Chapter 11 Heat Transfer

11.1 Conduction
11.2 Convection
11.3 Radiation
11.4 Global warming

Introduction
1. when we buy an ice cream, the ice cream will melt down. This process happen because it’s
absorbing the energy from the surrounding, and the process only stop when both the ice cream
and the surrounding reach what we called the thermal equilibrium.
2. This is the process of transferring the energy from one substance to the other substance, the
energy transfer solely because of the different temperature is called Heat.

11.1 Heat Conduction

Learning Outcomes:
(a) explain the mechanism of heat conduction through solids, and hence, distinguish between
conduction through metals and non-metals;
(b) define thermal conductivity;
dQ dθ
=−KA
(c) use the equation dt dx for heat conduction in one dimension;
(d) describe and calculate heat conduction through a cross-sectional area of layers of different
materials;
(e) compare heat conduction through insulated and non-insulated rods;

Mechanism of Thermal Conduction through Solids

1. For non-metals heat is conducted by vibration of atoms or molecules. When one end of a
solid is heated, the molecules at the hot end receive thermal energy and vibrate more
vigorously. These, in turn, cause the neighboring molecules to vibrate more. Eventually the
molecules at the other end of the solid vibrate more vigorously and the increased vibration
represents transfer of energy and an increase in temperature.
2. For metals, besides the above mechanism, thermal conduction also occurs through the
collisions of free electrons with the lattice atoms. Metals contain many free electrons. When one
end of metal is heated, the electrons at the hot end receive thermal energy and diffuse to the
other parts of the metal. Energy is transferred through the collisions of the free electrons with
the lattice atoms.

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Note: A good electrical conductor is also a good thermal conductor because a good electrical
conductor has a large number of free electrons in it.

Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity (k) of a material is the rate of heat flow per unit cross-sectional area per
unit temperature gradient, in the steady state.
dQ
1. Steady state is a condition when all temperatures have become constant or dt is constant
through out the conductor.
dQ dθ
dt = -kA dx (negative sign shows that the temperature  decreases as distance x
increases)
The unit for k is given by W m-1 K-1.

Temperature Distribution Along Uniform Rod

Rod insulated
1. Figure below shows a rod of length l and cross-sectional area A is perfectly insulated. Heat
flows along the rod and none escapes from the sides.
When steady state is attained,
(i)the rate of heat flow dQ is the same at all points along the rod.
(ii)the temperature decreases uniformly with distance x along the rod.
dθ
(iii) the temperature gradient dx is uniform along the rod.
dθ θ2 −θ1
Temperature gradient dx = - l
dQ θ2 −θ1
Rate of heat flow dt = -kA l

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 Figure 11 - 1

Rod not insulated

2. Figure below shows a rod of length l and cross-sectional area A is not insulated. As the heat
flows along the rod, some heat escapes from the sides.
When steady state is attained,
(i) the rate of heat flow dQ decreases with distance x along the rod.
(ii)the temperature decreases with distance x along the rod.
(iii) the temperature gradient d decreases with distance x along the rod.

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 Figure 11 - 2

Determination of thermal conductivity

1. Determination of thermal conductivity of good conductors – Searle’s method

Figure 11 - 3
(a) The sample is in the form of a thick, long insulated rod.
(b) Rod is insulated so that very little heat is lost from the sides of the rod. This will
ensure that the rate of heat flow and the temperature gradient are constant along the
rod.

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 (c) Rod is of large cross sectional area so that the rate of heat lost from the sides is
negligible compared to the rate of heat flow along the rod.
(d) Rod is long so that the temperature difference across the long length of the rod is
measurable. A bigger temperature differences reduces the percentage error in the
measurement of the temperature difference.
(e)One end of the rod is heated by a steam chest X to maintain the temperature at about
100°C. At the other end of the rod, the heat is carried away by a slow, steady stream
of cold water flowing through the pipe Y maintained by a constant pressure apparatus.
(f)When the steady state (when all temperatures are steady) is attained, the temperature
1, 2, 3 and 4 are recorded.
dQ θ −θ
= kA 2 1
(g) In the steady state dt l where A = cross sectional area of the rod
π 2
d
= 4 (d is the diameter of the rod)
mc(θ 4 −θ3 )
(h) The rate of heat flow is equal to t where m is the mass of cold water
passing through the pipe in t sec c is the specific heat capacity of water, 3 and 4 are
the steady temperatures of the water entering and leaving the constant pressure
apparatus
dQ θ2 −θ1 mc(θ 4 −θ3 )
dt = kA l = t

π 2 θ2 −θ1 mc ( θ4 −θ 3 )
k d =
4 l t
mc( θ 4 −θ3 )
t
k=
π 2 θ2 −θ1
d
4 l

2. Determination of thermal conductivity of poor conductors - Lee's method

Figure 11 - 4

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(a)The sample is in the form of a thin disc.Sample is thin so that steady state can be
achieved in a short time.Sample is of large cross sectional area so that the rate of heat
flow is adequate.Sample is not lagged because the heat loss from the sides of the disc
is negligible.The sample is sandwiched between two thick conducting discs P and Q
(e.g. brass). Q is part of a steam chest .
(b)The apparatus is suspended in mid air and Q is heated by passing steam through the
steam chest.When the steady state is attained, the temperature 1 and 2 are
dQ θ 2−θ 1
=kA
recorded.In the steady state dt l where A = cross sectional area
π 2
D
of the disc= 4 (D is the diameter of the disc), l = thickness of the disc and the
thickness is measured by using micrometer screw gauge.
dQ
(c) The rate of heat flow dt is also the rate of loss of heat from the exposed surface of
dQ
P.To measure dt

Figure 11 - 5
(d) The steam chest is removed, leaving only the sample resting on the disc P,
suspended as before.P is gently heated by a Bunsen until its temperature is several
degree above its previous temperature 1.The disc P is then allowed to cool under the
previous external conditions and a cooling curve  against t is plotted.
dθ
(e)The rate of fall of temperature dt at temperature 1 is obtained from the graph. The

mc
rate of heat flow is equal to
( dθdt )
θ1
where m is the mass of disc P and c is the
specific heat capacity of disc P.

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 θ −θ
dQ
dt
=kA 2 1 =mc
l
dθ
dt ( ) θ1

π 2 θ2 −θ1
k
4
D
l
=mc
dθ
dt ( ) θ1

k=
mc ( dθdt ) θ1

π 2 θ2 −θ1
D
4 l

Heat Conduction through Composite Rods of Different Materials

1. When we dealing with the daily activities we always combining two or more different material
that have a different temperature gradient.
2.Figure 11-3 show the perfectly insulated rod R and S made of different material at steady
state (mean the temperature at every point along the is constant , hence

( dQdt ) =( dQdt ) =( dQdt )

R S θ 1 to θ2
)

Figure 11 - 6

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3. What is
( dQdt )
θ 1 to θ2
for the composite rod?
For the rod R

θ −θ ( dt )
dQ
I
( )
R
dQ 1 3 R
=−k A R ;θ −θ = . . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .(1)
1 3
dt R lR −k R A
For the rod S

−θ
dQ
I ( )
( ) dt s s
dQ θ 1 3
=−k S A ;θ3 −θ2 = .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .(2)
dt S lS −k s A
For the composite rod
θ1 −θ2
(1)+(2) ( dQdt ) =
θ1 to θ 2 lR
+
lS
kR A k S A
Thermal resistance
1. The above example can be solved by using the concept of thermal resistance. From the
dQ θ2 −θ1
equation of rate of heat flow dt = kA l
θ2 −θ1
l
= kA

l
kA is known as the thermal resistance, R
l
∑ k iA
2. For composite rods, the total thermal resistance i can be determined and
θ 2−θ 1
dQ li
dt =
∑ ki A
Example 11 - 1
Window glass has a thermal conductivity of 0.80 Wm-1 K-1. Calculate the rate at which heat is
conducted through a window of area 2.0 m2 and thickness 3.0 mm if the temperature in at air-
conditioned room is 20°C and the outdoors’ temperature is 32°C.
Solution:

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 dQ θ −θ
=kA 2 1
dt l
32 °−20 °
¿(0 . 8 )(2. 0 )
3×10−3
¿ 6400 W
Note: The temperature not necessarily convert into absolute because it’s a change of
temperature

Example 11 - 2
An Eskimo igloo is made of blocks of compressed snow, 0.50 m thick. What thickness of
expanded polystyrene would be required to give the same thermal insulation (i.e. the same rate
I of loss of heat for the same temperature difference across the walls)?
Thermal conductivity of compressed snow = 0.20 Wm-1 K-1
Thermal conductivity of expanded polystyrene = 0.012 Wm-1 K-1
Solution:
dQ θ −θ θ −θ
=k s A 2 1 =k P A 2 1
dt ls lP
ks kP
=
lS lP
0 . 2 0 . 012
=
0 . 5 l2
l 2 =0 .03 m

Example 11 - 3

Figure 11 - 7
A saucepan has a flat steel base with an area of 0.032 m2 and thickness 0.0040 m. It is in direct
thermal contact with a hotplate. The two surfaces in contact are at the same temperature. The
rate of heat flow through the base of the saucepan is 1500 W when water is boiling steadily at
1100°C in the saucepan. Calculate the surface temperature of the hotplate.
[Thermal conductivity of steel is 46 Wm-1 K-1]
Solution:
dQ θ −θ
=kA 2 1
dt l
θ2 −373
1500=(46 )(0 . 032)
0 .004
θ=377 K

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Example 11 - 4

Figure 11 - 8
A container with total surface area 40 m2 is used for keeping objects cool. The walls of the
container consist of wood and a poor conducting material. The thickness of wood and the poor
conducting material is 5.0 mm and 60.0 mm respectively. If the outside and inside surfaces are
at temperatures 35°C and 15°C respectively, what is the rate of heat flow through the walls of
the container with and without the poor conducting material.
Thermal conductivity of wood = 0.24 Wm-1 K-1
Thermal conductivity of poor conducting material = 0.04 Wm-1 K-1

Solution :
Assuming steady states are reached and lines of heat flow are parallel, so rate of the heat flow
dQ θ −θ
=kA 2 1
is dt l .
(a) Without poor conducting material
dQ 35−15
=0 . 24×40×
dt 5×10−3
¿ 3 . 84×104 W
(b) With poor conducting material
Let the temperature between wood and poor conducting material be , The rate of
flow of heat is the same through materials.
dQ 35−θ θ−15
=0 . 24×40× =0. 04×40×
dt 5×10 −3
60×10−3
θ=34 .7 ° C
Substituting  in the equation

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 dQ 35−34 . 7
=0 . 24×40×
dt 5×10−3
¿5 .76×102 W

Example 11 - 5
Three different materials X, Y and Z with length l, 3l and 2l are joined in series to formed a
rod.The thermal conductivity of the materials are 2k, k and 4k respectively. The free ends of the
rod is kept at 100°C and 0°C as shown in the diagram. Find the equilibrium temperature at the
X-Y and Y-Z interface.

Figure 11 - 9
Solution:
The total thermal resistance of the rod is ;
l l 3 l 2 l 16 l 4 l
∑ k iA = 2 kA + + = =
kA 4 kA 4 kA kA
i

Rate of flow through X,Y and Z are the same;

dQ temperature difference
=
dt l
∑ ki A
i
100−0
¿
4l
kA
100 kA
¿
4l

If θ1 and θ2 are the temperature at the X-Y,Y-Z interface, then

dQ 100−θ1 100 kA
=2 kA =
dt l 4l
8( 100−θ1 )=100
θ1 =87 . 5 ° C
And

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 dQ θ −0 100 kA
=4 kA 2 =
dt 2l 4l
8 θ2 =100
θ2 =12 .5 ° C

Analogy between thermal and electrical conduction

Thermal conduction Electrical conduction
V
I=
R
V
dQ dθ dQ ρl
dt = -kA dx or dt = A
1 V
A
=ρ l
V
Heat Q σA charge Q
Electric
l
=Electric potential V
Temperature 
dθ V
Temperature gradient dx Potential gradient l

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 1
Thermal conductivity k σ=
Electrical conductivity ρ
Table 11 - 1
11.2 Heat Convection
Learning Outcomes :
(a) describe heat transfer by convection;
(b) distinguish between natural and forced convection;

1. convection
Convection is heat transfer by mass motion of a fluid
2. Convection above a hot surface occurs because hot air expands, becomes less dense, and
rises (see Ideal Gas Law). Hot water is likewise less dense than cold water and rises, causing
convection currents which transport energy.

Figure 11 - 10

Natural Convection
1. Natural convection, or free convection, occurs due to temperature differences which affect
the density, and thus relative buoyancy, of the fluid. Heavier (more dense) components will
fall, while lighter (less dense) components rise, leading to bulk fluid movement. Natural
convection can only occur, therefore, in a gravitational field
2. A common example of natural convection is the rise of smoke from a fire.

Force Convection
1. In forced convection, also called heat advection, fluid movement results from external
surface forces such as a fan or pump. Forced convection is typically used to increase the rate
of heat exchange. Many types of mixing also utilize forced convection to distribute one
substance within another.

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2. Forced convection also occurs as a by-product to other processes, such as the action of a
propeller in a fluid or aerodynamic heating. Fluid radiator systems, and also heating and
cooling of parts of the body by blood circulation, are other familiar examples of forced
convection
3. Convection heat tranfer is a very complex process, and there is no simple equation to
describe it.

11.3 Thermal Radiation

Learning Outcomes :
(a) describe heat transfer by radiation;
dQ
=eσ AT 4
(b) use Stefan-Boltzmann equation dt
(c) define a black body;

Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of charged

particles in matter.

1. All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. The
mechanism is that bodies with a temperature above absolute zero have atoms or molecules
with kinetic energies which are changing, and these changes result in charge-acceleration
and/or dipole oscillation of the charges that compose the atoms.
2.This motion of charges produces electromagnetic radiation in the usual way. However, the
side spectrum of this radiation reflects the wide spectrum of energies and accelerations of the
charges in any piece of matter at even a single temperature.
3. Examples of thermal radiation include the visible light and infrared light emitted by an
incandescent light bulb, the infrared radiation emitted by animals and detectable with an
infrared camera, and the cosmic microwave background radiation. Thermal radiation is
different from thermal convection and thermal conduction--a person near a raging bonfire
feels radiant heating from the fire, even if the surrounding air is very cold.
4. The rate of energy radiation from a surface is proportional to the surface area A.The rate
increases very rapidly with temperature, depending on the fourth power of absolute
temperature,T, the rate also depend on the nature of the surface, e (emissivity). e is the
dimensionless, an it magnitude between 0 to 1. thus the relation can be expressed as
dQ
= Ae σT 4 −8 -2 4
dt where σ =5.67051×10 Wm K known as Stefan-Boltzman
constant

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The relation are called Stefan-Boltzman law

Example 11 - 6
A thin square steel plate, 10 cm on a side, is heated to a temperature of 800C.If the emissivity
is 0.60, what is the total rate of radiation of energy?
Solution:
dQ 4
= Ae σT
dt
¿(10×10−2 )2 ×0 .6×5 . 67×10−8×(1073 K )4
¿ 900 W

Blackbody
1. "Blackbody radiation" or "cavity radiation" refers to an object or system which absorbs all
radiation incident upon it and re-radiates (emitted) energy which is characteristic of this
radiating system only, not dependent upon the type of radiation which is incident upon it. The
radiated energy can be considered to be produced by standing wave or resonant modes of
the cavity which is radiating.
2. While a body at absolute temperature T is radiating, it’s surroundings at temperature Ts are
also radiating, and the body absorbs some of this radiation.
3. If it is in thermal eqiulibrium T=Ts , the rate of radiation and absorbtion must be equal. For
this to be true so the net rate of the radiation from a body temperature T with surrounding at
temperature Ts is given by
H net = Ae σT 4 − Ae σT 4
s

From this equation

H + mean the heat flow out of the body
H – mean the heat flow in to the body

11.4 Global Warming

Learning Outcomes:
(a) explain the greenhouse effect and thermal pollution;
(b) suggest ways to reduce global warming.
1. Global warming or the greenhouse effect is the rising average temperature of Earth's
atmosphere and oceans since the late 19th century and its projected continuation. Since the
early 20th century, Earth's average surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 °C

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 (1.4 °F), with about two thirds of the increase occurring since 1980. Warming of the climate
system is unequivocal, and scientists are more than 90% certain that most of it is caused by
increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities such as
deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels.These findings are recognized by the national
science academies of all major industrialized nations.

Figure 11 - 11

2. Global warming (also called the greenhouse effect) describes the gradual increase of the air
temperature in the earth's lower atmosphere.
3. A greenhouse is made entirely of glass. When sunlight (shortwave radiation) strikes the
glass, most of it passes through and warms up the plants, soil and air inside the greenhouse.
As these objects warm up they give off heat, but these heat waves have a much longer
wavelength than the incoming rays from the sun. This longwave radiation cannot easily pass
through glass, it is re- radiated into the greenhouse, causing everything in it to heat up.

The Natural Greenhouse Effect

1. The term greenhouse effect is used to describe the warming effect that certain gases have
on the temperature of the earth's atmosphere under normal conditions.
2. Sunlight (shortwave radiation) passes easily through the earth's atmosphere. Once it strikes
and warms the earth's surface, longwave radiation is given off and goes back into the
atmosphere. While some of this longwave radiation or heat escapes into space, most of it is
absorbed or held by carbon dioxide and other gases that exist in small quantities in the
atmosphere. Thus these gases form a `blanket' that keeps the earth an average of 33
degrees centigrade warmer than it would be if this greenhouse effect did not occur. Without

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 these gases the whole planet would be an icy wasteland with an average temperature of 16
degrees centigrade below freezing!

Thermal Pollution
1. Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient
water temperature.
2. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and
industrial manufacturers.
3. When water used as a coolant is returned to the natural environment at a higher
temperature, the change in temperature decreases oxygen supply, and affects ecosystem
composition. Urban runoff–stormwater discharged to surface waters from roads and parking
lots–can also be a source of elevated water temperatures.
4. When a power plant first opens or shuts down for repair or other causes, fish and other
organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by the abrupt change in
water temperature known as "thermal shock."

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