Introduction

In our modern world, the rise of digital technologies has completely transformed the way we
communicate, share information, and respond to emergencies. Among these technological
advancements, social media has emerged as a formidable tool that transcends geographical
boundaries and enables real-time connections between individuals worldwide. However, as
social media integrates into our daily lives, it also intersects with crucial legal frameworks
such as International Humanitarian Law (IHL). Before delving into the impact of social
media on IHL, it is important to provide a comprehensive definition of social media. Various
definitions exist depending on the perspective, including the societal context one resides in—
whether it is an open society or a closed one. Nevertheless, this paper refers to the following
definition of social media: “Social media is a collective term for websites and applications
that focus on communication, community-based input, interaction, content sharing and
collaboration.”1

Social media is one of the most popular online activities in the world, with over 4.26 billion
people using social media in 2021, and the number is projected to continue increasing. The
projected number of worldwide social network users in 2027 is estimated to be almost six
billion.2 When discussing or studying the laws of war, one soon finds that the primary
instruments of IHL, namely the 1949 Geneva Conventions3 and the two 1977 Additional
Protocols4, were drawn up at a period when some aspects of warfare varied tremendously
from today's world. This is reasonable and not a problem per se. Many of the rules outlined in
the conventions on the laws of war are considered to be customary law; hence, the four
Geneva conventions are among the few globally recognized legal instruments, reflecting
universal ideals of ethical behavior. No matter how much technology advances, and it will

1
Ben Lutkevich & Ivy Wigmore, What is Social Media?, WHATIS (Sept. 3, 2021), https://www.techtarget.com
2
Number of worldwide social network users 2027
Statista, STATISTA, https://www.statista.com/statistics/278414/number-of-worldwide-social-network-users/ (last
visited Mar. 10, 2024).
3
Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field.
Geneva, 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 31; Convention (II) for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick
and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea. Geneva, 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 85; Convention (III)
relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War. Geneva, 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 135; Convention (IV) relative
to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva, 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 287.
4
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of
International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 3; Protocol Additional to the Geneva
Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts
(Protocol II), 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 609; Protocol additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949,
and relating to the adoption of an additional distinctive emblem (adopted 8 December 2005, entered into force
15 January 2007) 2404 UNTS 261.
advance far beyond anything we can fathom today, fundamental principles in the rules of war
should remain unchanged.

Social media played a significant role in the Arab Spring, where it helped activists break
down psychological barriers and, in some cases, organize physical protests.5 This
demonstrates the power of social media in mobilizing and galvanizing communities towards a
common goal. However, along with its numerous benefits, social media also presents
significant challenges, particularly in the realm of propaganda and disinformation. The use of
social media platforms for the dissemination of propaganda and disinformation has emerged
as a pressing issue in the context of compliance with International Humanitarian Law and the
protection of civilians. This research paper examines the impact of social media on
compliance with International Humanitarian Law and the protection of civilians. Social
media has revolutionized information dissemination by providing a platform for individuals
and organizations to share their perspectives, ideas, and opinions with a global audience. This
makes it especially challenging for those dealing with humanitarian emergencies to
distinguish between false or harmful information and beneficial messages, given the vast
amount of information available on social media platforms. For example, in Iraq, the number
of social media users has exponentially increased in recent years, there were 33.72
million internet users in January 2023. This growth in usage contributes to increased
exposure and consumption of incorrect information, including propaganda and
disinformation, and the spread of video-based misinformation or disinformation is rapidly
increasing. The Role of Digital Diplomacy in Addressing Propaganda and Disinformation in
addition to social media, the concept of digital diplomacy has also emerged as a crucial tool
in addressing propaganda and disinformation. Digital diplomacy refers to the incorporation of
digital media and technology in the realm of diplomacy, particularly in the promotion of
foreign policies. It enables countries to interact with global audiences, counteract
misinformation, and broadcast their narratives. Through the utilization of digital platforms,
countries can establish direct communication with international audiences, counteract
propaganda, and combat disinformation in real-time.

5
Brown, H., Guskin, E. and Mitchell, A. (2012) The role of social media in the arab uprisings, Pew Research
Center’s Journalism Project. Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/2012/11/28/role-social-
media-arab-uprisings/ (Accessed: 11 March 2024).
2. Social media as a channel for communication during armed conflict

2.1 Identifying differences in communication on social media

With numerous social media platforms available, each has unique characteristics that appeal
to different user preferences. These platforms are widely used, with 60% of the global
population engaging with them6. Common features of social media platforms include the
ability for users to share content, perspectives, and multimedia information, with easy access,
global reach, and rapid flow of information. Additionally, social media platforms can be
categorized into different types, such as collaborative platforms, blogs and micro-blogs,
content communities, and social networking sites. The analysis in this thesis will focus on
platforms like Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Facebook, and Snapchat. While some platform-
specific characteristics have migrated to other platforms due to competition, newer platforms
like TikTok offer unique features, such as video uploading and targeted audience engagement
based on viewer preferences. However, TikTok has faced criticism for various reasons.
TikTok has become a topic of concern among Western governments, particularly due to its
ownership by the Chinese government. The fear is that user data could be misused and that
the platform may be subject to Chinese propaganda. As a result, many governments have
banned TikTok on government devices, and India has even extended the ban to all devices.7

However, the focus of this thesis is not on these controversies, but rather on how different
social media platforms can be utilized in armed conflict. For instance, Twitter has been
widely used during the ongoing war in Ukraine as it allows for rapid sharing of information
with a large audience. Users can follow trending topics, such as #WarInUkraine, to stay
informed. Additionally, so-called hobby spies have emerged as a significant force on Twitter,
verifying information and ensuring it reaches competent authorities. Social media platforms
that allow users to share content with a wider audience, such as Twitter, TikTok, or YouTube,
are generally more effective for reaching a large audience during armed conflict. Other
platforms, such as Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat, which primarily restrict content to
followers and friends, are less useful in this context. It is important to consider the
6
Kemp, S. (2023a) Digital 2023: Global Overview Report - DataReportal – Global Digital Insights,
DataReportal. Available at: https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2023-global-overview-report (Accessed: 11
March 2024).

7
Davis, D. (2023) Government TikTok bans: Exploring the global impact, Forbes. Available at:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/darreonnadavis/2023/06/06/government-tiktok-bans-exploring-the-global-impact/?
sh=5d882b3570c0 (Accessed: 11 March 2024).
implications of using certain platforms for civilians participating in hostilities, as it may
impact their protection.

For a considerable period, war correspondents have been present in hostilities, but social
media has transformed the way this profession operates in numerous ways. Following this,
the chapter will delve into the subject of propaganda. Propaganda is a crucial instrument for
parties involved in a conflict, but its use is governed by international humanitarian law (IHL)
as it can be employed to incite heinous crimes such as genocide and crimes against humanity.
The emergence of social media has significantly impacted the utilization of propaganda,
which may have detrimental consequences for the observance of IHL and international
human rights law (IHRL).

In the digital age, the proliferation of social media has transformed the landscape of
communication, creating a fertile ground for the spread of propaganda and disinformation.
This phenomenon has profound implications for international humanitarian law (IHL), which
seeks to protect individuals and civilian populations during times of armed conflict.
Propaganda and disinformation campaigns on social media can have several detrimental
effects that may violate IHL principles. Firstly, they can incite violence and hatred against
targeted groups, leading to potential war crimes. For instance, social media was infamously
used to fuel the flames of violence during the Rwandan genocide.8 Secondly, the distortion of
information vital to securing human needs, such as misinformation about humanitarian aid,
can disrupt the delivery of essential services to those in need9. Lastly, the spread of false
information can cause severe mental suffering and panic among civilian populations, further
destabilizing regions in conflict.10
The legal framework of IHL, along with international human rights law and international
criminal law, provides a patchwork of protections against such abuses. However, the rapid
evolution of digital warfare has outpaced the development of these laws, leaving significant
gaps and ambiguities that undermine their effectiveness.11

The advent of social media has revolutionized the way information is disseminated and
consumed. Its rapid spread and accessibility have made it a powerful tool for communication.
However, this same power can be misused to propagate propaganda and disinformation,
which can have severe consequences in the context of international humanitarian law (IHL).
The Mechanisms of Propaganda and Disinformation: Social media platforms can be
exploited to spread propaganda and disinformation rapidly across borders. This can be done
through:
Bots and Fake Accounts Automated accounts, or “bots,” can significantly amplify
misleading information on social media platforms. They are programmed to engage with
8
Eian Katz, “Liar’s war: Protecting civilians from disinformation during armed conflict,” 102 IRRC 659 (2020)
9
IBID
10
IBID
11
IBID
content in a way that mimics human users, which can give false information an appearance of
credibility and widespread acceptance. For example, research has shown that bots were
involved in up to 20% of the conversations on social media, especially pertaining to elections
and other political issues.12 These bots can like, share, and comment on posts, influencing the
social media algorithms that determine what content is most visible and thereby shaping
public discourse2.

Echo Chambers Social media algorithms can create echo chambers, which are environments
where users are predominantly exposed to opinions and information that reinforce their
existing beliefs. This happens because platforms are designed to show users content that they
are likely to engage with, based on their past behavior. Such echo chambers can lead to
increased polarization, as users become more entrenched in their views and isolated from
opposing perspectives3. Studies have found that the majority of content people see on
platforms like Facebook comes from like-minded sources, confirming the existence of these
echo chambers4.

Microtargeting Microtargeting involves using data analytics to identify and target

individuals with highly personalized messages. This technique can be exploited for
disinformation campaigns, where tailored messages are designed to exploit pre-existing
political fissures and biases. For instance, during the 2016 U.S. election, Russian
disinformation campaigns targeted Facebook followers, and the now-defunct Cambridge
Analytica exploited user data for political microtargeting5. Microtargeting allows for the
dissemination of disinformation to specific groups with great precision, using the data
collected by social media platforms6.
These tactics represent a significant challenge to the integrity of public discourse and the
democratic process. It is essential for social media platforms, policymakers, and users to
work together to mitigate the impact of these phenomena. Strategies could include improving
the transparency of social media algorithms, enhancing digital literacy among users, and
developing more robust systems for detecting and countering bots and fake accounts.
Impact on International Humanitarian Law Propaganda and disinformation can lead to
violations of IHL in several ways:
Incitement to Violence The use of social media for incitement to violence is a direct
violation of the principle of distinction and protection under IHL. This principle mandates the
protection of civilian populations and non-combatants during times of war. However, social
media can be used to spread hate speech, false accusations, and calls for violence that target
specific groups or individuals. For example, the events of January 6, 2021, in the United
States demonstrated how influential figures could use social media for networked incitement,
leading to large-scale political violence1. Such acts can escalate conflicts and lead to war
crimes, where protected persons become targets of violence due to the spread of
disinformation2.

Undermining Humanitarian Operations Disinformation can severely disrupt humanitarian

operations by spreading false narratives about the intentions and actions of humanitarian
workers. This can lead to a loss of trust among the affected populations and hinder the
delivery of aid. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, misinformation about the virus
and vaccination campaigns disrupted health operations and led to vaccine hesitancy3. In

12
Pascal Podvin, “The Social Impact Of Bad Bots And What To Do About Them,” Forbes Technology Council,
December 4, 2020
conflict zones, rumors and false reports can cause communities to reject assistance from
humanitarian organizations, leaving vulnerable populations without crucial support4.

Psychological Warfare The dissemination of disinformation can be a form of psychological

warfare, causing fear, confusion, and panic among civilian populations. This is contrary to
the principles of IHL, which aim to protect the mental and physical well-being of civilians.
The psychological impact of disinformation is significant; it can lead to stress, anxiety, and a
sense of helplessness. Studies have identified key psychological mechanisms, such as initial
information processing and cognitive dissonance, that explain how disinformation is
absorbed and spread, leading to these adverse effects5. The spread of disinformation can also
erode trust within communities and damage the reputation of humanitarian operations, further
exacerbating the psychological toll on civilians6.