, World Bank Sites

Text Books for further Reading

i) OlemboWanga and Karagu (1988); Management in Education; Educational Research and

1.1 Definition of educational administration..................................................................................................... 12

1.2 Historical Background of Educational Administration ............................................................................... 12

1.2.1 Financing: ................................................................................................................................................. 13

1.2.2 Governance: ............................................................................................................................................. 13

1.2.3 Personnel: ................................................................................................................................................ 14

References for further reading........................................................................................................................... 14

CHAPTER TWO: THEORIES OF ADMINISTRATION ................................................................................... 15

2.1 Definition of theory..................................................................................................................................... 15

2.2 The Scientific Management Theory ............................................................................................................ 16

2.2.1 Development of Scientific Management:................................................................................................. 16

2.2.2 Essence of Scientific Management: ........................................................................................................ 16

2.2.3 Criticism: .................................................................................................................................................. 18

2.3 The Classical Theory................................................................................................................................... 19

2.4 The Bureaucratic Theory............................................................................................................................. 22

2.4.1 Characteristics of bureaucracy: ................................................................................................................ 23

2.4.2 Criticism: .................................................................................................................................................. 25

2.5 Human Relations Theory ............................................................................................................................ 27

2.5.1 Elements of the Theory ............................................................................................................................ 27

2.5.1 Criticism: .................................................................................................................................................. 27

2.6 The Behavioural Approach ......................................................................................................................... 28

2.6.2 Contribution of E. Wight Bakke: ............................................................................................................. 29

2.6.3 Contribution of Chris Argyris : ................................................................................................................ 29

2.6.4 Contribution of Chester Barnard: ............................................................................................................. 29

2.7 The Systems Approach ............................................................................................................................... 30

2.7.1 Relevance of Organization Theory .......................................................................................................... 30

References for further reading............................................................................................................................... 31

CHAPTER THREE: LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION .............................................. 32

3.1 Definition of leadership............................................................................................................................... 32

3.2 Three Classic Leadership Styles ................................................................................................................. 32

3.2.1 The Laissez Faire Leadership Style ......................................................................................................... 33

3.2.2 The Autocratic Leadership Style .............................................................................................................. 33

3.2.3 The Participative/Democratic Leadership Style ....................................................................................... 33

3.3 The Emergent Leadership Style................................................................................................................... 33

3.3.1The Transactional Leadership Style .......................................................................................................... 33

3.3.2 The Transformational Leadership Style ................................................................................................... 34

3.3.4 Visionary Leadership ............................................................................................................................... 34

3.3.5 Strategic Leadership ................................................................................................................................. 34

3.3.6 Facilitative Leadership ............................................................................................................................. 34