MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.

com 0708880159
2023
UNIT CODE: EECF 1201
UNIT NAME: MATHEMATICS IB - TECHNICAL MATHEMATICS IB

Instructions
 Main examination to be out of 70 Marks
 Assignments and CAT to cater for rest 30 marks.
 All submissions must be done to the email address above in pdf.
 Class attendance is key to the overall marks awarded.
UNIT CONTENT

1. The straight line;

a. Equation of a Straight Line Given some Properties of the Line
b. Parallel and Perpendicular lines.
2. The circle;
a. General equation of a Circle
b. Equation of tangent at point of contact and from an external point.
3. Trigonometric functions,
a. Sample Trigonometric Functions
b. Graphing of elementary trigonometric formula (Sine, Cosine and Tangent
Functions)
c. Compound, double and factor formulae.
d. Solution of Trigonometric equations.
e. Solution of triangles using the sine and cosine rules.
4. Polar coordinates:
a. Their definition, relationship with Cartesian coordinates
b. Equations in Polar Forms
c. Graphs of Polar Equations.
5. Vector Geometry:
a. Definition of a vector geometrically; position, column and unit vectors
b. Applications to plane geometry,
c. Geometry of straight line in two and three dimensions,
d. Forces Resolution: Resultant force and velocity.

THE STRAIGHT LINE EQUATION

A straight line is a ‘curve’ which slopes uniformly. It may slope from left top to right bottom
or from left bottom to right top or not slope at all (horizontal) or the line may by right-
standing (vertical).
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

 A line that slopes from left top to right bottom has a negative slope/gradient. Why?
Reason: for every unit increase in x-direction, there is a corresponding negative
increase (decrease) in the y-direction or vice-versa.
 A line that slopes from left bottom to right top has a positive slope/gradient. Why?
Reason: for every unit increase in x-direction, there is a corresponding positive
change (increase) in the y-direction or vice-versa.
 A horizontal line is not tilted at some angle to the horizontal i.e. it has a zero gradient.
slope Δy
= =0
gradient Δ x

 A vertical line has an infinite (undefined slope) i.e. gradient, m=∞.

 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
Given some information on a straight line L i.e.

L: Passes through points (p,q), (r,s), arbitrary point (x,y); gradient, m

Then we can express the equation of the line in the general form:
x y
y=mx+c or ax +by =c or + =1
a b
Where:
m−gradient ,
c−the y−intercept
The point at which the line meets/cuts the y-axis
The value of y when x = 0.
x−intercept , is the point where the line meets the x-axis i.e. it’s the value of x when y
= 0.

a. Equation of a Straight Line given Two Points

Given that a line passes through points (p,q) and (r,s). Then;
*List all the properties provided
s−q
L: (p,q), (r,s), (x,y); m=
r− p

Δ y y 2− y 1 s−q
Step 1: Calculate the gradient, m= = =
Δ x x 2−x 1 r− p

Step 2: Using one of the given points and the arbitrary point (x,y), attempt to compute the
same gradient.
Δy
=m
Δx
y−q s−q
=
x−p r − p
Step 3: Re-arrange in the relevant form e.g. in general form: y=mx+c
( y−q ) ( r− p )=( x− p ) ( s−q )
( r −p ) y + ( r − p ) (−q )=( s−q ) x+ ( s−q ) (− p)
( r −p ) y −rq+ pq= ( s−q ) x− ps + pq
( r −p ) y =( s−q ) x−ps + pq+rq−pq
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
( s−q ) ( ps−rq)
( r −p ) y =( s−q ) x−ps +rq , so that y= x+
r−p ( p−r)

Example 1.
Find the equation of a straight line that passes through the two points P1 (−3 ,−2) and
P2 (5 , 7).

Solution.
7+2 9
L: (-3,-2), (5,7), (x,y); m= =
5+3 8
y−7 9
=
x−5 8
8 y−56=9 x−45
8 y=9 x +11
9 11
y= x+ or 8 y−9 x =11 or 8 y−9 x −11=0
8 8

b. Equation of a Straight Line Given One Point and the Gradient

List the properties given

L: (p,q), (x,y); m , given
Step 1: Attempt to compute the same gradient using the given point and the arbitrary point.
y−q
=m
x−p
Step 2: Rearrange as desired.
y−q=mx−mq
y=mx+q (1−m)

Example 2.
−2
Find the equation of a line passing through (2,- 6) and has a gradient of .
3
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
Solution.
Using the point (2, - 6) and (x,y);
y +6 −2
=
x−2 3
3 y +18=−2 x +4
3 y=−2 x−14
−2 14
y= x−
3 3

c. Equation of a Straight Line Given the x and y Intercepts

Given the x-intercept as a and y-intercept as b , then the properties of the line are:
b−0 −b
L: ( a , 0 ) , ( 0 , b ) , ( x , y ) ; m= =
0−a a
So,
y−b −b
=
x−0 a
ay −ab=−bx
*Collect the x and y-terms to the left,
ay +bx =ab
*Divide through by ab
ay bx ab
+ =
ab ab ab
y x
+ =1
b a
x y
+ =1, called the double-intercept equation.
a b
Exercise
1. Find the equations of the below lines that pass through the respective points;
i. (-2, 5), (4,7)
ii. (0,2), (0,11)
iii. (-5,0), (1,0)
iv. (3,-9), (-5, 2)
v. (1,-1), (15,10)
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
2. Find the equations of straight lines that have the given single points and the given
gradients;
i. Line through (1,7), m=−2
ii. Line through (3,-4), m=1.5
4
iii. Line through (-2,-13), m=
23
12
iv. Line through (-8,6), m=
7
−3
v. Line through (10,5), m=
7
3. Find the equations of the respective lines with the given intercepts

x−intercept y−intercept
i. 2 3
ii. -5 7
iii. 1.560 -10.223
iv. -8.12 -3.45
v. 9 −11
13 2

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Given two lines L1∧L2 with gradients m1∧m2.

 L1 /¿ L2 if and only if they slope same way i.e. m1=m2.

E.g.
L1 : y=3 x+2 is∥¿ L2 : y=3 x−7 since m1=m2=3
1
L1 : 4 y=x +8 is∥¿ L2 :12 y=3 x−6 since m1=m2=
4
 L1 perpendicular ¿ L2 if and only if m1 m2=−1
To prove this, at own time, try to plot the line which passes through (-1,-1) and (3,3)
and the line through (-1,1) and (4,-4) on the same grid. Check the angle between them
(right angle). Compute their gradients and find the product of the gradients (
m1 m2=−1¿.

E.g.

L1 : y=3 x+2 is perpendicular ¿ L2 : y=

−1
3
x−7 since m 1 m2=3 ( )
−1
3
=−1

−1
L1 : 4 y=−x+ 8is perpendicular ¿ L2 :2 y=8 x−6 since m1 m2= ( 4 )=−1
4
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
Examples.
1. Find the equations of both lines for each case.
a. A line L1 : (1 ,−6 ) ,(7 , 8) and is parallel to L2 : (3 ,3 ) .
b. A line L A : x intercept of −4∧passes through(2, 9) and is parallel to
LB :through the origin.
2. Find the equations of both lines:
a. L2 perpendicular to L1 : (2 , 5 ) and L1 is parallel to L3 : (1 , 7 ) ,(−4 ,−1)
b. Equation of the normal to a circle at (5,2) whose radius also passes through (5,2)
and the circle centre is (1,4).

THE CIRCLE

A circle is a uniformly round figure defined by points on the circumference being equidistant
from a common point, the centre of the circle.

The general equation of a circle may be derived as follows:

Consider a circle centre (h,k) and radius r.

If (x,y) is any arbitrary point the circumference, and considering

∆ x=x −h∧∆ y= y−k
By Pythagora’s theorem,

( ∆ x )2 + ( ∆ y )2 =r 2

( x−h )2+ ( y−k )2=r 2, as the general equation of a circle centre (h,k).
If the centre is (a,b), the general equation of the circle is;
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
( x−a )2+ ( y−b )2=r 2

a. Equation of a Circle Centre Origin and Radius r

Centre is O(0,0), radius is r.

( x−0 )2+ ( y−0 )2=r 2

2 2 2
x + y =r , as the equation of a circle centre origin with radius r.

Examples.
1. Find the equation of a circle centre (0,0) and radius 2 units.
2. Find the equation of a circle centre (3,5) and radius 7 units.
3. Find the equation of a circle centre (-2, 4) and radius 5 units.

Solutions.

From the general equation of a circle ( x−a )2+ ( y−b )2=r 2,

1. ( x−0 )2+ ( y−0 )2=22

2 2 2 2
x + y =4 or x + y −4=0

Notice that the coefficients of x and y are both positives and are equal for equation of
a line
2. ( x−3 )2 + ( y −5 )2=72
( x−3 )( x−3 )+ ( y−5 ) ( y−5 ) =49
2 2
x −3 x−3 x+ 9+ y −5 y−5 y +25=49
2 2
x −6 x +9+¿ y −10 y +25=49
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
2 2
x −6 x +¿ y −10 y−15=0
3. ( x−−2 )2 + ( y −4 )2=52
( x +2 ) ( x +2 ) + ( y −4 ) ( y−4 )=25
2 2
x + 4 x + 4+¿ y −8 y +16=25
2 2
x + 4 x +¿ y −8 y −5=0

Recall: Complete square.

E.g. 4 is a complete square of ± 2
2
x is a complete square of x
2 2
x + 2 x +1 which may factorized as ( x +1)( x+1) ¿( x +1) is a complete
Square of (x +1).

For a complete square the square root section in the quadratic formula is null (=0)
2
2 b
b −4 ac=0 or b 2=4 ac or c=
4a

()
2 2
b b
If a=1, then c= =
4 2

−b ± √ b2−4 ac
*a x 2 +bx +c=0 , then x=
2a

Given the equation of a circle to express in the general form

If the equation of a circle is given in the form;

2 2
ax +bx +¿ ay +dy + e=0
To express it in the general form ( x−a )2+ ( y−b )2=r 2,

Step 1: Divide through by a (make coefficients of x 2 and y 2 be 1’s.

2 b 2 d e 0
x + x +¿ y + y + =
a a a a

Step 2: Transfer the constant term to the right-hand side

 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
2 b 2 d −e
x + x +¿ y + y=
a a a
Step 3: Complete squares on the x-terms and the y-terms on the left-hand side.

()
2 2
b b
*c= =
4 2

()
2
b

( )
2
For the x-terms, a b
c= =
4 2a

()
2
d

( )
2
For the y-terms, a d
c= =
4 2a

( ) ( )
( )( )
2 2 2 2
2 b b 2 d d −e b d
x + x+ +¿ y + y + = + +
a 2a a 2a a 2a 2a

x +( ) + ¿ y + y +( ) =
2 2 2 2
2 b b b d d 2 d −4 ae+b + d
x+ x+ y+ 2
2a 2a 2a 2a 2a 2a 4a

x ( x + )+ ( x + )+ y ( y+ )+ ( y + )=
2 2
b b b d d d −4 ae +b + d
2
2a 2a 2a 2a 2a 2a 4a

( x + 2ba ) +( y+ 2da ) =r
2 2
2

Centre ( −b
,−
2a 2a
d
)
with radius r =
−4 ae+ b2 +d 2
4a
2
√
Examples.
Write the following circle equations in their general forms.
a. x 2+ 4 x +¿ y 2−8 y −5=0
b. 2 x 2+ 3 x +¿ 2 y 2+ 4 y +5=0

Solutions.
a. First, we ensure that the coefficients of x 2 and y 2 are 1’s.
Transfer the constant term to the right

2 2
x + 4 x +¿ y −8 y =5
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
2 2
b 4
For x-terms, the c we seek is c= = =4
4 4
2
b 2 (−8)
Similarly for y-terms, the c we seek is c= = =16
4 4

We add both 4 and 16 to both sides of the equation.

2 2
x + 4 x + 4+¿ y −8 y +16=5+ 4+16
2 2
x + 2 x +2 x+ 4+ ¿ y −4 y−4 y +16=25
x ( x +2 ) +2 ( x +2 ) + y ( y−4 )−4 ( y−4 )=52
2 2 2
( x +2) +( y−4) =5 as required.

b. 2 x 2+ 3 x +¿ 2 y 2+ 4 y +5=0
2 3 2 5
x + x+¿ y +2 y+ =0
2 2

( )
2
3 2 −5 9 3
x + + ( y +1 ) = + + 1=
4 2 4 4

(√ )
2

( ) 3 2
4
2
x + + ( y +1 ) =
3
4

The circle has centre ( −34 ,−1) and radius r = 0.8660 units.
Equation of a Tangent to a Circle

Three cases:
i. When the point is an internal point of the circle: the lines are secant lines and not
tangential.
ii. When the point is on the circle circumference: We can only draw one tangent
at/through that specific point, touching the circle at that point only.
iii. When the point through which the tangent(s) pass(es) is outside the circle.
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

Here, the radius and the tangent meet at the tangential point perpendicularly.
mT mr=−1
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
Here, if two radii are drawn to meet both tangents, each pair are perpendicular (each
perpendicular to the corresponding tangent).
mT mr =−1
1 1
and mT mr =−1
2 2

Note:
 In the first scenario, there is possible tangent.
 A tangent and a circle circumference both pass through the tangential point. So at this
point, the values of x and y are common for both the tangential line and the circle
curve. i.e.
Equation of circle: ( x−a )2+ ( y−b )2=r 2 ⇒ ( x−a )2 + ( y −b )2−r 2=0
Equation of tangent: y=mx+c ⇒ mx+ c− y=0

Then,
( x−a )2+ ( y−b )2−r 2=mx +c− y
Or in attempting solution of the two simultaneous equations by substitution method,
( x−a )2+ ( mx+c−b )2−r 2 =0
After solving out for x, then we can obtain the value of y at the tangential point.
Assumption: a, b, c and r are known/constants.
2 2 2 2 2 2
x −2 ax +a +m x +2 mcx−2 mbx−2cb +b −r =0
Thus the general equation of a tangent is:
y=mx ±r √ ( 1+m ) , if the circle has centre (0,0).
2

¿¿

Example 1.
Find the equations of the tangents to the circle x 2+ y 2=5, and passing through (3,1).

Solution.
y=mx ±r √ ( 1+m )
2

Generally, equation of each tangent is y=m x +c

Since the tangent passes through (3,1), than
1=3 m+c , so that c=1−3 m
y=mx+c∧x 2 + y 2=5 , y= √ 5−x2 ∨x=√ 5− y 2= √ 5−(3 m+c )2
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

TRIGONOMETRY

Studies the relationships between the angles and the sides of a triangle.

Fundamental Trigonometric ratios

Consider the below right-angled triangle;

a
sin θ= ⇒ a=cSin θ
c
b
cos θ= ⇒ b=cCos θ
c
a
tanθ=
b

Similarly,
b
sin(90−θ)=
c
a
cos (90−θ)=
c
b 1
T an ( 90−θ )= =
a tan θ

Note:
1 −1
 ≠ tan θ . It’s just the reciprocal of tanθ . So, we find the right name for
tan θ
1 1 b Adjacent
=Cotangent θ=cot θ= = =
Tangent θ a /b a Opposite
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
1 1 c Hypotenuse
 =Cosecant θ=Cosec θ= = =
Sine θ a/c a Opposite
1 1 c Hypotenuse
 =Secant θ=Sec θ= = =
Cosine θ b /c b Adjacent

Basic Trigonometric Identities

sin θ a /c a c a
i. = = ⋅ = =tan θ
cos θ b /c c b b
sin θ
tanθ=
cos θ
ii. By Pythagora’s Theorem,
2 2 2
a + b =c
2 2 2
(cSin θ) +(cCos θ) =c
2 2 2 2 2
c sin θ+ c cos θ=c
*Dividing through both sides by c 2;

2 2
sin θ+cos θ=1
Or
2 2
sin θ=1−cos θ
Or
2 2
cos θ=1−sin θ
iii. sin θ=cos ( 90−θ ) and cos θ=sin(90−θ)
o o
E . g .sin 30 =cos 60
Or
If cos (x +10)o=sin(2 x−5)o
Then, ( x +10)o and (2 x−5)o must be complementary angles;
o o o
(x +10) +(2 x−5) =90
o
3 x=85
o
x=28.33
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

Trigonometric Ratios for Special/Standard Angles

 For 60 o∧30o , we use an equilateral triangle of side 1 unit.
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

sin 60o = √
3 /2 √ 3
cos 30 o= √
3/2 √ 3
= =
1 2 1 2
o 1/2 1 o 1 /2 1
cos 60 = = sin 30 = =
1 2 1 2

tan60 o= √
3/2 √ 3 2 o 1/2 1 2 1
= ⋅ =√ 3 tan30 = = ⋅ =
1/2 2 1 √ 3/2 2 √ 3 √3
 For 90 o and 45 o, we use an isosceles triangle with base angles as 40 o each, and
a top angle of 90 o. The two equal sides as of unit lengths so that the
hypotenuse is of length √ 2. Proceed similarly as above.

*Previous Physical Class on Graphs of Basic Trigonometric Functions.

Double Anges Trigonometric Ratios Formulae

 sin(2θ)=2 sin θCos θ

*E.g. if x=30 o , 2 x=60o Then sin 2 x=2 sin30 o cos 30o

0.8660=2(0.5)(0.8660)

2 2
 cos (2 θ ) =cos θ−sin θ OR
cos (2 θ ) =cos 2 θ−[ 1−cos 2 θ ]=2 cos2 θ−1 OR
cos (2 θ ) =[ 1−sin2 θ ] −sin2 θ=1+2 sin2 θ

* E.g. if x=30 o , 2 x=60o Then cos 2 (30o )=cos 2 30 o−sin2 30o

2 2
0.5=0.8660 −0.5
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

2 tan θ
 tan (2 θ )= 2
1−tan θ

The half-Angle Formulae

sin θ=±
√ 1−cos (2 θ)
2

cos θ=±
√ 1+cos (2 θ)
2

tanθ=±
√ 1−cos(2 θ)
1+cos (2 θ)

Compound Angles Trigonometric Ratios Formulae (Angle Sum and Difference

Formulae)

sin ( A+ B )=sin A cos B+ cos A sin B and sin ( A−B )=sin A cos B−cos A sin B

cos ( A+ B )=cos A cos B−sin A sin B and cos ( A+ B )=cos A cos B+sin A sin B
tan A+ tan B tan A−tan B
tan ( A+ B )= and tan ( A−B )=
1−tan A tan B 1+tan A tan B

*Trig Ratio Products Formulae (Product identities)

1
sin A sin B=
2
[ cos ( A−B )−cos ( A+ B)]
1
cos A cos B=
2
[ cos ( A−B )+ cos( A +B)]
1
sin A cos B=
2
[ sin ( A+ B )+ sin( A−B)]
1
cos A sin B= ¿
2

The Factor Furmulae (Sum to Product Formulae)

 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

sin A+sin B=2sin ( A+2 B )cos ( A−B

2 ) and sin A−sin B=2 cos (
A+ B
2 ) sin (
A−B
2 )

cos A+ cos B=2 cos ( ) cos ( ) and cos A−cos B=−2 sin ( ) sin (
2 )
A +B A−B A +B A−B
2 2 2

Solutions of Trigonometric Equations

Example 1.
Given sin θ=
√ 3 , find cos θ , Sec θ and cot θ , including all possible values of θ.
2

Solution.
B

C A
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
If θ is the angle at A, then BC =√ 3 and AB = 2.
√ 2
So that the Adjacent AC= 22−( √ 3 ) =1
1
1 1 1 cos θ 2 1
cos θ= , Sec θ= =2 and cot θ= = = =
2 cos θ tan θ sin θ √ 3 √ 3
2
2
* Sec θ−3Csc θ+1=2 −3
2
( )
1
sin θ
+1=4−3
2
√3 ( )
+1=5−2 √ 3

Now, to solve for θ ,

( )
θ=sin−1 √ =60o∨ as the acute angle.
2
3 πc
3
Going by quadrants where Sine is +ve, the required angles (arguments) are in the First
and the Seconds Quadrants.

c
´ oπ
In the First Quadrant, θ=The angle=60 ∨
3
nd o ´
In the 2 Quadrant, θ=180 − angle=18 o o
0 −60 =120
o

c c
´ c π 2π
Or θ=π −angle=π − =
3 3

Example 2.
Solve a triangle ABC in which AB = 6 cm, BC = 11 cm and <CAB = 54 O. Hence find its
area.

Solution.
Side AB is opposite Angle C, Side BC is opposite angle A and Side AC is opposite angle B.
Using Sine Rule;
AB BC AC 6 11 AC
= = ⇒ = ¿
sin C sin A sin B sin C sin 54 O
sin B
This gives;

( )=26.1857 = 26.1857
O O
6 sin 54 6 sin 54 π
sin C= , so that C=sin−1 o
=0.145476 π
c
11 11 180

Simply, B=180 o−54 o−26.1857 o=99.8143 o=0.554524 π c

o
11 AC 11sin 99.8143
O
¿ o , AC= O
=13.3978 cm
sin 54 sin 99.8143 sin54

Note:
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
- We need to have a sketch or a visualization of the triangle.
- To solve for the unknown side(s) and angle(s), we may need to employ the two
Trigonometric Rules:
i. Sine Rule
For a triangle sides a , b∧c with respective opposite angles as A , B∧C ,
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
ii. Cosine Rule
- To obtain the area of the solved triangle, we can apply one of the below formulae;
1
i. For a right-angled triangle, A= bh
2
ii. For any other triangle given two sides a∧b and the included angle θ ;
A=abSin θ
iii. For any triangle given three sides a , b∧c ;
A=√ s (s−a)(s−b)(s−c )
1
Where s= Perimeter
2

POLAR COORDINATES
For all our previous studies have been based largely on rectangular (Cartesian0 coordinate
system, where a given point is identified by it’s coordinates. For example, a point P(3,4) on a
rectangular/Cartesian/x-y plane has the x-displacement from the origin as 3 and y-
displacement as 4.

Considering the same point on a graph, it would be in the first quadrant.

The position vector of P is OP = ( 34)−(00)=(34 )

|OP|=r=√ ( ∆ x ) + ( ∆ y ) = √9+ 16=5 units.
2 2
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

Whereas the rectangular coordinate system gives the point in terms of P(x, y) or in 3-
dimensional space as Q(x, y, z), the polar system of identifying polar coordinates of a given
point takes the form P(r , θ).
If we consider the below right-angled triangle on which the two shorter sides as ∆ x and ∆ y
and hypotenuse as r ,
2 2 2
r =(∆ x ) + (∆ y )
2 2 2
r = ( x −0 ) + ( y−0 )
2 2 2
r =x + y
⇒ r =√ x 2 + y 2 ………(1)

Also notice that by trigonometry;

y −0 y
sin θ= = so that y=rSinθ ………(2)
r r
x−0 x
cos θ= = so that x=rCos θ ……...(3)
r r
sin θ rSin θ y
tanθ= = = ……...(4)
cos θ rCos θ x
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

Conversion of Rectangular to Polar Coordinates

Example 1.
Given a point P in rectangular form as P(5 ,−3).
Then,
y 2 2 2
x=rCos θ , y =rSinθ , =tan θ , r =x + y
x

r =√ x + y =√ ( 5 ) + (−3 ) = √34=5.83095189 units

2 2 2 2

Next we obtain the angle θ

y
From tanθ= , θ=tan
x
−1 −3
5 ( )
The acute angle ¿ tan
−1
( 35 )=30.96 ∨0.17202 π
o c

In the 4th quadrant where the point is located,

θ=360 − ´¿360 −30.96 =329.04

o o o o

θ=2 π − ´¿2 π −0.17202 π =1.82798 π

c c c c
Or

Hence, P(5, -3) in polar form P(r , θ) is;

c
P(5.83095189 , 1.82798 π )

Example 2.
Convert A(-1,-1) into its polar form.
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

Solution.

r =√ x 2 + y 2=√ 1+1= √ 2=1.4142

( )
c
−1 −1 o π
tan =45 = as the acute angle.
−1 4

Since the point lies in the 3rd quadrant,

c c
π 5π
o o
θ=180 + 45 =225
o
or θ=π c + =
4 4

Example 3
Convert B(-8,4) into polar form.

Solution.
The point B is in the 2nd quadrant.

r =√ x 2 + y 2=√ 64+ 16= √ 80=8.9442719

tan−1 ( −48 )=tan ( −12 )

−1

tan−1 ( 12 )=26.5651 =0.147584 π as the acute angle

o c

In the 2nd quadrant, θ=180o−26.5651 o=153.4349o

Or θ=π c −0.147584 π c =0.852416 π c

Further examples.
Convert the following Cartesian points into polar form;
a. (3 ,−10)
b. (−4 ,−11)
c. (3 ,−10)
d. (9 , 7)
e. (−12.5 ,−3.78)

Conversion from Polar to Cartesian Coorpdinates

 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
Here, the relationships of most interest are;
x=rCos θ∧ y=rSinθ

Using these and r 2=x 2 + y 2;

2 2 2
r = ( rCos θ ) + ( rSinθ )
2 2 2 2 2
r =r cos θ+ r sin θ
2 2
1=cos θ+sin θ

Example 1.

(
Convert 4 ,
2π
3 )
into rectangular form.

Solution.
r =4 and

x=rCos θ=4 cos ( ) 2π

3
=4
−1
2
=−2

=4 ( √ )=2 √ 3=3.4641
2π 3
y=rSinθ=4 sin
3 2

Hence the point in Cartesian form is P(−2 , 3.4641) in the second quadrant.

Further examples.
Convert the following points into rectangular points.

a. (3 , π2 )
b. (5 , 32π )
c. ( 4 ,− π3 )
Polar equations and Graphs
Polar equations may take the forms:
r =aSinθ , r=aCos θ , r=aSin nθ , r=aCos nθ , r=a ± bSinnθ ,
2 2 2 2
r =a ± bCos nθ , r =a sin 2 θ , r =a cos 2 θ
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

For discussions, see attached pdf.

VECTOR GEOMETRY

Definition: A vector quantity that which has both magnitude and direction components. E.g.
Force, displacement, Magnetic Field, Electric Field etc.

A vector may be geometrically illustrated using a directed line.

B

A
This represents vector AB (typeset)
AB
In hand-writing, we write ⃗
AB or .

Position Vectors
A position vector identifies/locates a point from the origin.
λ μ
λ+ μ λ+ μ
A C B D

a b

O
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

The position vector of points A and B are respectively;

OA and OB
Vector AB = AO + OB = -OA + OB = OB – OA
(Position vector of the destination point minus the position vector of the starting point)

 If C divides AB internally in the ratio λ : μ. *Total ratio is λ+ μ

AC:CB = λ : μ
λ μ
Such that AC = AB and CB = AB
λ+ μ λ+ μ
2 3
E.g. If AC:CB = 2 :3. Then AC = AB and = CB= AB
5 5

And
2 3 2
OC ¿ OA + AC=a+ ( b−a )= a+ b
5 5 5
In general, we have the ratio theorem;
μ λ
If C divides AB internally in the ratio λ : μ, then OC ¿ a+ b
λ+ μ λ+ μ

 If D is an external point on AB, and divides AB in the ratio m :−n.

AD:DB =m :−n
Or
AB:BD =m :n
n m
OB= AB+ BD
m+ n m+ n
n m
b= ( b−a )+ (OD−b)
m+ n m+n
m n m
OD=b− ( b−a )+ b
m+ n m+ n m+n
m+ n n
OD= b− ( b−a ) +b
m m
m+ n n n m n
OD= b− b+ a+ b=2 b+ a
m m m m m
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

Column Vectors
A point on a Cartesian plane (rectangular or x-y plane) P(a ,b) is located by its position
vector from the origin O(0 , 0);

OP= p= ( ∆∆ xy)=(b−0
a−0
)=(ab)
If another point Q(f , g) has its position vector as OQ=q= ( gf )
Then,

The column vector PQ=OQ−OP= ( fg)−( ab)=(g−b

f −a
)

The magnitude/size/length of a column vector ( ∆∆ xy)=√( ∆ x ) +( ∆ y )

2 2

E.g. for P(4 , 3), OP= (43), |OP|=|( 43)|=√ ( 4 ) +( 3 ) =5

2 2

In three dimensions, a column vector takes the form:

( )
∆x
For point P(x , y , z) , OP= ∆ y .
∆z

() ()
a f
If OP= b and OQ= g , then
c h

( )
f −a
PQ=OQ−OP= g−b
h−c

And |PQ|= √ ( f −a )2 + ( g−b )2 + ( h−c )2

Unit Vectors
v=a i+b j+ c k

|v|= √a 2+ b2 +c 2
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023
RESOLUTION OF FORCES

It involves finding one equivalent/resultant force from a combination of different forces;

different magnitudes and directions.
Several forces acting at a point or on a body may be said to be;
i. Concurrent Forces – at a point in different directions.

ii. Collinear Forces – on a straight line.

iii. Coplanar Forces – can be represented on the same plane.

Consider two forces F 1 , F2 acting at a point.

i.
F2 F1

If F 1 is taken to be in the positive direction, then F 2 would be in the negative direction.

So, The resultant force, F R ∨R=F 1−F 2

 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

ii. F1

F2 R

Here, the resultant force,

R=∑ of the horizontal components of F 1∧F 2+ ∑ of the vertic al components of F 1∧F2

Composition of Forces

Resolution of Forces
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

Example 1.
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

Example 2.
 MATHEMATIC 1B – Joachim Odum; jackkodum@gmail.com 0708880159
2023

P o
sin θ= , P=600 sin 33.6 =332 N
600