CELL BIOLOGY

CONTENT -
 What are Cells
 Meaning of Cell Organelles
 Structure and Component of a cell
 Comparison between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
 Cell Organelles – Complete coverage
Timeline (A brief overview) -
Robert Hooke First discovered and coined the term cell in
1665.
Robert Brown He discovered the Cell Nucleus in 1831.
Scleiden & Schwann Cell theory - All the plants and animals are
composed of cells and that the cell is the
basic unit of life.
Gregor Mendel In 1860s he laid the foundations of Genetics
Electron Microscope 1940 – It helped in observing and
understanding the complex structure of the
cell and its various organelles.

Cell -
 Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
 All the living organisms are made up of cells.
 Cells are formed from pre-existing cells.
Type of Organism - (based on cell)
 Unicellular Organisms – The organisms that consist of a single cell such as Amoeba.
 Multicellular Organisms – The organisms which contain various cells that perform
different functions in the organism example plants, fungi and animals.
Shape of a cell
 The shape of the cell varies depending upon the type of function they perform in an
organism.
 Cells can change their shape. For example, the white blood cells and amoeba can
change shapes on their own.
Cells perform distinct functions in an organism though Organelles.
Organelles -
 A cell contains specific components which are called Organelles. (As Human contains
organs to function similar is the case with a cell)
  Each organelle in the cell performs different functions such as making new cells or
clearing the waste of the cell.
 Organelles allow cell to perform several kinds of activities in an organism.
Structure and component of a cell -
A cell contains 3 features -
 The Plasma Membrane
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm
Plasma Membrane
 It is like an envelope which covers the whole cell. Thus, a cell gets separated from the
external environment because it has a plasma membrane.
 Plasma membrane decides which materials will enter or leave the cell, and which will
not. This is the reason it is called a ‘Selectively Permeable Membrane.’
Movement In a cell - (How substances move in and out)
Gaseous exchange between the cell and its external environment
 Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the cell is carried out by means of
diffusion.
 Gaseous substances move from areas of higher concentration to areas where their
concentration is less. This movement is known as the ‘process of diffusion’.
Movement of water between the cell and its external environment:
 It is carried out by the means of osmosis.
 Osmosis is a process in which water moves from the region of high concentration to one
where its concentration is low through a semi permeable membrane.
Cell Wall -
 The cell wall is an outer hard covering of maintains the shape of the cell.
 The cell wall is generally made up of cellulose.
Nucleus -
  Nucleus is a prominent, organelle present in cell which is the ‘controlling center’ of all
activities of cell.
The Structure of the Nucleus -
 A nucleus has a ‘nuclear membrane’ which covers it all around.
 There are pores present on the nuclear membrane that allow movement of substances
in and out of the nucleus.
 It has chromosomes - rod-shaped structure present in the nucleus which contain
‘genetic information’.
The chromosomes contain two types of things -
 DNA - This is responsible for organizing and constructing new cells
 Proteins - These help in packaging and condensation of DNA.
Chromatin
 Chromatin is thread-like material present in a cell. The chromatin organizes itself into
chromosomes whenever the cell is about to divide.
Nucleolus
 It is called as the ‘brain of the Nucleus.’
 It comprises of 25% of the volume of the nucleus.
 It consists of proteins and ribonucleic acids (RNA).
 It helps in formation of ribosomes which help information of proteins inside the cell.
Nuceloid
 Sometimes cells do not have a well-defined nucleus because they lack a nuclear
membrane. Such a nucleus with no definite nuclear boundaries is called a Nucleoid.
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
 Organisms whose cells do not have a definite cell membrane are called ‘Prokaryotes.’
Organisms whose cells contain a well-defined nuclear membrane are called
‘Eukaryotes.’
Comparison of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes -

Cytoplasm
 The plasma membrane has a fluid like substance in it which is called the cytoplasm.
 The cytoplasm contains several organelles that can perform distinct functions of the cell
Functions of Cytoplasm
 It supports and suspends the cell organelles and molecules.
 The cellular processes occur in cytoplasm such as formation of proteins.
 It allows movement of substances in the cell such as ‘hormones.’
 It dissolves cellular wastes.
The Cell Organelles -
 In the case of Eukaryotic organisms, the cells contain organelles that have their own
membranes apart from the overall cell membrane of the cell.
The cells perform several functions. The organelles are useful because they allow separation of
different functions that are being performed by the cell.
Significance of organelles in a cell -
Organelles carry out important activities in a Cell
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Golgi Apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Mitochondria
 Plastids
 Vacuoles
 Centrioles
  Ribosomes
 Peroxisomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) -
The structure of the ER is quite like that of the plasma membrane. It is a network-like structure
which consists of membrane-bound tubes and sheets.
Two types of ER – Rough ER Smooth ER
 Rough ER contains ribosomes that are responsible for the manufacturing of proteins in
the cells. They give a rough texture to the cell.
 The smooth ER manufactures fats or lipids in the cell which allow the functioning of the
cell
Functions of lipids and proteins -
 Proteins and lipids synthesized on ER are used for making cell membrane. The
process is known as ‘Membrane Biogenesis.’
 Proteins can act as an enzyme
 Both protein and lipids act as ‘hormones.
Functions of ER
 Transportation of material between various parts of the cytoplasm and between the
nucleus and cytoplasm.
 Folding of proteins which are synthesized by ribosome on RER.
 Detoxifying poisons and drugs out of the cell is the function of SER
Golgi Apparatus -
Functions of Golgi Apparatus
 Golgi apparatus carries materials synthesized by the ER to different parts of the cell. The
material is stored and packaged in vesicles.
 Formation of complex sugar.
 Formation of lysosomes.
Lysosomes -
 Single membrane vesicles - They are responsible for cleaning the cell. They can digest
any foreign material such as food or bacteria and even the worn-out cell organelles.
 Lysosomes can digest any foreign material that enters the cell because they have
digestive enzymes in them. These enzymes break the materials and digest them.
 These enzymes are synthesized by RER and packaged into lysosome by Golgi bodies.
 ‘Suicide bags’- Lysosomes are known as the suicidal bag of the cell because it is capable
of destroying its own cell in which it is present.
Mitochondria -
 It is a double membrane organelle which has its own DNA and that is why often called
‘Semi-Autonomous Organelle.’
 Powerhouse of the cell - The cell requires energy to carry out several activities. This
energy is generated by mitochondria.
  Cellular Respiration - Mitochondria are site of cellular respiration. They use oxygen from
air to oxidize the carbohydrates and thereby release energy.
 The Mitochondria generates ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) which are energy giving
molecules of the cell that are often called as their ‘Energy Currency.’
Plastids
 Just like mitochondria it is also double membraned organelle which has its own DNA and
ribosome.
 Plastids exist in plant cells only. Depending upon the type of function they play in the
cell they can be classified as –

Chloroplasts -
 Chloroplasts are cell organelles that conduct photosynthesis in plants.
 Chloroplast is derived from two Greek words ‘Chloro’ and ‘Plasts’ which means green
and plants, respectively.
 Chloroplasts contain photosynthetic pigments called ‘Chlorophyll’ along with lipids,
carbohydrates, minerals, DNA, RNA, grana, thylakoids and stroma.
Main functions of chloroplasts are -
 Conducting photosynthesis in plants.
 Protein synthesis
 Releases oxygen
 Storage of Starch
Vacuoles
 Vacuoles are the places where cells can store the liquids and solids. They are present in
both plants and animals, but the plant vacuoles are ‘bigger’ in size than the animal
vacuoles.
Plants vs Animal Cell -
Ribosomes -
 They are cell organelles responsible for ‘protein synthesis’.
 Ribosomes can be found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes because the synthesis of
proteins is important in both.
 In prokaryotes, the ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm.
 In eukaryotes, they can be found floating in the cytoplasm or they are often attached to
the endoplasmic reticulum.
 The ribosomes attached to the ER synthesize proteins that are to be exported out of the
cell while the ribosomes floating inside the cell synthesize proteins that are used inside
the cell.
Peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes are small vesicles found in the cells.
 These enzymes are used to break the toxic materials inside the cell.
 They digest the fatty acids of the cell as well as amino acids by carrying out oxidation
reactions in the cell
 They are also responsible for digestion of alcohol in the human body. Hence, the liver
contains many Peroxisomes.
MICROORGANISMS

CONTENT -
 About Microorganism
 Understanding – Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses.
 Diseases caused by Microorganisms
 Benefits of Microorganism
Microorganisms -
About Microorganism -
 Microorganism or microbe is an organism that is microscopic.
 The study of microorganisms is called microbiology.
 Types - Microorganisms can be bacteria, fungi (yeasts and molds), algae, protozoa.
 The term microorganisms technically does not include viruses.
 Viruses are classified as non-living (They need a host).
BACTERIA -
 Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that are found in millions.
 They are seen in every environment, both inside and outside other organisms.
 Bacteria - First organisms to appear on earth.
 The oldest known fossils are of bacteria-like organisms.
 The earth is estimated to hold at least 5 nonillion bacteria, and much of the earth’s
biomass is thought to be made up of bacteria.
 Some bacteria are harmful, but most serve a useful purpose.
 Uses of Bacteria - They support many forms of life, both plant and animal, and they are
used in industrial and medicinal processes.
 Shape of Bacteria - Most bacteria come in one of three basic shapes: coccus, rod, or
bacillus, and spiral.
AEROBIC BACTERIA ANAEROBIC BACTERIA
Need oxygen to survive Do not require oxygen to survive
Produce more energy Produce less energy

Bacteria are seen on the surface of liquid Bacteria are settled at the bottom of the
liquid.

Ex: Mycobacterium tuberculosis Ex: Clostridium

Fungi -
 Fungus is any of the 1.5m known species of organisms of the Kingdom Fungi.
 Kingdom Fungi - This includes the yeasts, rusts, smuts, mildews, molds, and mushrooms.
Types of Fungi -
 Type – Fungi are 1) Free-living in soil or water 2) parasitic 3) Some have symbiotic
relationship with plants or animals.
 Breaking down of organic matter - Bacteria, Fungi (Both) are responsible for breaking
down organic matter and releasing carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus into the
soil and the atmosphere.
 Uses of Fungi - Fungi are essential to many household and industrial processes, notably
the making of bread, wine, beer, and certain cheeses.
Virus
 Virus is an infectious agent of small size and simple composition that can multiply only
in living cells.
 Viruses occupy a special taxonomic position: they are not plants, not animals, or
prokaryotic bacteria.
 They are placed in their own kingdom.
 Viruses should not even be considered organisms, as they need a host which can be an
animal, plants or even in a bacteria.
 Problem with understanding Virus - The study of viruses has mostly confined or
exclusive to humans, however, this has posed the formidable problem of finding a
susceptible animal host.
Zoonotic disease – (Knowing it becomes important due to coronavirus)
 It refers to diseases which are transmitted from animals to humans. A zoonosis
(zoonotic disease) is an infectious disease that is transmitted between species from
animals to humans (or from humans to animals).
Below diagram mentions all the major zoonotic diseases - (which impacted humans adversely).

Diseases caused by Microorganisms - (List for factual question in upsc)

Disease Bacteria
AIDS HIV virus (Human Immuno Deficiency virus)
Acne Vulgaris Propionibacterium acnes
Anthrax Bacillus Anthraces
Plague Yersinia Pestis
Cholera Vibrio Cholerae
Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae
Diphtheria Corynebacterium diptheriae
Tuberculosis: Mycobacterium Tuberculiosis
Typhoid Salmonella Typhi
Chicken Pox Varicella virus
Smallpox Variola Virus
 Chikungunya Chikungunya virus
Dengue Flavi virus
Influenza Rhino Virus
Ebola, Hepatitis. Polio, Nipah, Coronavirus Viruses have the same name as the disease

Fungal Diseases: Candidiasis, Aspergillosis, Ringworms etc.

Other diseases caused by protozoans -
Protozoa are one-celled organisms, like bacteria. But they are bigger than bacteria and contain a nucleus
and other cell structures, making them more like plant and animal cells.
Disease Protozoan
Ameobasis Entameaba Histolytica
Dysentery (Kala Azar) Leichmania
Malaria (Not caused by bacteria) Plasmodium
Sleeping Sickness Trypansonama

Microorganisms are both harmful and beneficial to Humans -

Benefits
 Used as Antibiotics - example Penicillin.
 Used as chemicals & enzymes – example Lactobacillus used for curding process.
 Fermentation - Saccharomyces cerevisiae is extensively used in alcohol production
 Bioremediation - Bioremediation employs the use of living organisms, like microbes and
bacteria, in the removal of contaminants, pollutants, and toxins from soil, water, and other
environments.
 Nitrogen fixation - Any natural or industrial process that causes free nitrogen (N2), which is (an
inert gas) to combine chemically with other elements to form more reactive nitrogen
compounds such as ammonia, nitrates, or nitrites.
 Bio fertilizers - Biofertilizers are living microbes that enhance plant nutrition by either by
mobilizing or increasing nutrient availability in soils. Various microbial taxa including beneficial
bacteria and fungi are currently used as biofertilizers.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

Plant Physiology
CONTENTS -
 Different parts of Plants
 Root System
 Stem
 Leaf
 Flower
 Fruit
 Process of Photosynthesis
 Factors affecting Photosynthesis
Parts of a Plant
The Root -
Main functions of the root system are 1) Absorption of water and minerals from the soil 2) Providing a
proper anchorage to the plant parts 3) Storing reserve food material 4) Synthesis of plant growth
regulators.
Types of Root system – Comparison between Monocot vs dicot –
  Adventitious Roots - The roots which arise from other parts of plant beside radicle are called
adventitious roots. Example- Grass, Banyan tree, Maize, etc.
 Thus, main function of root systems are 1) Absorption of water and minerals from soil, 2)
Providing proper anchorage to the plant parts 3) Storing reserve food materials. (Carrot, Ginger
etc.).
To transport the water, mineral, food etc. Plants have tissues – We will look at a comparison below of 2
major tissues -
XYLEM PHLOEM
Xylem carries water from roots to leaves Phloem carries food from leaves to growing
parts and storage organs.
Made up of dead cells Made up of living cells

Carries water in a unidirectional manner, from Carries food bidirectionally from leaves to
roots to apical parts of the plant. storage parts and from storage part to growing
part.
Cell wall is thick Cell wall is thin

Passive transportation of water and mineral Active transportation of sugar and other
occur. metabolites occur.
Stem
 A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root.
 Supporting role of the Stem - Stem supports 1) leaves, flower and fruits 2) transports water and
dissolved substances between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem 3) Stores
nutrients 4) Produces new living tissue.
 Nodes - The region of the stem where leaves are born are called nodes.
 Some stems also perform the function of storage of food, support, protection and of vegetative
propagation.
 Underground stems of potato, ginger, turmeric etc. are modified to store food in them.
 Stem tendrils develop from axillary buds which help in plant climbing.
 Axillary buds of stems may also get modified into woody, straight and pointed thorns.
Leaf
 Leaf develops at the node and bears a bud in its axil. The axillary bud later develops into a
branch.
 A typical leaf consists of three main parts: leaf base, petiole and lamina
Flower - Reproductive unit of a Plant
 The flower is the reproductive unit in the angiosperms.
 It is meant for ‘sexual reproduction’.
 Androecium and gynoecium are reproductive organs.
 When a flower has both androecium and gynoecium, it is bisexual.
 A flower having either only stamens or only carpels is unisexual.
Gymnosperm vs Angiosperm
Androecium
 Androecium is composed of ‘stamens’.
 Each stamen which represents the male reproductive organ consists of a stalk or a filament and
an anther.
 Anthers have pollen sacs. The pollen grains are produced in pollen-sacs.
Gynoecium
 Gynoecium is the ‘female reproductive part’ of the flower and is made up of one or more
carpels.
 A carpel consists of 3 parts - stigma, style and ovary.
 After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds and the ovary matures into a fruit.

Aestivation - The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in floral bud with respect to the other
members of the same whorl is known as aestivation.
Fruit
 The fruit is a characteristic feature of the flowering plants. Fruit is a mature or ripened ovary,
developed after fertilization.
 If a fruit is formed without fertilization of the ovary, it is called a parthenocarpic fruit. (In news
due to research in it – seedless Fruits).
 The seeds are the ovules after fertilization.
Process of Photosynthesis -
  Carbon dioxide from air is taken in through the tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves
called ‘stomata’.
 Water and minerals are transported to the leaves by the vessels which run like pipes throughout
the root, the stem, the branches and the leaves.
 The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll.
 ‘Mesophyll cells’ have large chloroplasts which helps leaves to capture the energy of the
sunlight.
 This energy is used to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water
 Photosynthesis not just takes place in leaves, but it also takes place in other green parts of the
plant in green stems and green branches.
Different Plastids impact the color of the leaves.
Plastids are responsible for manufacturing and storing of food. These often contain pigments that are
used in photosynthesis and different types of pigments can change the colour of the cell.
Colour of the leaves Plastids
Green Chlorophyll
Yellow Carotenoids and Flavinoids
Orange Carotenoids
Red Anthocyanins and Carotenoids
Factors affecting Photosynthesis -
 Light Intensity – More the light, more will be the rate of Photosynthesis ( But only upto a limit as
explained in the lecture). Similarly, low rate of Photosynthesis will lead to a low rate of
Photosynthesis.
 The concentration of CO2 – A higher CO2 concentration also accelerates the photosynthesis
process. The required amount of CO2 is 300-400 PPM. (Remember excessive/too much CO2 is
counterproductive for Photosynthesis).
 Temperature – If the temperature is between the range of 25 to 35 degree celsius,
photosynthesis takes place effectively.
 Excess water leads to water stress which causes the stomata to close. Besides, water stress also
makes leaves wilt reducing metabolism.
 Water logging also reduces air supply to roots eventually leading to death of the plant.
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