LEARNING

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LEARNING
Any relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior
potential) resulting from experience.
Learning is a key process in human behavior- and plays an
important role in virtually every activity we perform.
Learning occurs in several basic forms: classical conditioning,
operant conditioning, and observational learning.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
A type of learning in which a
neutral stimulus (Bell) comes to
elicit a response after being
paired with a stimulus (food)
that naturally brings about that
response.
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Neutral Stimulus
A stimulus that before
conditioning, does not naturally
bring about the response of
interest. (Ex: bell).
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 4

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned Response

A stimulus that naturally brings
about a particular response A response that is natural and
without having been learned. (Ex: needs no training (salivation at the
Meat) smell of food).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR)

A once-neutral stimulus that has
A response that, after
been paired with an unconditioned
conditioning, follows a previously
stimulus to bring about a response
neutral stimulus. (salivating at the
formerly caused only by the
ringing of a bell).
unconditioned stimulus.
 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 6
Conditioned= learned, Unconditioned= not learned
An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) leads to an unconditioned response (UCR).
Unconditioned stimulus- unconditioned response pairings are not learned and
not trained. They are naturally occurring.
During conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is transformed into a
conditioned stimulus.
A conditioned stimulus (CS) leads to a conditioned response (CR) and
conditioned stimulus-conditioned response pairing is a consequence of
learning and training.
An unconditioned response and a conditioned response are similar (salivation)
but the unconditioned response occurs naturally whereas the conditioned
response is learned.
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CONDITIONING-HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Phobia Perfumes
Post Traumatic Stress
Restuarant
Disorder (PTSD)
 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 6
Extinction: occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in
frequency and eventually disappears.
If a dog is trained to salivate (the conditioned response) at the ringing of a bell
(the conditioned stimulus), we could produce extinction by repeatedly ringing
the bell but not providing meat (the unconditioned stimulus).
At first, the dog would continue to salivate when it heard the bell, but after a
few such instances, the amount of salivation would decline and the dog would
stop responding to the bell altogether. At that point, we could say that the
response had been extinguished.
Thus, extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented
repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous recovery: the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned
response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning.
 GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION
Stimulus generalization: a process in which, after a stimulus has been
conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar between
two stimuli produce the same response. The greater the similarity between
two stimuli, the greater the likelihood of stimulus generalization.
Example: Little Albert- fear of Santa Claus.
Stimulus Discrimination: in contrast occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently
distinct from each other that one evokes a conditioned response but the
other does not.
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OPERANT CONDITIONING
Type of Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or
weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.
An organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcome.
Operant- organism operates on its environment to produce a
desirable result.
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THORNDIKE’S LAW OF EFFECT
The law of effect states that behaviors followed by pleasant or rewarding
consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by
unpleasant or punishing consequences are less likely to be repeated.
The principle was introduced in the early 20th century through
experiments led by Edward Thorndike, who found that positive
reinforcement strengthens associations and increases the frequency of
specific behaviors.
“Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation
become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that
produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that
situation (Gray, 2011, p. 108–109).”
 THORNDIKE’S LAW OF EFFECT
Thorndike put hungry cats in cages with automatic doors that could be opened by pressing a
button inside the cage. Thorndike would time how long it took the cat to escape.
At first, when placed in the cages, the cats displayed unsystematic trial-and-error behaviors,
trying to escape. They scratched, bit, and wandered around the cages without identifiable
patterns.
Thorndike would then put food outside the cages to act as a stimulus and reward. The cats
experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach the fish.
Eventually, they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When it had escaped, the
cat was put in again, and once more, the time it took to escape was noted. In successive trials, the
cats would learn that pressing the lever would have favorable consequences, and they would
adopt this behavior, becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever.
After many repetitions of being placed in the cages (around 10-12 times), the cats learned to
press the button inside their cages, which opened the doors, allowing them to escape the cage
and reach the food.
 OPERANT CONDITIONING
a theory of learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences. Behavior that is
reinforced (rewarded) will likely be repeated, and behavior that is punished will occur less
frequently.
Reinforcement: the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding
behavior will be repeated.
Reinforcer: any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again.
(example: food).
What makes something a reinforcer depends on individual preferences.
Primary reinforcer satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of a person’s
previous experience. Food for a hungry person, warmth for a cold person.
Secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with the
primary reinforcer. Money helps get us lavish food and shelter.
POSITIVE REINFORCERS
NEGATIVE REINFORCERS
PUNISHMENT
 OPERANT CONDITIONING
A positive reinforcer is a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a
receding response. Paychecks to employees increase the likelihood that they will continue
working.
Negative reinforcer refers to an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the
probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future. It teaches the individual that
taking certain actions in the future removes a negative condition that exists in the environment.
Example: putting a seatbelt on to stop the beeping noise of the car. brushing teeth at night to
avoid visiting the dentist.
Punishment: a stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again.
Example: yelling or scolding.
Positive punishment weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus.
Negative punishment: removal of something pleasant. Example: restricting access to phone.
 REINFORCEMENTS
Schedules of reinforcement: refers to the frequency and timing of reinforcement that follows
desired behaviour.
Continuous reinforcement schedule: behavior that is reinforced every time it occurs.
Partial or intermittent reinforcement schedule: a schedule in which behavior is reinforced some
but not all of the time.
Fixed-ratio schedule: a schedule in which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of
responses are made. 10 dollars for every shirt produced- people work as quickly as possible.
Variable-ratio schedule: a schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of
responses rather than after a fixed number. Salesperson making a sale- might make as many calls
as possible in short time.
Fixed-interval schedule: a schedule in which reinforcement is provided for a response only after
a fixed time period has elapsed. Example: weekly paycheck.
Variable-interval schedule: a schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around
some average rather than being fixed. Frequent quizzes in every 3 weeks.
 COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING
An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie
learning.
Latent learning: learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some
incentive is provided for displaying it.
Observational learning: learning by observing the behavior of another person or model.
Bobo doll experiment.
Mirror neurons: neurons that fire when we observe another person carrying out a behavior
suggest that the capacity to imitate others may be innate.
Models who are rewarded for behaving in a particular way are more apt to be mimicked than are
models who receive punishment.
Insight learning refers to the sudden realization or understanding of a solution to a problem
without the need for trial-and-error attempts. It's like a "light bulb" moment when things
suddenly make sense.
Escape Rooms: Having an "aha" moment about a clue that helps you solve a puzzle and move to
the next challenge.
Math Problems: Suddenly understanding a complex math concept or solution method after
pondering it for a while.