Measurements & Errors

CIE AS Physics (9702) 2019-2021 Revision Notes savemyexams.co.
uk
YOUR NOTES
2.1 Measurements & Errors ⬇
CONTENTS
2.1.1 Measurement Techniques
2.1.2 Errors & Uncertainties
2.1.3 Calculating Uncertainty
2.1.1 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Measurement Techniques
Common instruments used in Physics are:

Metre rules – to measure distance and length
Balances – to measure mass
Protractors – to measure angles
Stopwatches – to measure time
Ammeters – to measure current
Voltmeters – to measure potential difference
More complicated instruments such as the micrometer screw gauge and Vernier calipers can
be used to more accurately measure length
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CIE AS Physics (9702) 2019-2021 Revision Notes savemyexams.co.uk
YOUR NOTES

YOUR NOTES
When using measuring instruments like these you need to ensure that you are fully aware of
what each division on a scale represents
This is known as the resolution
The resolution is the smallest change in the physical quantity being measured that results in
a change in the reading given by the measuring instrument
The smaller the change that can be measured by the instrument, the greater the degree of
resolution
For example, a standard mercury thermometer has a resolution of 1°C whereas a typical
digital thermometer will have a resolution of 0.1°C
The digital thermometer has a higher resolution than the mercury thermometer
Measuring Instruments Table

YOUR NOTES
Micrometer Screw Gauge
How to operate a micrometer

YOUR NOTES
Vernier Calipers
How to operate vernier calipers

YOUR NOTES
The Galvanometer
A galvanometer is a type of sensitive ammeter used to detect electric current
It is used in a potentiometer to measure e.m.f between two points in a circuit
The circuit symbol is recognised by an arrow in a circle:
Galvanometer circuit symbol
A galvanometer is made from a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core that rotates inside a
magnetic field:
The galvanometer

YOUR NOTES
The arrow represents a needle which deflects depending on the amount of current passing
through
When the arrow is facing directly upwards, there is no current
This is called null deflection
Ohm’s law tells us that the current through a conductor (wire) is directly proportional to the
potential difference through it i.e. no p.d means no current flows through the
galvanometer
A galvanometer has p.d of zero when the potential on one side equals the potential on the
other side
This is at the position at which it is connected on the wire (which varies with the
sliding contact) gives a p.d equal to the EMF of the cell connected to the
galvanometer
The cell should be connected such that its potential opposes the potential on the wire i.e.
the positive terminal of the power supply faces the positive terminal of the cell:
When the sliding contact moves along the potentiometer wire, you add or remove resistance
from/to the external circuit. This changes the potential drop across X and Y
Location of the sliding point is adjusted until the galvanometer reads zero. This is until the
potential difference equals E2
The direction of the two e.m.fs oppose each other and there is no current

YOUR NOTES
Worked Example
A power supply and a cell are compared using the potentiometer circuit shown.
The e.m.f produced by the cell is measured on the potentiometer. The potentiometer wire AB is
150.0 cm long and has a resistance of 2.4 Ω. The power supply has an e.m.f of 5.000 V and the
solar cell has an e.m.f of 6.25 mV.
Which resistance R must be used so that the galvanometer reads zero when AS = 32.0 cm?
A. 735 Ω B. 451 Ω C. 207 Ω D. 401 Ω

YOUR NOTES
ANSWER: D
Exam Tip
If you’re unsure as to whether the p.d will increase as the contact slider is moved along the
wire, remember p.d is proportional to the length of the wire (from Ohm’s law and the
resistivity equation). The longer the length of a wire, the higher the p.d

YOUR NOTES
How to Use a Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
Cathode-Ray Oscilloscopes (C.R.O) are used to measure voltage, frequency and phase
A C.R.O consists of:

An electron gun – a device which heats up a cathode to produce a narrow beam of
electrons
A deflection system – a system which consists of two pairs of parallel plates, these
plates deflect the electron beam to create the waveform which is observed on the
screen
A fluorescent display – this is a screen with a thin coating of a material which

produces a fluorescent light when electrons impact its surface
Diagram of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope display showing wavelength and time-base setting

YOUR NOTES
C.R.O Controls
Brightness
The brightness of a C.R.O display is a measure of the numbers of electrons impacting
the screen
A higher brightness means more electrons are formed into a beam current
Focus
The focus of the C.R.O display can be altered by controlling the diameter of the
electron beam
The more focussed the beam, the narrower and faster the stream of electrons, which
results in a smaller, sharper dot on the screen
Time-base
This controls how fast the dot moves across the screen
When the time-base is switched off, the dot appears static in the centre
When the time-base is turned up very high the dot appears as a horizontal line
The control has units of time per cm or time per division, and has a range of 100 ms –
1 μs per cm, or division
Gain (sensitivity)
This controls the vertical deflection, or amplitude, of the dot
It has units of volts per cm or volts per division
The peak voltage (V0) is the maximum vertical displacement measured from the
time-line
The peak-to-peak voltage (VPP) is the vertical displacement between the minimum
and maximum values of voltage

YOUR NOTES
Analogue & Digital Displays
In physics experiments, you will come across a selection of devices for measuring quantities
that can display either analogue or digital displays e.g. ammeter and voltmeters
Analogue displays
An analogue display normally involves a pointer which indicates a value depending on its
position or angle on the scale
Analogue meter
The measurements taken on this analogue ammeter are restricted over a range e.g. 0 – 1 A
and a resolution of 1 A
Analogue meters are subject to zero errors

Always double check exactly where the marker is before an experiment, if not at zero,
you will need to subtract this from all your measurements
They are also subject to parallax error

Always read the meter from a position directly perpendicular to the scale
A galvanometer is an example of a sensitive analogue meter

YOUR NOTES
Digital displays
Digital displays show the measured values as digits and are more accurate than analogue
displays
They’re easy to use because they give a specific value and are capable of displaying more
precise values
Digital meter
The measurements taken on this digital ammeter have a much wider range and a resolution
of 0.01 A
Digital meters are also subject to zero error

Make sure the reading is zero before starting an experiment, or subtract the “zero”
value from the end results
Most digital meters have an auto-range function, this means it can show very low or very
high values depending on the readings
This saves time selecting an instrument with the correct range and precision for your
experiment
Calibration Curves
Calibration curves are used to convert measurements made on one measurement scale to
another measurement scale
These are useful in experiments when the instruments used have outputs which are not
proportional to the value they are measuring
e.g. e.m.f and temperature
For example, the calibration curve for a thermocouple, in which the e.m.f varies with
temperature, is shown below:

YOUR NOTES
A curve of voltage against temperature can be used as a temperature sensor
The accuracy of all measuring devices degrade over time. This is typically caused by normal
wear and tear
Calibration improves the accuracy of the measuring device

YOUR NOTES
Worked Example
A voltmeter gives readings that are larger than the true values and has a systematic error that
varies with voltage.
Which graph shows the calibration curve for the voltmeter?
ANSWER: A
The voltmeter has a systematic error as the reading it gives is always greater than the true
value
If the true value is zero, the voltmeter would give a value greater than zero
Therefore, the curve doesn’t pass through the origin (0,0) as this would indicate that the
reading is the same as the true value, and not greater – this rules out graph C
So, when the true value is zero, the meter would give a reading greater than zero. This is
either graph A or B
The systematic error varies with voltage

So, the amount by which the meter reading is greater than the true value changes
Therefore, graph A is correct, because the difference between the meter reading and the
true value increases with voltage

YOUR NOTES
2.1.2 ERRORS & UNCERTAINTIES

Random & Systematic Errors
Measurements of quantities are made with the aim of finding the true value of that quantity
In reality, it is impossible to obtain the true value of any quantity, there will always be a
degree of uncertainty
The uncertainty is an estimate of the difference between a measurement reading and the
true value
Random and systematic errors are two types of measurement errors which lead to
uncertainty
Random error
Random errors cause unpredictable fluctuations in an instrument’s readings as a result of
uncontrollable factors, such as environmental conditions
This affects the precision of the measurements taken, causing a wider spread of results
about the mean value
To reduce random error: repeat measurements several times and calculate an average
from them
Systematic error
Systematic errors arise from the use of faulty instruments used or from flaws in the
experimental method
This type of error is repeated every time the instrument is used or the method is followed,
which affects the accuracy of all readings obtained
To reduce systematic errors: instruments should be recalibrated or the technique being

used should be corrected or adjusted

YOUR NOTES
Representing precision and accuracy on a graph
Zero error
This is a type of systematic error which occurs when an instrument gives a reading when the
true reading is zero
This introduces a fixed error into readings which must be accounted for when the results are
recorded

YOUR NOTES
Precision & Accuracy
Precision of a measurement: this is how close the measured values are to each other; if a
measurement is repeated several times, then they can be described as precise when the
values are very similar to, or the same as, each other
The precision of a measurement is reflected in the values recorded – measurements to a

greater number of decimal places are said to be more precise than those to a whole number
Accuracy: this is how close a measured value is to the true value; the accuracy can be
increased by repeating measurements and finding a mean average
The difference between precise and accurate results
Exam Tip
It is very common for students to confuse precision with accuracy – measurements can be
precise but not accurate if each measurement reading has the same error. Precision refers
to the ability to take multiple readings with an instrument that are close to each other,
whereas accuracy is the closeness of those measurements to the true value.

YOUR NOTES
2.1.3 CALCULATING UNCERTAINTY

Calculating Uncertainty
There is always a degree of uncertainty when measurements are taken; the uncertainty can
be thought of as the difference between the actual reading taken (caused by the equipment
or techniques used) and the true value
Uncertainties are not the same as errors

Errors can be thought of as issues with equipment or methodology that cause a
reading to be different from the true value
The uncertainty is a range of values around a measurement within which the true
value is expected to lie, and is an estimate
For example, if the true value of the mass of a box is 950 g, but a systematic error with a
balance gives an actual reading of 952 g, the uncertainty is ±2 g
These uncertainties can be represented in a number of ways:

Absolute Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fixed quantity
Fractional Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fraction of the

measurement
Percentage Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a percentage of the

measurement
To find uncertainties in different situations:
The uncertainty in a reading: ± half the smallest division
The uncertainty in a measurement: at least ±1 smallest division
The uncertainty in repeated data: half the range i.e. ± ½ (largest – smallest value)
The uncertainty in digital readings: ± the last significant digit unless otherwise quoted

YOUR NOTES
How to calculate absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainty

YOUR NOTES
Combining Uncertainties
The rules to follow
Adding / subtracting data – add the absolute uncertainties

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Multiplying / dividing data – add the percentage uncertainties

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Raising to a power – multiply the uncertainty by the power

YOUR NOTES
Exam Question: Easy
Exam Question: Medium

YOUR NOTES
Exam Question: Hard
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CIE AS Physics (9702) 2019-2021 Revision Notes savemyexams.co.

2.1.2 Errors & Uncertainties

2.1.3 Calculating Uncertainty

2.1.1 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Common instruments used in Physics are:

Balances – to measure mass

Protractors – to measure angles

Stopwatches – to measure time

Ammeters – to measure current

Voltmeters – to measure potential diﬀerence

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Measuring Instruments Table

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Micrometer Screw Gauge

How to operate a micrometer

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

How to operate vernier calipers

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

A galvanometer is a type of sensitive ammeter used to detect electric current

It is used in a potentiometer to measure e.m.f between two points in a circuit

The circuit symbol is recognised by an arrow in a circle:

Galvanometer circuit symbol

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This is called null deﬂection

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© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

How to Use a Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope

A C.R.O consists of:

A ﬂuorescent display – this is a screen with a thin coating of a material which

Diagram of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope display showing wavelength and time-base setting

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

It has units of volts per cm or volts per division

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Analogue & Digital Displays

Analogue meters are subject to zero errors

They are also subject to parallax error

A galvanometer is an example of a sensitive analogue meter

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Digital meters are also subject to zero error

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

A curve of voltage against temperature can be used as a temperature sensor

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

The systematic error varies with voltage

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

2.1.2 ERRORS & UNCERTAINTIES

To reduce systematic errors: instruments should be recalibrated or the technique being

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Representing precision and accuracy on a graph

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Precision & Accuracy

The precision of a measurement is reﬂected in the values recorded – measurements to a

The diﬀerence between precise and accurate results

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2.1.3 CALCULATING UNCERTAINTY

Uncertainties are not the same as errors

These uncertainties can be represented in a number of ways:

Fractional Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fraction of the

Percentage Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a percentage of the

To ﬁnd uncertainties in diﬀerent situations:

The uncertainty in a reading: ± half the smallest division

The uncertainty in a measurement: at least ±1 smallest division

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Measurements & Errors

Measurements & Errors