FOR EXAMPLE:

TEXT AS CONNECTED
"chocolate' sounds like chaklut*
DISCOURSE (SPOKEN)
'sandwich' sounds like sanwich
There is a big difference between what we see
printed on a page and what we actually say in everyday 'fish and chips' sounds like "fishnchips
speech. This difference exists because there is a strong
'next day sounds like nex day!
tendency in English to simplify and link words together in
the steam of speech, in order to help the language flow "carved statue' sounds like
smoothly. Connected discourse/speech forms are the
spontaneous pronunciation changes in adjacent words carve statue'
or sounds spoken at a natural speed (Weinstein, 2001).
4. INTRUSION
Some common examples are given in the sample
dialogue above. Rosa (2002) suggests that these forms This is when an extra sound 'intrudes'; There are
are a common element of spoken English, found in all three sounds that often do this /r/ /i/ and /w/
registers and all rates of speech.
FOR EXAMPLE:
COMMON FEATURES OF CONNECTED
go on sounds like gowon
DISCOURSE
'I agree' sounds like 'aiyagree
1. ASSIMILATION
law and order' sounds like lawrunorder
This is when the sound at the end of one word
changes to make it easier to say the next word. 'please do it' sounds like 'please do wit

FOR EXAMPLE: "I want to eat' sounds like 'I want toweat'

"could have' sounds like 'coulda'

'ten boys' sounds like 'tem boys'
"fat boy' sounds like 'fap boy
'good boy' sounds like 'goob boy
REMEMBER: Although written connected discourse
does often appear in dialogues, short stories, novels,
and other forms of fiction, keep in mind that it is not
appropriate to use it in formal writing.

"that cat' sounds like 'thak cat'

2. CATENATION
This is when the last consonant of the first word
is joined to the first vowel of the next word.

FOR EXAMPLE:

'an apple' sounds like 'a napple'

'get up' sounds like 'getup'

"full on' sounds like 'fullon'

'beat it' sounds like 'bea tit'

'start up' sounds like 'star tup'

3. ELISION
Elision means that you lose a sound in the
middle of a consonant cluster, sometimes from
the middle of a word or from the end of a word.
 2. OPPOSITION/LIMITATION/CONTRADICTION
TEXT AS CONNECTED
Transition phrases like but, rather, and or express that
DISCOURSE (WRITTEN) there is evidence to the contrary or point out alternatives,
In a conversation, some expressions maybe in the and thus introduce a change in the line of reasoning
form of words, phrases, clauses, sentences, or even (contrast).
paragraphs. A CONVERSATION involves a number of
participants, at least two, who express their individual
thoughts and emotions through spoken words. For them
to understand one another and to ensure a smooth flow
of conversation, the spoken words must have
connectedness. On the contrary, a WRITTEN
DISCOURSE generally involves one individual who
expresses his ideas and feelings through written words.
Seldom does a writer make use of one word for a
sentence, Likewise, he rarely makes use of one 3. CAUSE/CONDITION/PURPOSE
sentence to form his paragraph. He puts together his
These transitional phrases present specific conditions or
ideas such that his words are interconnected to form one
intentions.
paragraph. Assuming that each sentence constitutes one
utterance from each of the participants in a conversation
and several sentences represent a number of utterances
from the same participants, they produce a number of
discourses because the parties involved proceed from
one topic to another or from one genre (exposition,
description, narration, or argumentation) to another. The
change or shift in topic is simply marked by transitional
words. In the same manner, transitional devices are
used to show the relationship or connection between
idea in sentences and paragraphs. 4. EXAMPLES/SUPPORT/EMPHASIS

TRANSITIONAL DEVICES are used to show the These transitional devices (like specially) are used to
relationship or connection between idea in sentences introduce examples as support, to indicate importance or
and paragraphs. The following are some of these as an illustration so that an idea is cued to the reader.
transitional words.

1. AGREEMENT/ADDITION/SIMILARITY
The transition words like also, in addition, and, likewise,
add information, reinforce ideas, and express agreement
with preceding material.
5. EFFECT/CONSEQUENCE/RESULT
Some of these are time words that are used to show that
after a particular time there was a consequence or an
effect. Note that for and because are placed before the
cause/reason. The other devices are placed before the
consequences or effects.
6. CONCLUSION/SUMMARY/RESTATEMENT
These transitions conclude, summarize, and/or restate
ideas, or indicate a final general statement. Also some
words like (therefore) from the ‘Effect/Consequence’
category can be used to summarize.
TECHNIQUES IN SELECTING AND
ORGANIZING INFORMATION
Information in a written text may be selected and
organized to achieve a particular purpose. There are four
techniques in selecting and organizing information and
these are: brainstorming list, graphic organizer, topic
outline, and sentence outline.
1. BRAINSTORMING LIST
Brainstorming list means just what its name suggests – a
list of what you have brainstormed. Brainstorming means
to think quickly and creatively about the text you have
read. Good brainstorming starts at an individual level
and generally begins with a question or two. “What are
your ideas about…?”and “What did you think
about…?”are examples of brainstorming questions.
Other open-ended question can be used like the
common “who, what, where, when, why.”
2. GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
Graphic organizers show the relationship between and
among facts, concepts or ideas. They help you increase
recall, arrange information, interpret and understand
learning. Examples of these are concept map, story map,
series-of-events chain, flow chart, T-chart, Venn diagram,
and discussion web.
EXAMPLES OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
2.1 CONCEPT MAP shows relationships associated
with the concept you are studying.
2.2 STORY MAP may summarize the beginning,
middle, and end of the story. It may also focus on the
setting, character, plot, problem, events, and outcome.
2.3 SERIES-OF-EVENTS CHAIN shows the
arrangement of events in chronological order. It may also
help you in discussing cause and effect of something.
2.4 FLOW CHART displays the steps or stages in a
process.
2.5 T-CHART AND VENN DIAGRAM shows the
similarities and differences between two things, people,
events, or ideas.
2.6 DISCUSSION WEB allows you to give the
meaning of what you read. It also privileges you to polish
your own interpretation against another.
3. TOPIC OUTLINE
A topic outline arranges your ideas hierarchically
(showing which are main and which are sub-points), in
the sequence you want, and shows what you will talk
about. As the name implies, it identifies all the little mini-
topics that your paper will comprise, and shows how
they relate. Remember that a topic outline lists words or
phrases.
4. SENTENCE OUTLINE
Sentence outlines are formatted exactly as topic outlines
are, but whole sentences replace the brief headings. The
sentences state the crucial point of each stage of the
paper. Consequently, a sentence outline provides a real
test of your argument.
PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT IN
WRITING
Patterns of development are methods of organization
that writers use to organize their ideas about a topic. The
selection of patterns of development in writing is
dependable on the writer’s purpose. Based on the style
of writing, there are nine patterns of development:
1. NARRATION - tells a story and explains how
something happened
- as a form of storytelling, relies heavily on the
structure and organization of ideas to effectively
convey a narrative. Patterns of development
cues in narration provide a framework for
organizing the story, guiding the audience
through the plot, characters, settings, and
themes. Here are some common patterns of
development cues for narration:
Chronological Order: This is perhaps the most
straightforward pattern, where events are presented in the
order in which they occur. It provides a clear timeline for the
audience to follow, starting from the beginning and moving
sequentially through the story.
Flashbacks/Flash-forwards: While still maintaining a
basic chronological structure, flashbacks and flash-forwards
interrupt the timeline to provide additional context or
foreshadow events. These cues are often used to deepen
character development or add layers of complexity to the plot.
Spatial Organization: Sometimes, narration follows a
spatial organization, where the physical layout of settings plays
a significant role. This can involve moving between different
locations or focusing on the spatial relationships between
characters and their environment.
Cause and Effect: This pattern focuses on the relationships
between events, emphasizing how one action leads to another.
It can create a sense of momentum in the narrative and
highlight the consequences of characters' decisions.
Character Development Arcs: Narratives often revolve
around the growth and transformation of characters. Cues for
character development arcs involve tracing the evolution of
characters' motivations, beliefs, and relationships over the
course of the story.
Theme-based Organization: Sometimes, narration is
structured around overarching themes or motifs rather than
strict chronological events. This allows the storyteller to explore
ideas in depth and connect seemingly disparate elements of
the narrative.
Parallel Storylines: In more complex narratives, multiple
storylines may run concurrently, intersecting or diverging at
various points. This pattern requires careful coordination to
ensure coherence and clarity for the audience.
Narrative Devices: Techniques such as foreshadowing,
symbolism, irony, and imagery can be used as cues to enrich
the narrative and engage the audience on multiple levels.
Narrative Perspective: The choice of narrative perspective
(first-person, third-person limited, omniscient, etc.) can also
influence the organization of the story, as different perspectives
offer unique insights and limitations.
Emotional Arcs: Finally, narration often incorporates
emotional arcs, where the intensity and tone of the story
fluctuate to evoke different feelings in the audience. Cues for
emotional arcs involve pacing, language choice, and the
portrayal of characters' inner states.
By employing these patterns of development cues, narrators
can craft compelling and coherent stories that captivate and
resonate with their audience.
2. CLASSIFICATION – explains a subject by dividing
into types or categories
- we're typically referring to the organizational
structures or strategies used to categorize and
group information into distinct classes or
categories. Here are some common patterns of
development cues for classification:
Hierarchical Classification: In this pattern, information is
organized into a hierarchical structure with levels of increasing
specificity. Each level represents a broader category, which is
then subdivided into more specific subcategories. This pattern
is useful for organizing complex information into manageable
and easily navigable structures.
Chronological Classification: Information is classified
based on the timeline or sequence of events. This pattern is
often used in historical classifications or when organizing data
that has a clear temporal progression.
Geographical Classification: Information is classified
based on geographic location or spatial attributes. This pattern
is commonly used in geography, ecology, and urban planning
to organize data by regions, countries, or physical features.
Alphabetical Classification: Information is organized
alphabetically based on the names or labels of the categories.
This pattern is straightforward and easy to navigate, making it
useful for dictionaries, directories, and indexes.
Numerical Classification: Information is classified based
on numerical values or quantitative attributes. This pattern is
used in statistical analysis, data science, and engineering to
categorize data according to numerical ranges or intervals.
Functional Classification: Information is classified based
on functional relationships or purposes. This pattern is often
used in engineering, design, and organizational management
to categorize objects or processes based on their intended
functions.
Taxonomic Classification: Information is classified based
on shared characteristics or evolutionary relationships. This
pattern is commonly used in biology, anthropology, and
paleontology to categorize organisms or artifacts into
taxonomic groups.
Categorical Classification: Information is classified based
on qualitative attributes or discrete characteristics. This pattern
is flexible and can be applied to a wide range of domains, from
literature and art to consumer products and market
segmentation.
Binary Classification: Information is classified into two
mutually exclusive categories. This pattern is commonly used
in machine learning, decision-making, and logic to divide data
or concepts into "yes" or "no" groups.
User-Defined Classification: Information is classified
based on user-defined criteria or preferences. This pattern
allows individuals or organizations to customize classifications
according to their specific needs and objectives.
These patterns of development cues for classification provide
frameworks for organizing and structuring information in a
meaningful and systematic way, facilitating understanding,
analysis, and decision-making.
3. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST – explains how
two subjects are similar or different
- are essential for organizing information when
analyzing similarities and differences between
two or more subjects, ideas, or concepts. Here
are some common patterns used for this
purpose:
Point-by-Point Comparison: In this pattern, each point of
comparison is addressed consecutively for both subjects. For
example, if comparing two novels, you might discuss character
development, plot structure, and thematic elements for each
novel before moving on to the next point.
Subject-by-Subject Comparison: Also known as the
block method, this pattern involves discussing all aspects of
one subject before moving on to the next. For instance, if
comparing two cities, you might first discuss all relevant
features of City A and then cover the same features for City B.
Alternating Comparison: This pattern alternates between
subjects for each point of comparison. It allows for a more
integrated analysis, as similarities and differences are
highlighted side by side. For example, you might discuss the
climate of City A, then City B, followed by the cost of living in
City A, then City B, and so on.
Hierarchical Comparison: In this pattern, subjects are
compared based on a hierarchy of criteria. You might start by
comparing broad categories and then delve into more specific
subcategories. This pattern is useful when dealing with
complex topics with multiple layers of comparison.
Chronological Comparison: Information is organized
based on the timeline or historical context. This pattern is often
used when comparing historical events, movements, or
developments over time. It helps to show how subjects have
evolved or changed over different periods.
Spatial Comparison: Subjects are compared based on their
spatial attributes or geographic locations. This pattern is
commonly used when comparing geographical features,
ecosystems, or urban environments. It helps to highlight
differences in physical characteristics or spatial relationships.
Functional Comparison: This pattern focuses on
comparing the functions or purposes of different subjects. For
example, when comparing two types of technology, you might
discuss their intended uses, practical applications, and
effectiveness in meeting user needs.
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Comparison: Subjects are
compared based on both qualitative and quantitative attributes.
This pattern allows for a comprehensive analysis by
considering both subjective qualities and objective
measurements.
Single vs. Multiple Criteria Comparison: This pattern
involves comparing subjects based on a single criterion versus
multiple criteria. It helps to emphasize the relative importance
of different factors in the comparison process.
Past vs. Present Comparison: Subjects are compared
based on their historical context versus their current status.
This pattern is useful for understanding how subjects have
changed or remained consistent over time.
By employing these patterns of development cues for
comparison and contrast, writers can effectively structure their
analysis and present information in a clear and organized
manner, facilitating understanding and insight for the audience.
4. CAUSE AND EFFECT – explains the reasons
(causes) why something happened and describes the
results (effects) of an event, action, or condition.
- crucial for organizing information that explores
the relationships between events, actions, or
phenomena and their consequences. Here are
some common patterns used for cause and
effect:
Chronological Order: Events are presented in the order in
which they occur, emphasizing the causal sequence of actions
and their resulting effects over time. This pattern helps to
illustrate how one event leads to another in a linear fashion.
Single Cause, Single Effect: Each cause is linked to a
single effect, and vice versa. This pattern simplifies the
relationship between events by focusing on direct causal
connections between individual actions and outcomes.
Multiple Causes, Single Effect: Several causes contribute
to a single effect. This pattern acknowledges that complex
outcomes often result from the interaction of multiple factors or
events working together to produce a common consequence.
Single Cause, Multiple Effects: A single cause leads to
several effects. This pattern demonstrates how a single action
or event can have far-reaching consequences, impacting
various aspects of a situation or system.
Causal Chain: Events are linked together in a chain of
cause-and-effect relationships, where each effect becomes the
cause of the subsequent event. This pattern highlights the
interconnected nature of causality and the ripple effects that
unfold over time.
Causal Tree: Similar to the causal chain, this pattern
visualizes cause-and-effect relationships as branching out like
a tree, with each cause giving rise to multiple effects, and each
effect potentially leading to further consequences.
Immediate Cause vs. Root Cause: Distinguishing
between immediate causes (proximate causes that directly
precede an effect) and root causes (underlying factors that
contribute to the occurrence of multiple effects) helps to clarify
the hierarchy of causality and address issues at their source.
Reverse Cause and Effect: In some cases, the effect may
precede the cause, creating a reverse causal relationship. This
pattern is less common but can be used to challenge
conventional assumptions or explore non-linear narratives.
Unintended Consequences: Actions taken with a specific
intention may lead to unintended or unforeseen consequences.
This pattern underscores the complexity of causality and the
potential for unexpected outcomes in human behavior and
decision-making.
Feedback Loops: Cause-and-effect relationships can also
be cyclical, forming feedback loops where effects feed back
into the system as causes, influencing subsequent events. This
pattern is often observed in systems theory and dynamic
systems modeling.
By employing these patterns of development cues for cause
and effect, writers can effectively analyze, explain, and
illustrate the interconnectedness of events and phenomena,
providing insight into the underlying mechanisms driving
change and outcomes in various contexts.
5. DESCRIPTION – describes a person, thing, place or
situation
- are essential for effectively conveying sensory
details and vivid imagery to create a clear
mental picture for the audience. Here are some
common patterns used for description:
Spatial Organization: Description organized spatially
focuses on the physical layout of objects, scenes, or
environments. This pattern guides the audience through a
space, detailing its features in a systematic manner, whether
from top to bottom, left to right, or inside to outside.
Sensory Detail: Description enriched with sensory details
appeals to the five senses—sight, sound, smell, taste, and
touch. This pattern immerses the audience in the experience
by vividly depicting the sensations associated with the subject
being described.
Chronological Order: Description structured
chronologically unfolds over time, capturing changes or
developments in the subject. This pattern is often used when
describing events, processes, or transformations that occur
sequentially.
Topical Organization: Description organized topically
groups related details based on specific themes, attributes, or
characteristics. This pattern allows for a comprehensive
exploration of different aspects of the subject, from its physical
features to its historical significance or cultural relevance.
Comparative Description: Description employing
comparative language juxtaposes the subject with other
objects, people, or phenomena to highlight similarities or
differences. This pattern aids in clarifying the unique qualities
or defining characteristics of the subject by contrasting it with
others.
Emotional Description: Description infused with emotional
language evokes feelings and moods associated with the
subject. This pattern helps to convey the atmosphere,
ambiance, or emotional resonance of a scene or setting,
eliciting a more profound emotional response from the
audience.
Zoom-In, Zoom-Out: Description utilizing the zoom-in,
zoom-out technique alternates between close-up details and
broader perspectives. This pattern provides a balanced view of
the subject, allowing the audience to appreciate both the fine-
grained nuances and the larger context.
Narrative Description: Description interwoven with
storytelling elements unfolds as a narrative, incorporating
characters, plot elements, and thematic motifs. This pattern
engages the audience by immersing them in a dynamic,
evolving story world, rather than presenting static snapshots.
Symbolic Description: Description employing symbolism
and metaphor conveys deeper meanings or abstract concepts
through tangible imagery. This pattern encourages the
audience to interpret the symbolic significance of the described
elements, adding layers of complexity and depth to the
description.
Selective Focus: Description with selective focus
emphasizes specific details or aspects of the subject while
omitting others. This pattern directs the audience's attention to
the most salient features or meaningful elements, enhancing
clarity and impact.
By employing these patterns of development cues for
description, writers can create rich, immersive experiences for
their audience, painting vivid mental pictures and evoking
powerful emotional responses through the artful use of
language and imagery.
6. PERSUASION/ARGUMENT – tries to persuade
the reader to accept your point of view or even to
change his or her point of view
- are essential for constructing compelling and
logically coherent persuasive essays or
speeches. Here are some common patterns
used for persuasion and argumentation:
Claim-Evidence-Reasoning (CER): This pattern involves
making a claim, providing evidence to support the claim, and
offering reasoning to explain why the evidence supports the
claim. It emphasizes the logical structure of arguments and
encourages critical thinking.
Problem-Solution: This pattern begins by outlining a
problem or issue, followed by presenting a solution or
proposed course of action. It is often used in persuasive writing
to highlight the urgency of addressing a problem and to
advocate for specific remedies.
Classical Argument Structure (Introduction,
Narration, Confirmation, Refutation, Conclusion):
This traditional pattern starts with an introduction to the topic,
followed by narration or background information, presentation
of arguments supporting the thesis (confirmation), addressing
counterarguments (refutation), and concluding with a
restatement of the thesis and a call to action.
Monroe's Motivated Sequence (Attention, Need,
Satisfaction, Visualization, Action): This pattern is
commonly used in persuasive speeches. It begins by capturing
the audience's attention, identifying a need or problem,
presenting a solution or satisfying the need, visualizing the
benefits of the solution, and concluding with a call to action.
Rogerian Argument: This pattern emphasizes finding
common ground with the audience and acknowledging
opposing viewpoints before presenting one's own arguments. It
aims to foster understanding and compromise rather than
confrontation.
Toulmin Model (Claim, Grounds, Warrant, Backing,
Rebuttal): This model breaks down arguments into distinct
components, including the claim (the main argument), grounds
(evidence), warrant (the logical connection between the
evidence and the claim), backing (additional support), and
rebuttal (addressing counterarguments).
Value-Based Argument: This pattern focuses on appealing
to the audience's values, beliefs, and ethical principles to
persuade them of a particular viewpoint. It emphasizes the
moral or ethical implications of the issue at hand.
Emotional Appeal (Pathos): This pattern involves
appealing to the audience's emotions, such as empathy, fear,
or compassion, to evoke a strong emotional response and
persuade them to take action or adopt a certain viewpoint.
Logical Appeal (Logos): This pattern relies on presenting
logical reasoning, evidence, and sound arguments to convince
the audience of the validity of the claim. It emphasizes
rationality and logical coherence in persuasion.
Credibility (Ethos): This pattern focuses on establishing the
credibility and authority of the speaker or writer to enhance the
persuasiveness of the argument. It involves appealing to the
audience's trust in the speaker's expertise, integrity, and
credibility.
By employing these patterns of development cues for
persuasion and argumentation, writers and speakers can
effectively structure their arguments, appeal to their audience's
emotions and reason, and ultimately persuade them to accept
their viewpoint or take action on a particular issue.
7. EXAMPLE/ILLUSTRATION – makes a point about
a topic by providing examples to support it
8. DEFINITION – explains what something is in
comparison to other members of its class, along with any
limitations

9. PROBLEM-SOLUTION – identifies a problem and

proposes one or more solutions