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1. Sensation and Responses

Synapse is the junction between two neurons or a
Neuron neuron and a muscle cell or a neuron and a glandular
cell.

Nuero transmitters - Acetylcholine and dopamine

Dendrite Dendron Axonite
Transmission of nerve impulse.

● The outer surface of the plasma membrane of the

neuron is positively charged and
● The inner surface is negatively charged.
● When stimulated
Cell body Axon Synaptic knob ● Inner surface becomes positively charged
● and the outer surface becomes negatively
charged.
Myelin sheath & Oligodendrocytes. ● This momentary charge difference stimulates its
adjacent parts
● and similar changes occur there too.
● As this process proceeds,
impulses get transmitted as electric charges.

Nerve impulses are messages transmitted through

the neurons.

Transmission of impulses through synapse

Myelin sheath ​ ​oligodendrocytes Dendrite ​ ​ Dendron ​ ​ Cell body ​ ​ Axon ​

Myelin sheath in the nerves is formed of Schwann
cells.
Myelin sheath in the brain and the spinal cord is
formed of specialized cells called oligodendrocytes.
Axonite ​ ​ Synaptic knob ​ ​ Neurotransmitters ​
stimulate the adjacent dendrite or cell. ​
New electric impulses are generated.
Reflex arc

Functions of myelin sheath​.

● To provide nutrients and oxygen to the axon.

● To accelerate impulses.
● To act as an electric insulator and protect the axon
from external shocks.

Synapse

Synapse helps to regulate the speed and direction of

impulses. Stimulus​ ​ ​ ​Receptor ​ ​ ​ ​Sensory neuron​ ​
Interneuron​ ​ ​ ​Motor neuron​ ​ ​ ​Related muscle.
Synaptic knob
Brain
Dendrite
● protected inside the skull.
Electric impulse
● covered by the meninges, a three-layered
Neurotransmitter membrane.

Synaptic cleft Cerebrospinal fluid

● The cerebrospinal fluid formed from the blood is
reabsorbed into the blood.

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● Heart beat increases. ● Heart beat becomes

Functions of the cerebrospinal fluid
● To provide nutrients and oxygen to the tissues of
the brain.
● To regulate the pressure inside the brain and to
protect the brain from injuries.
Cerebrum • centre of thought,
intelligence, memory and
imagination.
• evokes sensations.
• controls voluntary
movements.
Cerebellum • coordinates muscular
activities and
maintains equilibrium of the
body.
Thalamus • acts as relay station of
impulses
to and from the cerebrum.
Hypothalamus • plays a major role in the
maintenance
of homeostasis.
Medulla oblongata • controls involuntary actions
like heart
beat, breathing etc.
normal.
● Gastric activities slow ● Gastric activities
down. become normal.
● Glycogen is converted ● Glucose is converted to
to glucose. glycogen.
● Urinary bladder
regains normal state. ● Urinary bladder
● Production of contracts.
hormone increases. ● Production of hormone
● Peristalsis in the decreases
intestine slows down. ● Peristalsis in the
intestine becomes
normal.
Central nervous system
Spinal cord
Brain
Peripheral nervous system
Cranial nerves (12 pair)
Spinal nerves (31 pair)
❖ Sensory nerve (formed of sensory
nerve fibres) : various parts of the body ​ ​ brain and
the spinal cord.

● Cerebrum ❖ Motor nerve (formed of motor nerve

fibres) : from brain and spinal cord ​
● Thalamus various parts of the body.

● Hypothalamus ❖ Mixed nerve (formed of sensory

nerve fibres and motor nerve fibres) : carries impulses
to and from the brain and
● Cerebellum
spinal cord.
● Medulla oblongata
spinal cord

Central canal
cerebrum - cerebral reflexes.
Grey
spinal cord - spinal reflexes. matter

Autonomous nervous system Dorsal root

Ventral root
Sympathetic System Parasympathetic System
White matter

● pupil in the eye ● pupil in the eye

dilates. contracts.
● Production of ● Production of saliva Diseases affecting the nervous system
saliva decreases. increases.
● Trachea expands. ● Trachea contracts.

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Disease Causes Symptoms Flowchart related to the sense of sight

Light ​ ​ Cornea ​ ​ Aqueous humor ​ ​ Pupil ​ ​ Lens ​
Alzheimer' Accumulation of an Loss of memory,
Vitreous humor ​ ​ Retina ​ ​ Impulse ​ ​ Cerebrum ​
s insoluble inability to
Sense of sight
protein in the recognize
neural tissues of friends and
Photoreceptors
the relatives, inability
brain. Neurons get to do routine
destroyed. works.

Parkinsons Destruction of Loss of body

specialised balance, irregular
ganglions in the movement of
brain. Production muscles, shivering
● Rod cells : Rhodopsin
of dopamine, a of the body, profuse
Night blindness ​- The deficiency of Vitamin A
neurotransmitter salivation.
● Cone cells : photopsin. or iodopsin.
in the brain gets
​Colour Blindness​ - persons cannot distinguish green
reduced.
and red colours due to the defect of cone cells.
Epilepsy Continuous and Epilepsy due to
irregular flow of continuous
Eye defects and diseases.
electric charges in muscular
the brain. contraction, frothy
● Xerophthalmia​ - prolonged deficiency of Vitamin A,
discharge from the
the conjunctiva and cornea become dry and opaque
mouth,
● Cataract​ - lens of the eyes become opaque resulting
clenching of the
in blindness.
teeth following
● Glaucoma - ​The reabsorption of aqueous
which the
humor does not occur, it causes an increase in
patient falls
the pressure inside the eyes. This causes damage to the
unconscious.
retina and the photoreceptor cells and ultimately
leads to blindness.
2. windows of knowledge ● Conjunctivitis - ​An infection of the conjunctiva. The
causative organisms may be bacteria, virus etc
Tears - Lysozyme
Ear
Structure of the eye

Ear ossicles - Malleus Semicircular

Conjunctiva Sclera Incus stapes canals

Cornea Choroid
Pinna Vestibule
Iris
Retina
Pupil
Yellow spot Auditory Auditory
Lens canal nerve
Optic nerve

Aqueous Blind spot Tympanu Cochlea

chamber m

Vitreous
chamber Vestibular nerve

Auditory receptors​ - ​ Specialized sensory hair cells

which are present in the basilar membrane.

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Organ of Corti - The basilar membrane and sensory

hair cells together constitute the Organ of Corti. ● Planaria ​: ​Eye spot
● Housefly ​: ​Ommatidia ​.
● Sense of hearing ● Shark​ : ​Lateral line
● Snake​ ​: Jacobson's organ
● Sound waves​ ​ Pinna ​ ​Auditory canal
​Tympanum ​ ​ Ear oscicles ​ ​ Oval window ​ 3. Chemical Messages for Homeostasis
Cochlea​ ​ Hair ceiis​ ​ Impulse ​ ​ Auditory nerve ​
Cerebrum ​ ​ Sense of hearing. ● Target cells -​ The cells which are acted upon by
hormones are their target cells.
● Hormone-receptor complex​ - Only those cells
● Ear and Body balancing having specific receptors can receive a specific
hormone. Each hormone molecule binds with the
receptor to form a ​hormone-receptor complex
Semicircular
canals A condition in which the production of thyroxin
decreases in foetal stage or infancy : ​Cretinism
Vestibular nerve
Myxoedema​ : Prolonged deficiency of thyroxine in
Auditory nerve adults

Cochlea Oxytocin​ :
● facilitates child birth by stimulating the
contraction of smooth muscles in the uterine wall.
Vestibule ● facilitates lactation.

movement of the head ​ ​ movement of the endolymph Prolactin ​: production of milk

present inside the vestibule and the semicircular canals
​ causes movement of the sensory hair cells and ● Pancreas
generates impulses ​ ​ impulses are transmitted by the
vestibular nerves ​ ​ ​cerebellum ​ ​ ​ equilibrium of the
body is maintained

● To detect Smell

● Olfactory receptors
Alpha cells Beta cells

● Islets of Langerhans
Olfactory nerve ● Beta cells - Insulin
Mucus glands ● Alpha cells – glucagon
● Normal level of glucose in blood is 70-110mg/100ml.
Olfactory receptors ● Insulin defficiency - Diabetes is clinically referred to
Nasal cavity as a condition when the level of glucose before
breakfast is above 126mg/100ml of blood.

● Vasopressin​ / ADH​ - When the production of

To detect taste
● Chemoreceptors seen inside the mouth and tongue
help us to detect taste.
Substances responsible for taste dissolve in saliva ​
papillae ​ ​ taste buds ​ ​ impulses ​ ​ nerves ​
cerebrum ​ ​ sense of tasting.
vasopressin decreases, the reabsorption of water in
the kidney is decreased and excess amount of urine is
eliminated. This condition is known as diabetes
insipidus.
● Frequent urination, increased thirst etc., are the
symptoms.
● Calcium in blood is 9-11 mg/100ml

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● Glucagon​ -- converts the glycogen stored in the liver
to glucose. synthesizes glucose from amino acids.
● Insulin​ -- cellular uptake of glucose molecules.
converts glucose into glycogen in
the liver and muscles
Decreases the Level of calcium in blood - calcitonin .
● Increases the Level of calcium in blood -
parathormone.
● ​ hymosin​ -​ 'Youth hormone'.
T same time..
● Melatonin​ - ​Pineal gland -​ ​ influence sleep
and waking up .
Adrenal gland
● Auxins - ​used to prevent the dropping of premature
fruits
● Gibberellins - ​used for increasing fruit size in grapes
and apple.
● Ethylene - ​used for the flowering of pineapple plants
at a time and for the ripening of tomato, lemon,
orange etc
● Ethyphon - ​ used in rubber trees and it increases the
production of latex
● Abscisic acid - ​It is used for harvesting fruits at the
4. Keeping Disease Away
Bacterial disease

▪ Rat fever (Leptospirosis)​ - ​Leptospira bacteria

▪ Tuberculosis -- ​Mycobacterium tuberculosis
▪ Diphtheria - ​Corynebacterium diphtheriae​.

​virus​ Protein layer

Inner medulla Outer cortex DNA or RNA

● Inner medulla :​ Epinephrine (Adrenaline) viral disease

Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline) ● Nipah - Nipah virus
● AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) -
Outer cortex : ​Cortisol​ , ​ Aldosterone​ ,​ Sex hormones HIV (Human Immuno deficiency Virus)
● Hepatitis is a liver disease
Goitre
Lifestyle diseases
● Iodine is essential for the production of thyroxine.
● The production of thyroxine is blocked in the Diabetes deficiency of insulin or its
absence of iodine. malfunctioning
● In an attempt to produce more thyroxine, the thyroid
Fatty Liver deposition of excess fat in the liver
gland enlarges. This condition is called ​goitre​.
Stroke rupture of blood vessels in the
Find out the reason for the change in quantity of brain, block of blood flow
urine expelled during the summer and rainy season? Hypertension decrease in the diameter of arteries
The production of vasopressin is high in the summer due to deposition of fat
season during which water loss is excessive through Heart attack block of blood flow due to
sweat. But its production is less during the winter deposition of fat in coronary
and rainy season. s which carry blood to the heart.

Pheromones Reasons - various lifestyle diseases

● The muscone in the musk deer ● Caused by unhealthy living styles.

● The civeton in the civet cat
● Bombykol in the female silk worm moth
Artificial Plant Hormones
● Thechanges in food habits.
● Lack of physical exercise.
● Mental stress.
● Bad habits like consumption of alcohol, drug abuse,
smoking, etc

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Fungal Diseases Virus Foot and mouth disease

● Ringworm​ ​Athletes’ foot

Plant diseases
​
Bacteria Blight disease in paddy.
Wilt disease in brinjal.
Protozoans Diseases
Virus Mosaic disease in peas and tapioca.
● Malaria ​– ​Plasmodium – Female Anopheles Bunchy top of banana.
mosquito.
● Symptoms​ - High fever with shivering and profuse Fungus Quick wilt in pepper.
sweating are the major symptoms of malaria. Other Bud rot of coconut.
symptoms include headache, vomitting, diarrhoea,
anaemia etc

● Filariasis ​ - filarial worms ​- ​Culex mosquitoes​. 5. Soldiers of Defence

● The worms stay in the lymph ducts and obstruct the
flow of lymph by blocking the ducts. This causes Defense mechanisms in our body.
swelling in the lymph ducts.
Skin
Genetic diseases ● Epidermis - A protein called keratin present here
prevents the entry of germs.
● Haemophilia
● Sebaceous gland : ​Sebum produced by the gland
● Haemophilia is the condition in which excess blood is makes the skin oily and water proof.
lost even​ ​through minor wounds.
● Sweat gland : ​The disinfectants present in the sweat
▪ Sickle cell anaemia produced by this gland destroys the germs.
● Lysozyme in tears

White Blood Cells

Neutrophil Engulfs bacteria, synthesizes

chemicals that destroy
bacteria.
Basophil Stimulates other white blood
● Changes occur in the structure of haemoglobin in cells. Dilates the blood
red blood cells. vessels.
● Red blood cells bend like sickle.
Eosinophil Synthesizes chemicals that
● The oxygen carrying capacity of red blood cells
destroy foreign bodies.
decreases.
Synthesizes chemicals
● The sickle shaped RBCs get collected in the blood
required for the inflammatory
vessels and block the flow of blood in them..
responses.
Cancer Monocyte Engulfs and destroys germs.

Cancer is caused by the uncontrolled division of cells

and their spread to other tissues. Lymphocyte Identifies and destroys germs
This may be due to environmental factors, smoking, specifically.
radiations, virus, hereditary factors, etc.

Animal diseases

Bacteria Anthrax, Inflammation of Inflammatory Response

udder

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1 4 ● Increases the effect of phagocytosis​.

● Specific Defense

2 3 5 ​ B- Lymphocytes T- Lymphocytes

● Bonemarrow ● Thymus gland

1. Germs enter through wounds. ● Destroy the bacteria by ● Stimulate other
2. Chemicals are produced. disintegrating their cell defense cells of the
3. Blood capillaries dilate. membrane. body.
4. White blood cells reach the wound site through the ● Neutralise the toxin of ● Destroy the cells
walls of the capillaries. the antigens. affected by virus.
5. Neutrophils and monocytes engulf and destroy ● Destroy the pathogens ● Destroy cancer
germs. by stimulating other cells..
white blood cells.
Phagocytosis .
Vaccines - Edward Jenner
● Pathogen ​ Components of vaccines
● Engulfs pathogen in the membrane sac. ​
● Lysosome ​ ● alive or dead or neutralised germs,
● Lysosome combines with membrane sac. ​ ● neutralised toxins.
● The pathogens are degenerated and destroyed by the ● cellular parts of the pathogens.
enzymes in lysosome. ​
Vaccine Disease
Blood clotting
B.C.G. Tubreculosis
● Tissues and platelets at the site of wound degenerate
to form the enzyme called thromboplastin. O.P.V. Polio

● Prothrombin in plasma Pentavalent Diphtheria , Pertusis , Hemophilus

influenzae type B, HepatitisB,
Thromboplastin M.M.R Measles , Mumps, Rubella
Thrombin
Calcium, Vitamin K T.T. Tetanus

Antibiotics
Thrombin
● Fibrinogen Fibrin fibres. To destroy bacteria are called antibiotics.

● The red blood cells and platelets get entangled in the
network of fibrin fibres to form the blood clot.
Fever, a Defense Mechanism
● The normal body temperature is 370 C (98.60F).
● Fever is a condition when the body temperature rises
above the normal level.
Alexander Fleming - ​Penicillium notatum
Though antibiotics are effective medicines, their
regular use creates many side effects.
● regular use develops immunity in pathogens against
antibiotics.
● destroys useful bacteria in the body.
● reduces the quantity of some vitamins in the body.

Steps Blood transfusion. – Instructions

● Pathogens enter the body.
● The presence of toxins produced by the pathogens
stimulates the white blood cells.
● The chemical substances produced by the white
blood cells raises the body temperature.
● The rise in body temperature reduces the rate of
multiplication of pathogens.
People in the age group 18-60 can donate blood.
Blood donation can be done once in three months.
Blood donation causes no problem to the donor’s
health.
Pregnant women and breast feeding mothers should
not donate blood.

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Persons with communicable diseases (transmitted ● When plants that differ in a pair of contrasting traits
through blood) should not donate blood. are hybridized, only one trait is expressed while
theother remains hidden in the offsprings of the first
Different types of blood groups generation​.

● The basis of blood grouping is the presence of antigen ● The expressed trait is called ​dominant​ ​trait (T).​ and
A and antigen B in red blood cells. the hidden trait is called ​recessive trait (t).
● Blood group +ve -- Presence of Rh Factor (Antigen
D) .
● Blood group -ve -- without Rh Factor (Antigen D )

Blood group Antigens Antibodies

A A b
B B a
AB A, B NIL
O NIL a, b

Defense Mechanisms in Plants

● Wax covering,
● cuticle
● Bark
● Cell wall - Chemical substances such as lignin, cutin, ​TT ​ ​tt
suberin, etc. provide rigidity to the cell wall.

Equipments and Uses

● Electro Encephalo Gram (EEG) - to record electric ​Tt
waves in the brain.
● Electro Cardio Gram (ECG) - to record electric waves
in the heart muscle. ● Ratio of Second Generation - ​3:1​.
● Ultra Sound Scanner
● C.T. Scanner (Computed Tomography Scanner)
● MRI Scanner (Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scanner) Hybridization of two characters

6. Unravelling Genetic Mysteries

TR Tr tR tr

TR TTRR TTRr TtRR TtRr

Father of Genetics. - ​Gregor Johann Mendel
Garden pea​ p​ lants, - ​Pisum sativum
Tr TTRr TTrr TtRr Ttrr
Genes ​- Gregor Mendel assumed that the inheritance
of characteristics from parents to offsprings is by
tR TtRR TtRr ttRR ttRr
certain factors transferred through gametes.
the genes present in the chromosomes of the nucleus.
tr TtRr Ttrr ttRr ttrr
Alleles.

● A gene that controls a character has different forms.

They are called alleles.
● Generally, a gene has two alleles.
● For example, ​T ​and ​t ​are the different alleles of the Law of the independent assortment
gene that controls the character, height.
Mendel explained that the appearance of variations in
Allele T - t​ he trait tallness. offsprings (characters not present in previous generation)
Allele​ ​t - ​the trait dwarfness. is due to the independent assortment of each character.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

Law of Dominance

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● mRNA forms from DNA.

● mRNA reachesoutside the nucleus.
● mRNA reaches ribosome.
● tRNA brings different kinds of amino acids to
ribosome.
● Based on the information in mRNA, protein is
synthesized by adding amino acids.

chromosomes in human
● 46 chromosomes.
22 pairs of somatic chromosomes
2pairs of sex chromosomes.

Genetic makeup
● female - 44 + XX .
● male - 44 + XY.

Double helical model - James Watson and Francis processes that cause Genetic variations in
Crick (1953) organisms.
Basic unit of DNA – Nucleotides .
● crossing over of chromosomes
Nucleotides ● Combination of Allele during fertilization.
● mutation.

Determination of sex

● Phosphate
● Sugar molecule
● Nitrogen base 4 Types.
Adenine – Thymine
Cytosine – Guanine ● The XY chromosomes of the father determine
DNA RNA whether the childis male or female.
● Child with XX sex chromosomes - female andone
● Two strands ● One strand with XY sex chromosomes - male.
double helical model ● Melanin, a pigment protein imparts colour to the
● Deoxyribose sugar ● Ribose sugar skin.

● Adenine – Thymine ● Adenine – Uracil

Cytosine – Guanine Cytosine – Guanine
7. Genetics of the Future

protein synthesis
● DNA does not participate directly in protein
synthesis. DNA performs its activities with the help
of RNA.
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering is the modern form of
biotechnology.
● Genetic engineering is thetechnology of controlling
traits of organisms by bringing about desirable
changes in the genetic constitution of organisms.
● The basis of this is the discovery of the fact that genes
can be cut and joined.

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Production of insulin through genetic engineering
Human Cell Bacteria
Genetic scissors ​- Restriction endonuclease
Genetic glue​ - Ligase
Vectors - A gene from one cell is transferred to
another cell by​ ​using suitable vectors. Vectors which
contain ligated genes enter​ ​target cells.
​Plasmids in bacteria​ are generally used as vectors
Gene therapy
Gene therapy is a method of treatment in which
the genes that are responsible for diseases are removed
and normal functional genes are inserted in their place.
● Human Genome Project
In 1990, the Human Genome Project was started. As a
result of experiments conducted in various laboratories
around the world till 2003, the secrets of human genome
were revealed.
● Gene mapping
The technology known as gene mapping helped to
identify the location of a gene in the DNA responsible for
a particular trait.
Genome
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● The complete genetic material present in an organism
is called its genome.
Junk genes
In human DNA, majority of genes, except the genes that
code for protein are non-functional. They are called junk
genes
DNA profiling
The technology of testing the arrangement of nucleotides
is DNA profiling.
DNA finger printing.
Alec Jeffreys
The difference in the fingerprint of each person, the
arrangementof nucleotides in each person also
differs. This discovery became the basis of DNA
testing.
❖ Scope of DNA finger printing
● To find out hereditary characteristics,to identify real
parents in cases of parental dispute.
● To identify persons found after long periods of
missing dueto natural calamities or wars.
● DNA of the skin, hair, nail, blood and other body
fluids obtained from the place of murder, robbery
etc., is compared with the DNA of suspected persons.
Thus, the real culprit can be identified from among
the suspected persons through this method.
8. The Paths Traversed by Life
● The more predominant theory, on​. ​the origin of life
on earth that was formed about 4500 million years
ago, is the Chemical evolution theory
Panspermia hypothesis
● The Panspermia argues that life originated in some
other planet in the universe and accidentally reached
the earth .
Chemical evolution theory
● A.I. Oparin , J.B.S.Haldane
● The hypothesis that evolved into the theory of
chemical evolution is that life originated as a result of
the changes that occurred in the chemical substances
in seawater, under specific conditions in primitive
earth.
Urey and Miller Experiment
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Stanley Miller and Harold Urey

Theory of Natural Selection.

Electric energy ● Over production​ of organisms ​

● The availability of resources is less. ​
Methane, ammonia, ● struggle for existence. ​
water vapour ● Many variations are visible in organisms.
● These variations may be favourable or unfavourable.
Glass flas ● Those with favourable variations survive in the
struggle for existence. Others are eliminated.
Condenser ● Variations that are inherited through generations and
repeated differently help to form species that are
Amino acids get different from their ancestors.
sedimented ● This type of selection,done by nature, leads to the
Heat energy Water diversity of species that we see around us.
● This is the explanation of Darwin’s theory which is
known as the Theory of Natural Selection.
Geological time scale
Neo Darwinism.

● Darwinism was revised in the light of new

Primitive cell ​ ​ Prokaryotes ​ ​
information from the fields of genetics, cytology,
geology and paleontology.
Eukaryotes ​ ​ Colony of eukaryotes ​ ​
Multicellular organisms. ● This modified version of Darwinism is known as Neo
Darwinism.
❖ Evolution - through theories
● Mutation theory​ - Hugo deVries​ ​.
Lamarckism​ - Jean Baptist Lamarck
● ​Mutations.
● Acquired characters​. - The characters developed
during the life time of organisms are called acquired ● Suddenchanges that occur in genes are called
characters. Mutations.
● Lamarck explained that these characters accumulate ● Mutation theory explains that new​ ​species are formed
through generations and lead to the formation of new by the inheritance of such​ ​changes.
species.
❖ Many evidences to support the evolution of new
● Darwinism - ​Charles Robert Darwin species.
● A logical scientific theory on evolution was first put
forward by Darwin. ● Paleontology
● Comparative Morphology
● Galapagos finches ● Physiology
● Modern Molecular Biology
Insectivorous finches Small beaks
Fossils
Woodpecker finches Long and sharp beaks
● Fossils are the remnants of primitive organisms.
Tree finch Sharp beaks ● They are evidences that explain the history of life on
earth.
Ground finches that feed on Large beaks
seeds. Evidences provided by fossils

Concepts of Thomas Robert Malthus ● Primitive fossils have simple structure.

● Rate of food production is not proportionate to the
growth of human population.
● Thomas Robert Malthus pointed out that scarcity of
food led to diseases, starvation and struggle for
existence.
● Recently formed fossils have complex structure.
● Certain fossils are connecting links between different
species.
.
Comparative Morphological Studies

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Cercopithecoidea
Homologous Organs. ● Small brain, long tailed
● Eg : ​Monkey​

Hominoidea
● Developed brain, freely movable hands
● Eg : ​Gibbon, Orangutan, Gorilla, Chimpanzee, Man

❖ Main stages in the history of human evolution

● Organs that are similar in structure and perform
different functions are called homologous organs. Fossils
● Eg : the structure of forelimbs in lizard, bat, whale. Organism discovered Pecuiliarities
place

Biochemistry and Physiology The most primitive

Ardipithecus
Africa member of the
ramidus
human race.
Australopithecus Africa
Slender body.
afarensis
Made weapons
Homo habilis Africa
from stones and
bone pieces.
Thick chin and large
Africa
Bacteria Human being Homo erectus teeth, had the
Asia
ability to stand erect
● Enzymes control chemical reactions. Homo Europe and Contemporary to
● Energy is stored in ATP molecules. neanderthalensis Asia modern man.
● Genes determine hereditary traits.
● Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are the basic
substances. Homo apiens France Modern man.
●
Chimpanzee is the closest to man from the
evolutionary point of view.

The amino acids in the  chain of haemoglobin in Ardipithecus ramidus

man has been compared to the amino acids in the 
chain of Chimpanzee is similar. Australopithecus afarensis
❖ Evolution of Human beings
Homo habilis
Anthropoidea. - classified into 2
1.Cercopithecoidea 2. Hominoidea Homo erectus

Homo neanderthalensis

Homo sapiens

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SSLC BIOLOGY - 2020
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Cercopithecoidea Hominoidea

​BIOLOGY 2
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