BIOTECHNOLOGY

CONTENT

 Biotechnology
 Genetic Engineering
 Chromosomes
 Bloodgroups
 Recombinant DNA
 DNA Fingerprinting
 DNA Profiling
 Genome
 Gene Editing – CrispR
 Gene Therapy
 Stem Cell Research
 Mitochondrial DNA
 Gene Cloning
 Genetically Modified Crops
 Biotechnology Institutions in India
 Biotechnology Regulation in India

BIOTECHNOLOGY

 Biotechnology is the branch of applied science that uses living organisms and their
derivatives to produce products and processes.
 These products and processes feature in healthcare, medicine, biofuels, and
environmental safety.
 For example, a simple process of making bread using yeast can also be categorized
as Biotechnology.
 However, in modern-day parlance with the emergence of genetic engineering in the
1970s, new possibilities have emerged.
 Today, biotechnology deals with industrial-scale production of biopharmaceuticals
and biological using genetically modified microbes, fungi, plants, and animals.
 The applications of biotechnology include therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically
modified crops for agriculture, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment,
energy production, etc.
 Food
Bioinformatics
processing

Genetic Bioremediatio
engineering n

Waste
Diagnostics
treatment

Energy
Therapeutics Biotechnology
production

GENETIC ENGINEERING

 Genetic engineering involves the

techniques to alter the chemistry of
genetic material (DNA and RNA) and
thus change the phenotype of the
host organism.
 Asexual reproduction preserves
genetic information, while sexual
reproduction permits variation.
 Traditional hybridisation procedures
used in plant and animal breeding,
very often lead to the inclusion and
multiplication of undesirable genes along with the desired genes.
 There are three basic steps in genetically modifying an organism —
 Identification of DNA with desirable genes;
 Introduction of the identified DNA into the host;
 Maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer of the DNA to its
progeny.
 Stem Cell
therapy
Gene
Gene transfer
Mathematics

Cloning Biostatistics

Recombinant Genetic
DNA Bio Physics
technology engineering

CHROMOSOMES

 Chromosomes are thread-like structures present in the nucleus.

 These are nothing but DNA tightly coiled
around a protein called histone.
 Chromosomes exist in pairs. Human cells
contain 23 such pairs or 46 chromosomes.
 Each chromosome is comprised on one
super-long DNA molecule.
 Notice how the DNA is coiled around histone
and then many such histones are packed
together to form a chromosome.
Mendel Laws of Inheritance

 Inheritance is defined as the process of how a progeny receives genetic information

from the parent.
 The whole process of heredity is dependent upon inheritance and it is the reason
that the offsprings are similar to the parents.
 Mendel was the first to study this phenomenon systematically.
 While studying the pattern of inheritance in pea plants of contrasting characters,
Mendel proposed the principles of inheritance, which are today referred to as
‘Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance’.
 He proposed that the ‘factors’ (later named as genes) regulating the characters are
found in pairs known as alleles.

Law of Independent
Law of Dominance Law of Segregation
Assortment

•This is Mendel’s first law of
inheritance.
•According to law of
dominance, hybrid offsprings
will only inherit the dominant
trait in the phenotype.
•The alleles that are suppressed
are called as the recessive
traits while the alleles that
determine the trait are known
as the dormant traits.
•The law of segregation states
that during the production of
gametes, two copies of each
hereditary factor segregate so
that offspring acquire one
factor from each parent.
•In other words, allele
(alternative form of the gene)
pairs segregate during the
formation of gamete and re-
unite randomly during
fertilization. This is also known
as Mendel’s third law of
inheritance.
•Also known as Mendel’s second
law of inheritance, the law of
independent assortment states
that a pair of trait segregates
independently of another pair
during gamete formation.
•As the individual heredity
factors assort independently,
different traits get equal
opportunity to occur together.
 BLOODGROUPS

 In 1900-1902, K. Landsteiner classified human

blood into four groups A, B, AB, and O.
 The cells of these groups contain
corresponding antigens – A, B, and AB except
O.
 That is why O is donated to any of the groups
and so is known as a Universal donor.
 AB group is known as Universal recipient
because it can receive A, B, AB, and O blood
groups.

Rh factor

 It is a blood antigen discovered in 1940 by Landsteiner and A.S Weiner and played
an important role during a blood transfusion.
 The Rh factor is an agglutinogen found in RBC of most people called Rh+.
 It was initially found in the rhesus monkey and later in man.
 People who do not have this antigen in their blood are called Rh-.
 The Rh- blood does not carry anti- Rh antibodies naturally but could synthesize them
if synthesized through blood transfusion of Rh+ blood.
 RECOMBINANT DNA

 Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory

methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning).
 To bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that
would not otherwise be found in the genome.
 Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the
same chemical structure.

 They differ only in the nucleotide sequence within that identical overall structure.
 In most cases, organisms containing recombinant DNA have apparently normal
phenotypes. That is, their appearance, behavior, and metabolism are usually
unchanged.
 The cutting of DNA at specific locations became possible with the discovery of the
so-called ‘molecular scissors’- restriction enzymes.
 Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of enzymes called nucleases. These are
of two kinds
1. Exonucleases
2. Endonucleases
 Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA whereas; Endonucleases
make cuts at specific positions within the DNA.
 The cut piece of DNA was then linked with the plasmid DNA. These plasmid DNA act
as vectors to transfer the piece of DNA attached to it.
 You probably know that mosquito acts as an insect vector to transfer the malaria
parasite into the human body.
 In the same way, a plasmid can be used as a vector to deliver an alien piece of DNA
into the host organism.
 The linking of the antibiotic
resistance gene with the
plasmid vector became
possible with the enzyme
DNA ligase, which acts on
cut DNA molecules and joins
their ends.
 This makes a new
combination of circular
autonomously replicating
DNA created in vitro and is
known as recombinant DNA.
 When this DNA is transferred into Escherichia coli, a bacterium closely related to
Salmonella, it could replicate using the new host’s DNA polymerase enzyme and
make multiple copies.
 The ability to multiply copies of antibiotic resistance genes in E. coli was called
cloning of antibiotic resistance genes in E. coli.

DNA FINGERPRINTING

 DNA fingerprinting is a method used to identify an individual from a sample of DNA

by looking at unique
patterns in their DNA.
 Every cell in our body
contains our DNA. On
average, about 99.9
percent of the DNA
between two humans is
the same.
 The remaining 0.1%
percentage is what makes
us unique.
 No two humans have
identical DNA. (In some
cases, identical twins have
the same DNA)
 Every unique DNA has Minisatellites which are short sequences (10-60 base pairs
long) of repetitive DNA that show greater variation from one person to the next.
 This variation is exhibited in the number of repeated units or ‘stutters’.
  It is this Minisatellite Stutters that help in DNA fingerprinting.

Application of DNA Fingerprinting

1. Personal identification 5. Genome project

2. Criminal justice system 6. Understanding Mass
3. Understanding hereditary disasters
disorders 7. Historical analysis etc
4. Paternity testing

DNA PROFILING

 DNA profiling is the process of

determining an individual's DNA
characteristics.
 DNA profiling is the process
where a specific DNA pattern
(DNA Fingerprint) called a
profile, is obtained from a
person or sample of bodily
tissue.
 Through storing DNA data in
computer data banks, DNA
analysis can be used to solve
crimes without suspects.

GENOME

 A genome is all the genetic matter

that is present in an organism.
 Genome is basically defined as “an
organism’s complete set of DNA,
including all of its genes”.
 A genome contains all of the
information needed to build and
maintain that organism.
  In humans, an entire genome would probably lead to 3 billion DNA base pairs.

Genome India Project

 The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) initiated the ambitious Genome India

Project” (GIP) in 2020.
 It aims to collect 10,000 genetic samples from citizens across India, to build a
reference genome.
 Gene Mapping project involves 20 leading institutions of the country with the Centre
for Brain Research of the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore as the nodal
point.

IndiGen: India’s Genome Sequencing Project

 The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) concluded the six-month-
long exercise of conducting a “whole-genome sequence” of a 1,008 Indians that
belonged to diverse ethnicities.
 The project is part of a programme called “IndiGen” and is a precursor to Genome
India Project” (GIP).
 The project involved the Hyderabad-based Centre for Cellular and Molecular
Biology (CCMB) and the CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB).

Indian SARS-CoV-2 Genomics Consortium (INSACOG)

 It is a network of 10 laboratories established in December 2020.

 It aims at continuously monitoring the genomic changes of SARS-CoV-2 in India.
 Monitoring is done through Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS).
 Knowledge generated through this research consortium will assist in developing
diagnostics & potential therapeutics & vaccines in the future.

GENE EDITING – CRISPR

 The CRISPR is an acronym for Clustered Regularly

Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, developed in
the year 2012
 CRISPR has made gene editing very easy and simple,
and at the same time extremely efficient.
 The technology works in a simple way — it locates
the specific area in the genetic sequence which has
 been diagnosed to be the cause of the problem, cuts it out, and replaces it with a
new and correct sequence that no longer causes the problem.
 The technology replicates a natural defence mechanism in some bacteria that use a
similar method to protect it from virus attacks.

GENE THERAPY

 All concepts like Genome editing, Gene editing gene therapy, or CRISPR CAS9 are
interlinked.
 Gene therapy is a technique that involves the replacement of defective genes with
healthy ones.
 It is an artificial method that introduces DNA into the cells of the human body.
 Gene therapy can be employed on Somatic cells as well as Gametes.
 GT is mainly used in the replacement of genes that cause problems. (Genetic
Disorders).
 It can also be used to help the body to fight against diseases by adding genes to the
human body.

STEM CELL RESEARCH

 Special human cells that have the capability to develop into wide-ranging types of
cells in the human body, from muscle cells to brain cells, are called stem cells.
 2 unique properties of Stem Cells:
1. Split to form similar cells
2. Develop into different specialized cells that perform a distinct function.
 Classification based on Stem Cells formation at different times of human lives
1. Embryonic stem cells
2. Adult stem cells
3. Induced pluripotent stem cells or iPSC

Embryonic Stem cells

 These are the Stem cells that exist only during the earliest stage of development.

Adult Stem Cells

 These are the cells that can multiply when there is a need to repair adult organs and
tissues.
 These cells are present in almost all organs of the human body.

Pluripotent stem cells

  These cells are not found in the body but made in the laboratory from cells of the
body.
 The iPSC cells have properties similar to those of embryonic stem cells.
 Human iPSC’s were generated in 2007.

MITOCHONDRIAL DNA

 Mitochondrial DNA is the small circular chromosome found inside mitochondria

which are called the “powerhouse of the cell”.
 The peculiar thing about mitochondrial DNA is that it is passed almost exclusively
from mother to offspring through the egg cell.
 If we study, mitochondrial DNA, it is easier to track
across the maternal generations.

Mitochondrial DNA Disorders

 Mitochondrial diseases are long-term, genetic, often

inherited disorders that occur when mitochondria fail to
produce enough energy for the body to function
properly.
 One in 5,000 individuals has a genetic mitochondrial
disease.
 Common clinical features of mitochondrial disorders include external
ophthalmoplegia, proximal myopathy, and exercise intolerance, cardiomyopathy,
sensorineural deafness, optic atrophy, pigmentary retinopathy, diabetes mellitus,
etc.

Designer Baby

 A designer baby is a baby whose genetic makeup has been selected or altered, often
to include a particular gene or to remove genes associated with disease.

GENE CLONING

 Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part, or a
complete organism.
 Cloning of an animal was successfully performed for the first time by Ian Wilmut
and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland.
 They cloned successfully a sheep named Dolly. Dolly was born in 1996 and was the
first mammal to be cloned.
 Gene Cloning can be employed for
1. Therapeutic use
 2. Reproductive use
 It can be the artificial breaking of an embryo or using donor gametes and somatic
cells of the original organism.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS

 Genetic engineering has been used in agricultural applications as well to produce GM

crops.
 GM crops are derived from plants whose genes are artificially modified, usually by
inserting genetic material from another organism, in order to give it a new
property, such as increased yield, tolerance to a herbicide, resistance to disease or
drought, or to improve its nutritional value.

GM Crops in India

 GM plants have been useful in many ways. Genetic modification has made crops
more tolerant of abiotic stresses.
 In some cases, it has reduced reliance on chemical pesticides.
 It has also increased the efficiency of mineral usage by plants and added the
nutritional value of food.
 In India, a few Bt variety of crops has been approved.
 Bt toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis.
 Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill certain insects like
budworm, armyworm, beetles etc.
 Bt toxin protein exists as inactive protoxins but once an insect ingests the inactive
toxin, it is converted into an active form of toxin & kills the insect.
 Bt toxin gene has been cloned from the bacteria and been expressed in plants to
provide resistance to insects without the need for insecticides. Examples include Bt
cotton, Bt corn, Bt rice etc.
 Bt Cotton-In India, for the time being, the only genetically modified crop that is
under cultivation in India is Bt cotton which is grown over 10.8 million hectares.
 Bt Brinjal-In 2007, GEAC recommended the commercial release of Bt Brinjal, which
was developed by Mahyco & Dharwad University of Agricultural sciences. It was
disallowed in 2021 after protests.
 GM-mustard-Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11 or DMH-11 is a genetically modified variety
of mustard developed by the Delhi University. It is still under review to be approved.

GM Varieties in Action

 GM Corn is resistant to larval pests.

 GM soybeans that are resistant to weed-killers
  GM maize is used for animal feed. It’s resistant against pests.
 GM Cotton is resistant against Pink bollworm and has been approved by many
countries.
 GM Canola is used or oils & emulsifier in packaged foods

BIOTECHNOLOGY INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA

Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)

 It is a statutory committee & functions in the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and

Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
 As per Rules, 1989, it is responsible for the appraisal of activities involving large-scale
use of hazardous microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial
production from the environmental angle.
 The committee is also responsible for the appraisal of proposals relating to the
release of genetically engineered (GE) organisms and products into the environment
including experimental field trials.
 GEAC is chaired by the Special Secretary/Additional Secretary of MoEF&CC and co-
chaired by a representative from the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
 Presently, it has 24 members and meets every month to review the applications in
the areas indicated above.

BIOTECHNOLOGY REGULATION IN INDIA

 The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

 Rules for the Manufacture, Use/Import/Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro
Organisms/ Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells (Rules,1989)
 Genetic Engineering Approval Committee renamed as Genetic Engineering Appraisal
Committee in 2010.
 The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
 Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003
 Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006
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