Module 1 - Introduction To Steel Design

Carlos Hilado Memorial State College
Alijis Campus | Binalbagan Campus | Fortune Towne Campus | Talisay Campus
To be a leading GREEN institution of higher learning in the global community by 2030

(Good governance, Research-oriented, Extension-driven, Education for Sustainable Development & Nation-building)
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
STRUCTURAL
STEEL DESIGN
MODULE 1
Prepared by:
ENGR. APOLONIO D. CASIBUA, JR., M.En.E.

Instructor
1
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AUGUST
CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN
2020

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I- INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

1.1 The Development of Structural Metals
1.2 Structural Behavior, Analysis and Design
1.3 The Responsibilities of the Structural Designer
1.4 Design Methods for Structural Steel Members
1.5 Nominal Strengths and Factor of Safety
1.6 Failures of Engineering Structures
1.7 Handling and Shipping Structural Steel
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2020

1.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURAL METALS
Since the mid-1890s, structural steel has been the principal metal used in the
construction of bridges and buildings. Before this time, however, other metals such as
cast iron and wrought iron were favored.
Cast iron was developed in China in the sixth century B.C. It was introduced to
western Europe in the 15th century, where it was used mostly for weaponry, including
cannons and shot.
In the 18th century, new manufacturing techniques made cast iron cheap enough
and available in large enough quantities to become a practical building material, and
in the late 1770s, the first cast-iron bridges were built in England. Because cast iron is
strong in compression but relatively brittle, these bridges were usually arch-shaped to
minimize tensile stresses.
By the 1820s, mills had begun rolling rails for railroads. At first, most of these rails
were made from wrought iron. Wrought iron had been manufactured in western Europe
since the Middle Ages, but in the 1820s it was not yet widely used in building. As
processes improved, however, wrought iron became more plentiful and of better
quality, and around 1840, wrought iron began to replace cast iron in building.
Cast iron was effectively abandoned as a structural material by the end of the
century, due in part to the catastrophic collapses of a number of cast-iron railway
bridges between the 1840s and 1890s.
In the 1850s, improvements in the manufacturing process made steel production

faster and cheaper. Steel, which had previously been expensive and thus used mainly
for small items such as knives, became practical for use as a building material.
The rolling of wrought-iron rails evolved into the rolling of I-shaped beams by the
1870s. At first, these beams were manufactured in both wrought iron and steel, but
steel could be produced with less effort and in greater quantity. Shapes rolled in steel
gradually replaced the wrought-iron shapes, and steel almost completely dominated
construction by 1900.
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1.2 STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR, ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
STRUCTURE is that which is built or constructed, an edifice or building of any kind, or

any piece of work artificially built up or composed of parts joined together in some definite
manner, S102-NSCP,2015
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR is the response of the structure to applied loads and

environmental effects (such as wind, earthquakes, temperature changes, snow, ice, rain,
etc.)
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS is the determination of the effects of loads on physical

structures and their components. Structures subject to this type of analysis include all that
must withstand loads, such as buildings, bridges, aircraft and ships. Structural analysis
employs the fields of applied mechanics, materials science and applied mathematics to
compute a structure's deformations, internal forces, stresses, support reactions,
accelerations, and stability. https://en.wikipedia.org
STRUCTURAL DESIGN is a method or tool by which we find out safe and economical
specifications of a structure or a member of the structure sufficient to carry the load. In
other words, finding out cross-sectional dimension, grade of material, amount of
reinforcement etc. necessary to withstand the internal forces that we have got from
structural analysis. https://www.civilsimplified.com
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING is a discipline of structural engineering dealing with the

analysis and design of structures that support or resist loads ensuring the safety of the
structures against natural forces. S102-NSCP,2015
STRUCTURAL FAILURE is the reduction of capability of a structural system or

component to such a degree that it cannot safely serve its intended purpose. ASCE,1981
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1.3 THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE STRUCTURAL DESIGNER

The structural designer must learn to arrange and proportion the parts of structures so that
they can be practically erected and will have sufficient strength and reasonable
economy.
1. Safety. Not only must the frame of a structure safely support the loads to which it is
subjected, but it must support them in such a manner that deflections and vibrations
are not so great as to frighten the occupants or to cause unsightly cracks.
2. Cost. The designer needs to keep in mind the factors that can lower cost without
sacrifice of strength. It includes the use of standard-size members, simple connections
and details, and members and materials that will not require an unreasonable amount
of maintenance through the years.
3. Constructability. Another objective is the design of structures that can be fabricated

and erected without great problems arising. Designers need to understand fabrication
methods and should try to fit their work to the fabrication facilities available.
Designers should learn everything possible about the detailing, fabrication, and field
erection of steel. The more the designer knows about the problems, tolerances, and
clearances in shop and field, the more probable it is that reasonable, practical, and
economical designs will be produced.
This knowledge should include information concerning the transportation of the

materials to the job site (such as the largest pieces that can be transported practically
by rail or truck), labor conditions, and the equipment available for erection. Perhaps
the designer should ask, “Could I get this thing together if I were sent out to do it?”
Finally, he or she needs to proportion the parts of the structure so that they will not
unduly interfere with the mechanical features of the structure (pipes, ducts, etc.) or the
architectural effects. 5
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1.4 DESIGN BASIS

Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) and allowable strength design (ASD) are
distinct methods. Their provisions are not identical and not interchangeable.
Indiscriminate use of combinations of the two methods could result in unpredictable
performance or unsafe design. Thus, the LRFD and ASD methods are specified as
alternatives. There are, however, circumstances in which the two methods could be used
in the design, modification or renovation of a structural system without conflict, such as
providing modifications to a structural floor system of an older building after assessing
the as-built conditions.
1.4.1 LIMIT STATE
A limit state is a condition in which a structural system or component becomes unfit for
its intended purpose (serviceability limit state), or has reached its ultimate load carrying
capacity (strength limit state).
 Limit states may be dictated by;

a) Functional requirements- maximum deflections or drift
b) Structural behavior- formation of a plastic hinge or mechanism
c) Collapse of the whole or part of the structure- instability or fracture
 Two kinds of limit states apply to structures:

a) Strength limit states, which define safety against local or overall failure
conditions during the intended life of the structure.
⟶ The most common strength limit states are yielding, buckling and
rupture.
b) Serviceability limit states, which define functional requirements.
⟶ The most common serviceability limit states include deflections or
drift, and vibrations.
Users Note:
Focuses are given primarily on strength limit states because of overriding
considerations of public safety. This does not mean that limit states of serviceability
are not important to the designer, who must provide for functional performance and
economy of design. However, serviceability considerations permit more exercise of
judgment on the part of the designer.
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1.4.2 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)

Is a method of proportioning structural members such that elastically computed
stresses produced in the members by nominal loads do not exceed specified
allowable stresses (also called Working Stress Design), S102-NSCP,2015
ASD is based on the concept that the maximum stress in a component shall
not exceed a specified allowable stress under normal service conditions. The
load effects are determined on the basis of an elastic analysis of the structure,
while the allowable stress is the limiting stress (at yielding, instability, rupture, etc.)
divided by a safety factor.
The safety factor in ASD provisions was a function of both the material and the
component being considered. It may have been influenced by factors such as
member length, member behavior, load source and anticipated quality of
workmanship.
With ASD, the service loads are generally not multiplied by safety factors. Rather,
they are summed up, as is, for various feasible combinations, and the largest
values so obtained are used to compute the forces in the members. These
total forces may not be greater than the nominal strengths of the members, divided
by appropriate safety factors. In equation form, the statement may be written as
𝑹𝒏 Eq. 1.1
≥ 𝑹𝒂
𝛀
Where:
𝑹𝒏 =Nominal strength of member
𝑹𝒂 =largest computed force in member
𝛀 =Safety factor (Greater than 1.0)
1.4.3 PLASTIC DESIGN (PD)

The plastic method, or inelastic (material strength beyond yield value) method, of
structural analysis is used to determine the maximum loads that a structure can
support prior to collapse.
In this design procedure, the limiting condition for the structure and its members
is the attainment of the load that would cause plastic collapse, usually called the
ultimate strength or plastic collapsed load. The plastic collapse load equals the
service load multiplied by a certain load factor.
The plastic analysis method has several advantages over the ASD and LRFD
design techniques. The principal advantages of the plastic analysis technique
according to Horne, M.R., and L.J. Morris, 1982 as follows;
a. produces a more economical structure
b. provides a simple and direct design technique
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c. accurately models the structure at ultimate loads

Page
d. realistically predicts the ultimate strength

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2020

1.4.4 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN (LFD)

Factor that accounts for deviations of the nominal load from the actual load, for
uncertainties in the analysis that transforms the load into a load effect and for the
probability that more than one extreme load will occur simultaneously.
1.4.5 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

Method of proportioning structural components such that the design strength
equals or exceeds the required strength of the component under the action of
the LRFD load combinations.
 The LRFD provisions are based on:
a) probabilistic models of loads and resistance
b) calibration of the LRFD provisions selected members
c) the evaluation of the resulting provisions by judgment and past
experience aided by comparative design office studies of representative
structures
The purpose of developing the LRFD method was to establish a theoretically more
consistent and accurate safety factor, based both on variations in load and on
variations in load capacity. The size of the resistance factor is a function of the
limit states for the various modes of failure and the normal variances in steel
manufacture.
Using LRFD instead of ASD can often reduce the weight of needed structural steel
members by 5% to 15%. Whether such a reduction can in fact be made depends
on the live-to-dead load ratio and other design criteria such as serviceability. For
example, the need to limit beam deflection may demand a heavier or deeper beam
than strength requirements alone would call for.
The general requirement of LRFD is that the required strength is less than or
equal to the design strength. This can be stated as follows.
Eq. 1.2
∑ 𝜸𝒊 𝑸𝒊 ≤ ∅𝑹𝒏
Where:
𝜸𝒊 =Applicable load factor
𝑸𝒊 =the sum of the applied load types
𝑹𝒏 =Nominal load capacity
𝜙 = 𝐴pplicable resistance factor
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1.5 NOMINAL STRENGTHS AND FACTOR OF SAFETY
With both LRFD and ASD, the term nominal strength is constantly used.
The nominal strength of a member is its calculated theoretical strength, with no

safety factors (𝛀) or resistance factors (𝝓) applied.
⟶ In LRFD, a resistance factor, usually less than 1.0, is multiplied by the nominal
strength of a member.
⟶ In ASD, the nominal strength is divided by a safety factor, usually greater than
1.0, to account for variations in material strength, member dimensions, and
workmanship as well as the manner and consequences of failure.
The expression of safety is normally made in terms of factor of safety.
Factor of Safety of a structural members is defined as the ratio of strength of the member
to its maximum stress allowable in the structure.
Recommended factors of safety are the result of cumulative pooled experience and
history and are the minimum values that have been traditionally accepted as good
practice. Some uncertainties affecting safety factors;
1. Material strengths may initially vary appreciably from their assumed values and
they will vary more with time due to creep, corrosion, and fatigue.
2. The methods of analysis are often subject to appreciable errors
3. Nature or acts of God (earthquakes, typhoon, ect.) cause conditions difficult to
predict
4. The stresses produced during fabrication and erection are often severe
5. There are technological changes which affect the magnitude of live loads
6. Live loads are more difficult to predict accurately than dead loads, so the load
factor is larger for live loads than for dead loads
7. Other uncertainties are the presence of residual stresses and stress
concentrations, variation in dimensions of the member cross section.
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1.6 FAILURES OF ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

Benjamin Franklin supposedly made the observation that “a wise man learns more from
failures than from success.”
1. The vast majority of designers, experienced and inexperienced, select members

of sufficient size and strength. The collapse of structures is usually due to
insufficient attention to the details of connections, deflections, erection problems,
and foundation settlement. Rarely, if ever, do steel structures fail due to faults in
the material, but rather due to its improper use.
2. A frequent fault of designers is that after carefully designing the members of a
structure, they carelessly select connections which may or may not be of sufficient
size. They may even turn the job of selecting the connections over to drafters,
who may not have sufficient understanding of the difficulties that can arise in
connection design. Perhaps the most common mistake made in connection
design is to neglect some of the forces acting on the connections, such as twisting
moments. In a truss for which the members have been designed for axial forces
only, the connections may be eccentrically loaded, resulting in moments that
cause increasing stresses. These secondary stresses are occasionally so large
that they need to be considered in design.
3. Another source of failure occurs when beams supported on walls have insufficient
bearing or anchorage. Imagine a beam of this type supporting a flat roof on a
rainy night when the roof drains are not functioning properly. As the water begins
to form puddles on the roof, the beam tends to sag in the middle, causing a pocket
to catch more rain, which creates more beam sag, and so on. As the beam
deflects, it pushes out against the walls, possibly causing collapse of walls or
slippage of beam ends off the wall.
4. Foundation settlements cause a large number of structural failures, probably
more than any other factor. Most foundation settlements do not result in collapse,
but they very often cause unsightly cracks and depreciation of the structure.
5. Some structural failures occur because inadequate attention is given to
deflections, fatigue of members, bracing against swaying, vibrations, and the
possibility of buckling of compression members or the compression flanges of
beams. The usual structure, when completed, is sufficiently braced with floors,
walls, connections, and special bracing, but there are times during construction
when many of these items are not present. As previously indicated, the worst
conditions may well occur during erection, and special temporary bracing may be
required.
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1.7 Handling and Shipment of the Structural Steel

The following general rules apply to the sizes and weights of structural steel pieces that
can be fabricated in the shop, shipped to the job, and erected:
1. The maximum weights and lengths that can be handled in the shop and at a
construction site are roughly 90 tons and 120 ft, respectively.
2. Pieces as large as 8 ft high, 8 ft wide, and 60 ft long can be shipped on trucks with no
difficulty (provided the axle or gross weights do not exceed the permissible values
given by public agencies along the designated routes).
3. There are few problems in railroad shipment if pieces are no larger than 10 ft high, 8 ft
wide, and 60 ft long, and weigh no more than 20 tons.
4. Routes should be carefully studied, and carriers consulted for weights and sizes
exceeding the values given in (2) and (3).
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Carlos Hilado Memorial State College

Alijis Campus | Binalbagan Campus | Fortune Towne Campus | Talisay Campus

To be a leading GREEN institution of higher learning in the global community by 2030

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

ENGR. APOLONIO D. CASIBUA, JR., M.En.E.

To be a leading GREEN institution of higher learning in the global community by 2030

CHAPTER I- INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

To be a leading GREEN institution of higher learning in the global community by 2030

1.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURAL METALS

In the 1850s, improvements in the manufacturing process made steel production

To be a leading GREEN institution of higher learning in the global community by 2030

1.2 STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR, ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

STRUCTURE is that which is built or constructed, an edifice or building of any kind, or

STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR is the response of the structure to applied loads and

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS is the determination of the effects of loads on physical

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING is a discipline of structural engineering dealing with the

STRUCTURAL FAILURE is the reduction of capability of a structural system or

To be a leading GREEN institution of higher learning in the global community by 2030

1.3 THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE STRUCTURAL DESIGNER

3. Constructability. Another objective is the design of structures that can be fabricated

This knowledge should include information concerning the transportation of the

To be a leading GREEN institution of higher learning in the global community by 2030

1.4 DESIGN BASIS

1.4.1 LIMIT STATE

 Limit states may be dictated by;

 Two kinds of limit states apply to structures:

To be a leading GREEN institution of higher learning in the global community by 2030

1.4.2 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)

1.4.3 PLASTIC DESIGN (PD)

c. accurately models the structure at ultimate loads

d. realistically predicts the ultimate strength

To be a leading GREEN institution of higher learning in the global community by 2030

1.4.4 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN (LFD)

1.4.5 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

To be a leading GREEN institution of higher learning in the global community by 2030

1.5 NOMINAL STRENGTHS AND FACTOR OF SAFETY

The nominal strength of a member is its calculated theoretical strength, with no

The expression of safety is normally made in terms of factor of safety.

To be a leading GREEN institution of higher learning in the global community by 2030

1.6 FAILURES OF ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

1. The vast majority of designers, experienced and inexperienced, select members

To be a leading GREEN institution of higher learning in the global community by 2030

1.7 Handling and Shipment of the Structural Steel

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