Module :2

Mobile Radio Propagation- Small Scale Fading

Small scale multipath propagation, Parameters of multipath
channels, Types of small scale fading, Rayleigh and Rician fading.
 Multipath and Fading
• Multipath in the radio channel causes rapid
fluctuation of signal amplitude called small
scale fading or simply fading
• Fading is caused by destructive interference of
two or more versions of the transmitted signal
arriving at the receiver at slightly different
times (with different amplitudes and phases)
 Multipath and Fading
• Delayed signals are the results of reflections/scattering
from terrain features such as trees, hills or mountains
or objects such as people, vehicle or buildings

• Received signal may vary widely in amplitude and

phase over a short period of distance
 Multipath and Fading
• At a receiver radio waves generated from the
same transmitted signal may come:
– from different directions
– with different propagation delays (random)
– with different amplitude
– with different phases
– with different angles of arrivals
• These multipath components combine vectorially
at the receiver antenna and cause the total signal
-to fade
- to distort
 Effects of Fading/Multipath
Fading/ Multipath results in:
• Rapid changes in signal strength over small
travel distances of short time intervals
• Random frequency modulation due to varying
Doppler shifts on different multipath signals
• Time dispersion (echoes) due to multipath
propagation delays
 Factors influencing small-scale fading
• Multipath propagation: reflection of objects and scatters
• Speed of the mobile: relative motion between mobile and BS
results in
 random FM due to Doppler shifts(±) on each of the
multipath components
Doppler shift will be positive or negative depending on
whether the mobile is moving toward or away from the BS.
• Speed of the surronding objects:
Objects in channel are in motion, time varying Doppler shift
introduced
Speed of the Objects>>Speed of mobile- effect
predominates small-scale fading.
 Factors influencing small-scale fading
• Transmission bandwidth of the signal
Bandwidth of “multipath” channel quantified by Coherence
Bandwidth
Coherence Bandwidth, Bc - measure of the maximum frequency
difference for which signals are strongly correlated in amplitude.
• Transmitted radio signal bandwidth > bandwidth of multipath
channel,
Received signal will be distorted
 But signal strength will not fade much over a local area
Transmitted radio signal bandwidth < bandwidth of multipath channel,
Receive signal will not be distorted
 But amplitude of the signal will change rapidly
 Factors influencing small-scale fading

Signal BW > Channel BW

Signal BW < Channel BW

 Doppler Shift
A mobile moves at a constant velocity v, along a path segment
having length d between points X and Y.
The difference in path lengths traveled by the wave from source S
to the mobile at X and Y is Δl
– Path length difference
l  d cos  vt cos
– Phase change due to difference in path length
2l 2vt
   cos
 
– Change in frequency or Doppler shift

1  v
fd    cos
2 t 
 Doppler Shift
• fd +ve, mobile move toward direction of arrival of
wave (apparent received frequency is increased)
• fd –ve, mobile move away direction of arrival of
wave (apparent received frequency is decreased)
• Multipath signal arriving in different directions
contribute to Doppler spreading – increase in
signal bandwidth
 Multi-Path Propagation Modeling
Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

Multi-path results from reflection, diffraction, and scattering off environment

surroundings
Note: The figure above demonstrates the roles of reflection and scattering only on multi-path
 Multi-Path Propagation Modeling
Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

As the mobile receiver (i.e. car) moves in the environment, the strength of each
multi-path component varies
 Multi-Path Propagation Modeling
Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

As the mobile receiver (i.e. car) moves in the environment, the strength of each
multi-path component varies
 Problems
2.1 If fc=900 MHz and the mobile velocity is
70km/hr, calculate the received carrier
frequency if the mobile is
(a) directly towards transmitter(positive Doppler
shift)
(b) directly away from the transmitter (negative
Doppler shift)
(c) in a direction perpendicular to the direction
of the arrival of the transmitted signal
Parameters of Mobile Multi-Path Channels
• The power delay profile is used to derive some
parameters that can help characterize the
effect of the wireless channel on signal
communication
• We will discuss the following:
– Time dispersion parameters
– Coherence bandwidth
– Doppler spread and coherence time
 Power Delay Profile
• Many multipath channel parameters are derived from
power delay profile.
• PDP is represented as a plot of relative received power as a
function of excess delay with reference to some fixed time
delay.
• PDPs are found by averaging instantaneous power delay
profile measurements over a local area in order to
determine an average small-scale PDP.
• Samples are considered at spatial separations of 1/4th of
wavelength and receiver movements no greater than 6 m
in outdoor and 2 m in indoor channels in the 450 MHz – 6
GHz range.
 Power Delay Profile
From “Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice” T. Rappaport

Multi-Path Profile from a 900 MHz cellular system in San Francisco

 Delay Spread
• Each multipath signal travels different path length,
so the time of arrival for each path is different
• A single transmitted pulse will be spread in time
when it reaches the receiver. This effect which
spreads out the signal is called Delay Spread.
• Delay spread leads to increase in signal bandwidth
• Delay spread is the property of the communication
channel
 Time Dispersion Parameters
Quantify the time dispersive properties
• Mean excess delay 𝜏 of wide band multipath channels.

– first moment of the PDP

• RMS delay spread 𝜎𝜏
– Square-root of the second central moment of PDP
• Excess delay spread
- Time delay during which energy falls X dB
below the maximum
 Time Dispersion Parameters
Mean Excess Delay

 Pτ  τ k k
P(τ)
τ k

 Pτ k
k

RMS Delay Spread

 τ0 τ1 τ2 τ3 τN τ
2
στ  τ2  τ

 Pτ  τ k
2
k Power Delay Profile
τ2  k

 Pτ  k
k

Note: These delays are measured relative to the first

detectable signal (multi-path component) arriving at
the receiver at τ0=0
 Time Dispersion Parameters
Maximum Excess Delay (X dB) or Excess Delay Spread (X dB):
• Time delay during which multi-path energy falls to X dB below
the maximum (Note that the strongest component does not
necessarily arrive at τ0)
• Max.excess delay is defined as 𝜏𝑥 − 𝜏0 , where τ0 is the first
arriving signal & 𝜏𝑥 is the maximum delay at which a
multipath component is within X dB of the strongest arriving
multipath signal.
 Problems
2.2, Compute the rms delay spread for the following
power delay profile:

0 dB
P

1s 2s

a) Calculate the rms delay spread for the given figure

 Coherence Bandwidth
• A statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the
channel can be considered to be “flat” (i.e., a channel which passes
all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear
phase)
• The coherence bandwidth Bc represents the correlation between
two fading signal envelopes at frequencies f1 and f2 and is a function
of delay spread τd.
Coherence Bandwidth over Coherence Bandwidth over
which the frequency which the frequency
correlation function is above correlation function is above
0.9 0.5
1 1
BC  BC 
50σ τ 5σ τ
Exact relationship between rms delay spread and coherence
bandwidth is a function of specific channel impulse response and
applied signals
2.3
i. Calculate the mean excess delay, rms delay spread and
the maximum excess delay (10 dB) for the multipath
profile given in the figure below.
ii. Estimate the 50% coherence bandwidth of the
channel.
iii. Would this channel be suitable for AMPS or GSM
service without the use of an equalizer?

24
 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
• Doppler spread and coherence time are parameters
which describe the time varying nature of the channel
• Doppler spread BD (2fm) is a measure of spectral
broadening due to the Doppler shift associated with
mobile motion
• Coherence time is a statistical measure of the time
duration over which the channel impulse response is
essentially invariant
Coherence Time is inversely Coherence Time over
proportional to Doppler which the time correlation
spread function is 0.5
1 9
TC  TC 
fm 16πf m

where fm is the maximum Doppler shift given by fm=v/λ

A Common Rule: TC 
9 1 0.423

25
16πf m f m fm
 Mitigate Doppler Effect
• If the baseband signal bandwidth is much
greater than the maximum Doppler shift, then
the effects of Doppler spread are negligible at
the receiver.
• To minimize the effect of Doppler, we should
use as wide a baseband signal as feasible [e.g.
spread spectrum] Doppler Shift

fc Fc  F
Frequency (Hz)
2.4 A local spatial average of a power delay profile measured at
900 MHz is shown in Fig.
a. Determine the rms delay spread and excess delay for the
channel
b. Determine the maximum excess delay (20dB)
c. If the channel is to be used with a modulation that requires
an equalizer whenever the symbol duration T is less than
10 determine the maximum RF symbol rate that can be
supported without requiring an equalizer
d. If a mobile travelling at 30km/hr receives a signal through
the channel, determine the time over which the channel
appears stationary (or atleast highly correlated)
2.5 (i) If a particular modulation provides suitable BER performance
whenever 𝜎/𝑇𝑠 ≤ 0.1, determine the smallest symbol period Ts and
hence the greatest symbol rate that may be sent through RF
channels shown in Figure, without using an equalizer.
(ii) For the power delay profiles shown in Figure, estimate the 50%
and 90% correlation coherence bandwidths.
 Types of Small-Scale Fading
Multipath delay spread leads to time dispersion and frequency selective fading.
Doppler spread leads to frequency dispersion and time selective fading.
Multipath delay spread and Doppler spread are independent of one another.

3. Rayleigh-Rician distributed 3. Inter Symbol Interference

4.Spectral characteristics of 4.Spectral characteristics of
txed signal is preserved txed signal is not preserved
 Flat Fading
• Occurs due to fluctuations in the gain of the multipath
channel which leads to change in amplitude of the
received signal with time (Rayleigh distribution)
• A signal undergoes flat fading if
BS  BC
and
TS  

BC : coherent bandwidth TS : reciprocal bandwidth (symbol period)

BS : bandwidth of the transmitt ed signal   : rms delay spread

• May cause deep fades
- Increase the transmit power to combat the
situation
Flat Fading Channel Characteristics

Channel has Constant gain, linear phase response, BW> Signal BW

Flat Fadding Channel Model
 Frequency Selective Fading
• If the channel possesses a constant-gain and linear phase
response over a bandwidth that is smaller than the
bandwidth of transmitted signal, then the channel creates
frequency selective fading.
signal spectrum S ( f )

channel response

f
BC

received signal spectrum

f
 Frequency Selective Fading
• Occurs when the channel multipath delay spread is
greater than the symbol period
– symbol faces time dispersion
– Channel induces inter symbol interference (ISI)
• Bandwidth of channel is wider than the symbol
response.
• Cause distortion of the received baseband signal
• For frequency selective fading
BS  BC
and
TS  
 Frequency Selective Fading Characteristics

Channel has Constant gain, linear phase response, BW< Signal BW

Frequency Selective Fading Model
Flat Fading/ Frequency Selective Fading
Common Rule of Thumb
Flat Fading
Ts>10

Frequency Selective Fading

Ts<10
Example
Types of Small Scale Fading (Doppler
Spread)
 Fast Fading
• Occurs due to Doppler Spread
– The rate of change of the channel
characteristics is larger than the rate of change
of transmitted signal. As a result, the channel
changes during a symbol period
• The channel changes because of relative motion
between the receiver and the base band signaling.
• Coherence time (Tc) of the channel is smaller than
the symbol period (Ts) of the transmitted signal
• A signal undergoes fast fading if TS  TC

and BS  BD Doppler Spread BD= 2fm

For distortionless Transmission Bs>>BD

 Slow Fading
• The rate of change of the channel characteristics
is much smaller than the rate of change of
transmitted signal
• The channel may be assumed static over one or
several reciprocal bandwidth intervals.
• In frequency domain this means that Doppler
spread of channels is much smaller than the
bandwidth of baseband signal
• A signal undergoes slow fading if
BS  BD

and
TS  TC
 Fast Fading/ Slow Fading
• Velocity of the mobile(or the velocity of
the objects in the channel) and the base
band signaling determines whether a
signal undergoes fast fading or slow
fading
 Fading Classification: Summary
As a function of symbol period

From “Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice” T. Rappaport

42
 Fading Classification: Summary
As a function of baseband signal bandwidth
From “Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice” T. Rappaport

43
 Fading Distributions
• Statistical characterization of the variation of
the envelop of the received signal over time
• Two most common distributions are
– Rayleigh fading
– Ricean Fading
 Rayleigh Fading
• If all the multipath components have
approximately the same amplitude (that is
when MS is far from BS) the envelope of the
received signal is Rayleigh distribution
• No dominant signal component (such as LOS
component)
 Rayleigh Fading
Used to describe the statistical time varying nature of the
received envelope of a flat fading signal, or the envelope of an
individual multipath component
It is known that the envelope of the sum of two quadrature
Gaussian noise signals obey Rayleigh distribution
 Rayleigh pdf

• where σ is the rms value of the received

voltage signal before envelope detection
• σ2 is the time-average power of the received
signal before envelope detection
• Probability that the received signal envelope does not exceed a specified value R, is
given by CDF

• Mean value of Rayleigh distribution

• Variance

• Median
 Level Crossing Rate (LCR)
• Level Crossing Rate (LCR) is defined as the expected rate at
which the Rayleigh fading envelope, normalized to the local rms
signal level, crosses a specified level in a positive-going
direction.
• The no. of level crossings per second

Where r is the time derivative of r(t)

p(R,r) is the joint density function of r
fm is the max. Doppler frequency
=R/Rrms is the value of the specified level R, normalized to the
local rms amplitude of the fading envelope.
 Average Fade Duration
• Is the period of time for which the received signal is
below a specified level R

• Where Pr[rR] is the probability that the received

signal r is less than R

• Where i is the duration of the fade and T is the

observation interval of the fading signal.
 Average Fade Duration
• Average fade duration as a function of  and fm can be
expressed as

• Average duration of a signal fade helps determine the

most likely number of signalling bits that may be lost
during a fade.
𝐶
• Time between the fades 𝑇𝑓 = ,
2𝑓𝑐 𝑉
• fm is the maximum Doppler shift given by fm=v/λ ,
 Ricean Fading
• When there is a dominant stationary
(nonfading) signal component present, such as
a LOS path, the small-scale fading envelope
distribution is Ricean.
• It degenerates to Rayleigh when the dominant
component fades away.
 Ricean Distribution

- The parameter A denotes the peak amplitude

of the dominant signal
- I0(.) is modified Bessel function of the first kind
and zero order.
 Ricean Distribution
• Ricean distribution is described in terms of a
parameter K, which is defined as the ratio
between the deterministic signal power and
the variance of the multipath.

• Parameter K is known as the ‘Ricean factor’

• K>>1 Ricean distribution tends to Gaussian
distribution about the mean
Ricean Distribution
Ricean Distribution
Rayleigh distribution

Ricean distribution
 Problems
2.5 Consider a Rayleigh fading signal experiencing
a maximum Doppler frequency of 20 Hz. The
carrier frequency is 900 MHz. Compute
(a) the positive-going level-crossing rate for ρ = 1
(b) maximum velocity of the mobile for the given
Doppler frequency
 Problems
2.6 Assume that a bit error occurs whenever any
portion of a bit encounters a fade for which ρ < 0.1.
For a given maximum Doppler frequency of 20 Hz
(a) What is the average fade duration for threshold
levels ρ = 0.01, ρ = 0.1, ρ = 0.707, and ρ = 1?
(b) For a binary digital modulation with a data rate
of 50 bps, is the Rayleigh fading slow or fast
corresponding to ρ = 0.707?
(c) What is the average number of bit errors per
second for the given data rate of 50 bps?
 Problems
2.7 A MS traveling at a speed of 60km/hr
transmits at 900MHz. If it receives or transmits
data a rate of 64kbps, is channel fading sow/Fast