Typed λ with Booleans

⟨t⟩ ::= ⟨x⟩

| λ ⟨x⟩. ⟨t⟩
| ⟨t⟩ ⟨t⟩
| true
| false
| if ⟨t⟩ then ⟨t⟩ else ⟨t⟩

Where x is a variable in the λ-Calculus sense.

Exclude numbers to keep things simple for now.
⟨T ⟩ ::= ⟨T ⟩ ⇒ ⟨T ⟩
| Bool

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Expanding the definition

This grammar allows us to construct some really interesting types!

Bool ⇒ Bool
▶ A function mapping a Boolean argument to a Boolean result.
Bool ⇒ Bool ⇒ Bool
▶ A function mapping a Boolean argument to a function mapping a
Boolean argument to a Boolean result.
▶ ⇒ is right associative, so the above is Bool ⇒ (Bool ⇒ Bool)
(Bool ⇒ Bool) ⇒ (Bool ⇒ Bool)
▶ An operator on Boolean functions.
Plus an infinite number of similar variations!

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The Typing Relation

How do we type inputs? In general there are two approaches:

Explicit Typing (Used in this course).
▶ Typing annotations in the syntax functions:
λx : T .t

Implicit Typing (Advanced topic in type theory).

▶ aka via inference.

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Bad Inference Rule

t2 : T2
(λx : T1 .t2 ) : T1 ⇒ T2
But consider:
λx : Bool. if x then s2 else s3

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Enter the Context

x : Bool ⊢ t2 : T2

Typing relation becomes a three-place relation, i.e.

context ⊢ term : type

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Context in general

In general, need things that look like

{w : T1 , x : T2 , y : T3 } ⊢ z : T4 (1)

where z can mention w, x, y.

General form
Γ⊢t:T (2)
where Γ is a set of variable type relations.

Called either the typing context or the typing environment.

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Well-formed contexts and variables
Formally we have a well-formed context relation:

· ctx (C-Empty)

Γ ctx
(C-Extend)
Γ, x : T ctx
Well-formedness is implicitly assumed. Rather than using · for the empty
context, we instead leave it blank:

⊢ t1 : T1

This typing rule is now possible:

x :T ∈Γ
(T-Var)
Γ⊢x :T

Q: what happens if we try to “insert” the same x twice?

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Function Typing, Correctly

Γ, x : T1 ⊢ t2 : T2
(T-Abs)
Γ ⊢ (λx : T1 .t2 ) : T1 ⇒ T2
Let’s try (see board):

⊢ λx : Bool.λy : Bool.λz : Bool.y

Γ ⊢ t1 : T1 ⇒ T2 Γ ⊢ t2 : T1
(T-App)
Γ ⊢ t1 t2 : T2

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Remark: as is, degenerate.

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Inversion Lemma

LEMMA [Inversion of the Typing Relation]

Γ ⊢ x : R =⇒ x : R ∈ Γ (I-Var)

Γ ⊢ (λx : T1 .t2 ) : R
(I-Abs)
=⇒ ∃R2 | R = (T1 ⇒ R2 ) ∧ Γ, x : T1 ⊢ t2 : R2

Γ ⊢ t1 t2 : R =⇒ ∃T11 | Γ ⊢ t1 : T11 ⇒ R ∧ Γ ⊢ t2 : T11 (I-App)

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Uniqueness still holds

THEOREM [Uniqueness of Types] In a given typing context Γ, if all the

free variables of a term t are in the domain of Γ, t has at most one type.
Proof Sketch: By induction on term grammar. Crucially relies that each
typing rule applies to a single term formation rule.

In this case, we say that the typing relation is syntax directed.

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Canonical Forms

LEMMA [Canonical Forms]

1 If v is a value of type Bool, then v is either true or false.
2 If v is a value of type T1 ⇒ T2 , then v has shape λx : T1 .t2 .
Note that type T1 ⇒ T2 may have infinitely many values as inhabitants.

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Progress

THEOREM [Progress for the Simply Typed λ-Calculus]

Suppose · ⊢ t : T . Either t is a value, or else there is some t ′ such that
t → t ′.

A later theorem will let us generalize from the empty context. Terms
typeable in the empty context are called closed.

Proof by Induction on Typing Derivations. Each evaluation rule is examined

in term. Details use use inversion and, for the one tricky case of T-AppAbs,
canonical forms are needed.

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More about contexts

LEMMA [Permutation invariance]

If Γ ⊢ t : T and ∆ is a permutation of Γ, then ∆ ⊢ t : T . Moreover, the
latter derivation has the same depth as the former.

Proof Sketch: induction on typing derivations.

We add extra “facts” without changing conclusions: LEMMA [Weakening]

If Γ ⊢ t : T and x ∈
/ dom(Γ), then Γ, x : S ⊢ t : T . Moreover, the latter
derivation has the same depth as the former.

Proof Sketch: Induction on typing derivations.

Points of variations show up here, i.e. linear types, union types, dependent
types, etc.

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Substitution Lemma I

LEMMA [Preservation of Types Under Substitution]

Γ, x : S ⊢ t : T ∧ Γ ⊢ s : S =⇒ Γ ⊢ [x 7→ s]t : T (3)

Proof will proceed by induction over typing derivations, and using a case
analysis over typing rules.
As a reminder:

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Substitution Lemma II

T-True, T-False, T-If, T-App straightforward.

T-Var: t = z ∧ z : T ∈ (Γ, x : S)
Case x = z
▶ [x 7→ s]z would then evaluate to s.
▶ x = z ∧ z = t =⇒ x = t
▶ Via the uniqueness of types, x : S ∧ t : T =⇒ S = T
▶ Substituting into lemma statement:
Γ, x : S ⊢ x : S ∧ Γ ⊢ s : S =⇒ Γ ⊢ s : S
Now consider x ̸= z
▶ [x 7→ s]z would then evaluate to z (and from there to t).
Γ, x : S ⊢ t : T ∧ Γ ⊢ s : S =⇒ Γ ⊢ t : T
We can now conclude by weakening.

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Substitution Lemma III

T-Abs: t = λy : T3 .t1 ∧ T = T3 ⇒ T4 ∧ Γ, x : S, y : T3 ⊢ t1 : T4
By our meta-rule of substitutions in λ expressions, we derive:

x ̸= y y∈
/ FV (s)

Using the the permutation lemma on the rightmost equation:

Γ, y : T3 , x : S ⊢ t1 : T4

Using the weakening lemma on Γ ⊢ s : S:

Γ, y : T3 ⊢ s : S

By the induction hypothesis:

Γ, y : T3 ⊢ [x 7→ s]t1 : T4 .

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Substitution Lemma IV

Recall T-Abs:
Γ, x : T1 ⊢ t2 : T2
Γ ⊢ λx : T1 .t2 : T1 ⇒ T2
Applying this to last equation Γ, y : T3 ⊢ [x 7→ s]t1 : T4 , get

Γ ⊢ λy : T3 .[x 7→ s]t1 : T3 ⇒ T4

The definition of substitution is:

[x 7→ s](λy : T3 .t1 ) = λy : T3 .[x 7→ s]t1

The LHS has type T3 ⇒ T4 from our original case analysis.

The RHS has the same type from above.

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