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Rejuvenation of Water Bodies by Adopting Rainwater Harvesting and

Groundwater Recharging Practices in Catchment Area-A Case Study

Article · January 2008

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Sengupta, M. and Dalwani, R. (Editors). 2008
Proceedings of Taal2007: The 12th World Lake Conference: 766-776

Rejuvenation of Water Bodies by Adopting Rainwater Harvesting and

Groundwater Recharging Practices in Catchment Area- A Case Study
Manoj P. Samuel*1, A.C Mathew2,
1
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region Barapani, Meghalaya- 793 103, India
2
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute Kasaragod, Kerala- 671 124, India
*Corresponding author: Email: manojpsamuel@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The Crop production in district of Kasaragod in Kerala state (India) is characterized by low input–low
yield concept and rain-fed agriculture. Though the nature has been generous in bestowing the region with
bounty of water resources in form of rainwater but in the absence of scientific management of this vital
resources from rain and consequent surface flow, the water resources goes waste and creates havoc
downstream. Much of the enormous water resources remain unutilized and most of the natural ponds and
lakes are getting dried up due to absence of proper water resource planning and scientific management.
Efficient utilization and management of available rainwater along with recharge options is the core issue
if the cropping intensity and production is to be enhanced.
The rainwater harvesting can be implemented as a viable alternative to conventional water supply
or on-farm irrigation projects considering the fact that any land anywhere can be used to harvest
rainwater. Rainwater harvesting, irrespective of the technology used, essentially means harvesting and
storing water in days of abundance, for use in lean days. Storing of rainwater can be done in two ways;
(i) storing in an artificial storage and (ii) in the soil media as groundwater. The rainwater or runoff in the
form of a spring or stream can be harvested using simple and eco-friendly low-cost technologies such as
uv resistant plastic lined ponds, ferro-cement tanks etc or it can be soaked into the soil to recharge
aquifer. The studies suggested that these technologies are sustainable, locally adoptable, cost-effective
and affordable to the farmers. This study also revealed that the rejuvenation of the traditional water
harvesting structures in the district and the implementation of community water management schemes
with maximum people’s participation are the suitable options to mitigate all the ill effects of drought
and soil erosion prevalent in the area.

Keywords: Rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharging, runoff, roof water, ferro-cement tank, plastic
lining, agrifilm, silpaulin, storage hydrograph, irrigation, check dam

INTRODUCTION The efficient utilization and management of available

The alarming rise in world population and its'
boundless basic needs contribute indirectly to the
degradation of water resources worldwide. Depletion
of vegetation cover, pollution of water from different
sources, soil erosion and recession of water table
have become common in many catchments. These
factors have a pronounced impact on regions like
Kasaragod district in Kerala state in India where
economic crisis adds to the worsening situation. The
high population density, centralized rainy season,
less scope for water recharging, conversion of paddy
fields and low lying areas are the major reasons for
the water stress prevalent in Kasaragod district.
The nature has been generous in bestowing the
region with bounty of water resources in form of
rainwater but in the absence of scientific
management of this vital resources from rain and
consequent surface flow and underground storages,
the water resources go waste and creates havoc
downstream. Much of the enormous water resources
remain unutilized and most of the natural ponds and
lakes are getting dried up due to absence of proper
water resource planning and scientific management.
rainwater is the core issue if the cropping intensity
and production is to be enhanced. Rainwater
harvesting and its recycling through the micro
irrigation systems may revolutionize the state
agriculture by enhancing the production, productivity
and quality of produce.
Water is a vital component that determines the
full potential of the agriculture sector of any country.
Optimum development and efficient utilization of
our water resources, therefore, assumes great
significance. The practice of rainwater harvesting in
ponds and reusing the stored water for life saving
irrigation of crops and also for domestic purpose is
prevalent in India since ancient times. One can find
efficient management of water in the region in
traditional farming systems like Kattas and
Surangams in North Kerala and Karnataka, Zabo
system of Nagaland and Bamboo drip irrigation of
Meghalaya and Apatani valley in Arunachal Pradesh
(Agarwal and Narain, 1997).
Water Resources
The high variations in spatial and temporal rainfall
add to the complexity of problems associated with
water management faced by the country. Variations
in the rainfall pattern take place not only in time but
also in space. While the temporal distribution of
rainfall depends on the monsoon winds to a great
extent, the spatial distribution depends on the
configuration of land.
The important water related problems of the
Country as a whole in general includes frequent
floods and droughts, saline intrusion in the stream
and coastal aquifers, drying up of lakes, pollution of
water sources, soil erosion, water logging in
command area, the changes ion different phases of
the hydrologic cycles due to large scale reclamation
of wet lands, over exploitation of groundwater from
certain areas and pollution of surface and
groundwater sources. Large-scale pollution of water
resources is yet another burning problem accounting
to the scarcity of water for domestic needs. All this
only underscores the need for a scientific and
technical approach towards water management
(Venkateswarlu, 2001).
The district of Kasaragod is blessed with
abundant rainfall and a plenty of water resources. But
it is an irony that the District is drought hit too with
an acute shortage of water during the summer season.
The average annual rainfall of Kasaragod district is
350cm, as compared with the national average of
119cm. More than 70% of the rainfall is being
carried away to the nearby Arabian Sea as run-off.
The heavy runoff in turn promotes soil erosion,
which has reached an alarming rate of 16 ton/ha/year
in some parts of the district (Pisharady, 1992;
Anonymous, 1999). The extent of wasteland in the
district is 18,644 ha, which is 9.8% of the total
geographical area of the District (Sivasankara Bhat,
2003).
Out of the 44 rivers in Kerala, eight are flowing
through the district. Moreover, a number of natural
water resources and some unique water tapping
structures such as ‘Thurangam’ (tunnel) are the
peculiarities of the District. But even today, severe
floods during the rainy season and intense drought
during summer are making life miserable for the
people of the region. It is observed that most of the
natural lakes had been either dried up or unusable
and about 30% of the paddy fields, which is the
primary groundwater recharging mechanism, have
been converted.
The inclined topography, the less water
absorption capacity of the soil, a centralized rainfall,
the unscientific cultivation practices, the lack of
proper soil and water conservation measures,
conversion of paddy fields, lack of people’s
participation and the non-transparent developmental
schemes and programmes are some of the major
natural and man-made causes for the peculiar
situation prevailing in the district.
The region experiences excessive rainfall and
high floods during monsoon months and also suffer
from acute shortage of even drinking water in many
areas due to lack of management and so on and calls
for its integrated and multiple use for drinking,
irrigation, generation of hydropower, navigation,
pisciculture, recreation etc.
Rainfall Pattern
Kerala, ‘Gods own country’ is an ardent land blessed
with green vegetation, rivers, backwaters and many
other natural resources. It is probably one among the
few states blessed with two predominant rainy
seasons caused by South West monsoon during the
months June- August and North East monsoon
during the months September- November.
The average annual rainfall of Kasaragod
district is 3490 mm rainfall per year, while that of the
State as a whole is only 3000mm. About 84% of the
total rainfall is observed during the three months
between June and August and distributed as 27% in
June, 32% in July and 17.2% in August. The total
rainy days in a year varies from 105 to 129. About 85
to 90 rainy days are observed during June and
August. Generally, the District gets average rainfall
of 80.4%, 8.8% and 2.8% during South West
Monsoon, North - Eastern monsoon and summer
season respectively. On the other hand, when Kerala
state as a whole is concerned, on an average, they are
60%, 20% and 20% respectively. This ill-distributed
rainfall pattern adds to the severity of drought in the
district (Fig.1).
1200
Rainfall (mm)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
ar
l
n
ov
p
ay
Ju
Ja
Se
M
N
M
Months
Figure 1. Rainfall pattern of Kasaragod District
The figure shows that the rainfall is skewed and
ill distributed. Delay in pre monsoon showers and
slow onset of monsoon not only lead to serious
dislocations but also cause great damage to the crops.
On the other hand, the excessive precipitation causes
very rapid runoff on steep slopes resulting heavy soil
loss as well as siltation of riverbed. It may also lead
to catastrophic flood hazards in plains and also
dangerous land slides and promotes excessive
leaching of losses causing poor base status and soil
767
acidity leading to detrimental environment for
nutrient availability of common agricultural crops.
Moreover the time of concentration of the runoff is
too less due to higher velocity downstream and this
in turn adversely affect the groundwater recharging
process.
Rainwater Harvesting in the Present Context
The region loses the lion share of its rainwater
through runoff. It is in this background that the
rainwater harvesting assumes significance. It can be
implemented as a viable alternative to conventional
water supply considering the fact that any land
anywhere can be used to harvest rainwater.
Rainwater harvesting is in reality extending the fruits
of the monsoon based on the principle “Catch the
water where it falls” (Vijayanand, 2004). Rainwater
harvesting besides helping to meet the ever
increasing demand for water, helps to reduce the
runoff which is choking storm drains, avoid flooding
of roads, augment the ground water storage and to
control decline of water level, reduce groundwater
pollution, improve quality of groundwater and reduce
soil erosion (Anonymous, 2004). This is considered
to be an ideal solution of water problem where there
is inadequate groundwater supply or where surface
resources are either not available or insufficient. The
other advantages are that it helps utilize rainfall
runoff, which flows into sewer or storm drains and
therefore helps reduce flood hazards. The rainwater
.
Rainwater Harvesting
1 2
Immediate water security measures
(Short & Medium Term)
Engineering measures leading
Roof water Attitudinal and Behavioural
harvesting, storage Change (ABC) relating to
and controlled use water use & water literacy
Land Improvement
Roof water harvested
into Rain pits and
Staggered Contour
trenches
Figure 2. Two broad areas of Rainwater Harvesting
768
is bacteriologically pure and free from organic matter
and soft in nature. The structures required for
harvesting rainwater are simple, economical and eco-
friendly. Previous studies show that subsistence
agriculture in hilly region could be successfully
transformed into a profit earning enterprise by
tapping and utilizing water resources. (Singh et al.,
2006).
Rainwater harvesting is viewed as a water
security measure with two broad types of
programmes as given in Fig.2.
Rainwater harvesting, irrespective of the
technology used, essentially means harvesting and
storing water in days of abundance, for use in lean
days. Storing of rainwater can be done in two ways;
(i) storing in an artificial storage and (ii) in the soil
media as groundwater. The former is more
specifically called roof water harvesting and is rather
a temporary measure, focusing on human needs
providing immediate relief from water scarcity, while
the latter has the potential to provide sustainable
relief from water scarcity, addressing the needs of all
living classes in nature. The rainwater or runoff in
the form a spring or stream can be harvested in RCC/
Ferro-cement/Plastic/fibre tanks or various types of
low-cost lined ponds for utilizing in lean periods.
Experiments showed that the harvested rainwater
could be used to irrigate winter season vegetable
crops through micro-irrigation system to enhance
productivity and profitability (Singh et al., 2006).
Sustainable water security measures
(Long Term Measures)
Natural GWR
to Groundwater Recharge Agronomic & vegetative
measures
Measures Drainage line
treatment
 Collection
Surface

Gutter
Filter system

First flush system

Tank

Figure 3. Ferro-cement tank to harvest roof water

Various Approaches for Direct Harvesting of amount and frequency of rainfall, runoff coefficient
Rain Water of the collecting surface, number of users, daily
requirements and dearth period are important for
Roof Water Harvesting in Tanks calculating the size and capacity of the storage tank.
The method of calculation is depicted in Table. 1.
Roof water harvesting is a technology used for
collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops,
mostly in tanks. In domestic rooftop rainwater
harvesting Systems, rainwater from the house roof is
collected in a storage vessel or tank for use during
the periods of scarcity.
Usually these systems are designed to support
the drinking and cooking needs of the family at the
doorstep. Such a system usually comprises a roof, a
storage tank and guttering arrangement to transport
the water from the roof to the storage tank (Fig.3). In
addition, a first flush system to divert the dirty water,
which contains debris collected on the roof during
non-rainy periods and a filter unit to remove debris
and contaminants before water enters the storage
tank are also provided.
Among the above components, storage tank is
the most expensive and critical component. Storage
tank is used to store the water that is collected form
the rooftops. The capacity of the storage tank
determines the cost of the system and reliability of
the system for assured water supply. There are
unlimited number of options for the construction of Figure 4. Plan and elevation of a FC tank of capacity
these tanks with respect to the shape (cylindrical, 10 m3
rectangular and square), the size (Capacity from
1,000 lt. to 15,000 lt. or even higher) and the material In case of designing a water harvesting tank for
of construction (brickwork, stonework, cement meeting irrigation needs, the irrigation requirement
bricks, ferrocement, plain cement concrete and of the cultivated crops has to be calculated first. The
reinforced cement concrete). The plan and elevation knowledge of factors such as effective rainfall,
of a ferro-cement tank of capacity 10 m3 are shown evapotranspiration (ET), application efficiency and
in Fig.4. leaching requirements, if any, are essential for
A Demand-supply analysis is required while calculating the irrigation requirement of the crops.
designing water collection tanks. The factors such as Subsequently the total seasonal water requirement

769
for the entire area to be irrigated can be found out.
Water needed for other purposes such as fishery has
also to be taken into consideration while designing
the capacity of the tank. The direct evaporation from
the water surface in the tank has also to be taken into
consideration and corresponding adjustments in the
size of the tank can be made.
Roof Water Harvesting for Ground Water Recharge
Excess Roof top rainwater can be diverted to the
existing open / bore well after filtration. Along with
this, rainwater available in the open spaces around
the building may be recharged into the ground
through the simple effective methods such as
Percolation pits (Small houses) or Recharge Trench
(Big houses/Apartments). Generally these pits are
filled with pebbles or brick pieces to avoid water
stagnation. In the present study, excess rainwater
from roof as well as other clean surfaces around the
house was allowed to get recharged into the well.
The spilled over water from the rainwater harvesting
tank was also allowed directly to flow into the well.
The static water level in well is constantly monitored
before and after commencing the recharge processes.
Results of the studies conducted on the well yield
and drawdown of a well before and after recharging
revealed that significant improvement in both the
parameters of the well after recharge of water from
the roof and house premises.

Table 1. Calculation of the size of the collection space and storage tank

Water collected from -

Cumulative
-- m2 surface area in Cumulative Difference between
Rainfall in water Monthly demand
Month litres (multiplied by Demand in cumulative supply
mm collected in in litres
runoff coefficient of Litres and demand
litres
the surface)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Assuming number
of members as 4 or
Water collected during Water 5 and per capita The value of column
Water
the month from the collected daily use of 15 four is subtracted
demand for
Rainfall available collection prior to the litres in the case of from that of column
the current
Calendar data from space (runoff current drinking and 40/ six. The greatest
month is
Months approved coefficient is 0.75- month is 50 litres for resultant value is
added to the
sources 0.95 for roof surfaces added to the general domestic considered to be the
previous
and 0.05 –0.35 for previous purposes or size of the storage
months
various land surfaces) month Irrigation tank.
requirement of the
crops

Drawdown of wells with and without recharging

Months

Jan Feb Mar Apr May jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0

4
depth in m

6
Well drawdown without recharging
8 Well drawdown with recharging

10 Well bottom

12

14

Figure 5. The draw down of the well with and without recharging

770
 The results of the drawdown studies of the well
without recharging and after initiating recharging
measures are depicted in Fig.5. However ultimate
care should be taken to filter out the impurities and
silt in the roof water or runoff before it is allowed to
contribute to the well water.
Rain Water Collection in Large Lined Ponds
For domestic water needs, taking the economy and
durability of tanks into consideration, ferrocement
tanks of cylindrical shape in capacities ranging
between 4,000 lt. and 15,000 lt. are most suitable.
Requirement of Institutions and small communities
for RWH Structures will be larger than that of
individual households. Such structures will have to
professionally investigated and plans have to be
prepared on a case-by-case basis. Ferrocement
requires only a few easily available materials -
cement, sand, galvanized iron (GI) wire mesh, and
mild steel (MS) bars - in small amounts compared to
masonry and RCC.
The rainwater can be collected in large quantity
in ferro-cement or plastic line ponds. Generally big
ponds are constructed and subsequently lined with
plastic sheets like silpolin or HDPE (Fig.6).
The roof water, runoff water (after filtration) or
spring water may be diverted to the pond. A large
sum of water can be harvested using such ponds,
which in turn may be used for irrigation or household
purposes. The cost of construction will be less than
15 paise per litre. Moreover it is durable, easy to
construct and having less maintenance cost.
Figure 6. Plastic lined rainwater-harvesting tanks for
irrigation
Rainwater/Runoff Collection in Water Harvesting
Ponds
Normally three types of ponds, viz. embankment
type, excavated (dugout) and dugout-cum-
embankment type are constructed for collection of
excess runoff. Embankment type and dugout-cum-
embankment types of ponds are feasible in hilly and
undulating topography. Embankment type of ponds
are created by constructing a small length of dam
across a water course whereas dugout-cum-
embankment type of pond can be created by
excavating a site surrounded by hillocks from two or
three sides and making the embankment from
excavated soil on remaining sides. In flat areas these
two types of ponds are not feasible. In such areas,
dugout ponds are constructed.
Site Selection
Selection of suitable site for construction of a pond is
one of the important components. The site selected
should ensure that the catchment is neither too small
nor too big. Too small catchment may not contribute
sufficient water to fill the pond while too big
catchment may result in rapid siltation of the pond.
Catchment having either forest or horticulture as
major land use or well protected by conservation
measures such as bunds, terraces and trenches will
contribute less silt to the pond. Stony site should be
avoided.
Design Principles
Three steps are to be followed in designing of a
water harvesting pond. These are hydrologic design,
hydraulic design and structural design.
Hydrologic design
Hydrologic design involves the estimation of peak
rate of runoff to be passed safely through the pond
and runoff volume from catchment of the pond. The
runoff is estimated for design frequency of 25 years.
In other words, we have to consider those values of
intensity and amount of rainfall, which are expected
to occur or exceeded once in 25 years.
Rainfall intensity-duration-recurrence interval
relationship
I = KTn I=rainfall intensity for a given
rainfall duration in cm/hr
(t+a)b T = recurrence interval in years
t = storm duration in hours
K, n, a & b = constants for a particular location
The following values for the constants may be taken:
K = 6.933; a = 0.1353; b = 0.50 and n = 0.8801
(Schwab et al., 1993)
Estimation of peak rate of runoff
Q = CIA Q = Peak rate of runoff in cumecs
360C = Runoff coefficient varying from 0 to 1
depending upon watershed
Conditions
771
I = Rainfall intensity in mm/hr for the design
frequency and for duration equal to the time of
concentration.
A = Area of catchment in ha. (Schwab et al., 1993)
Estimation of Runoff Volume (SCS Method)
Q = (P-0.3S)2
(P+0.3S) Q = actual runoff in mm
P = rainfall in mm
S = potential maximum retention
CN = 25400
254 + S
(Schwab et al., 1993)
Hydraulic design
This includes determination of storage capacity and
storage dimension (length, width and height) of the
pond and dimensions of spillway for safe disposal of
excess inflow to the pond. Water should flow
through the structure safely without overtopping the
embankment and when water leaves the structure; its
energy should be dissipated. Standard weir formula
for determining the crest length is used.
Q = C L H3/2
Q is the peak discharge, C is a constant, L is length
of the crest and h is depth of flow over the crest of
weir.
Capacity of the pond is calculated by Trapezoidal or
Simpson’s rule (Schwab et al., 1993)
Figure 7. Schematic diagram of agrifilm lining of water harvesting pond
772
Trapezoidal rule
V = h/2 (A1 + A2)
V is the volume of storage between two contours, A1
and A2 are the area enclosed by the contours, and h
is the interval between two contours
Simpson’s rule
V = h/3 (twice the area of odd contours + 4 times the
area of even contours + area of first and last contour).
For using this formula, the number of contours
should be odd.
(Schwab et al., 1993)
Agrifilm (LDPE) lined Pond
Rainwater can be harvested in a dugout-cum-
embankment pond at the mid or lower reaches of the
hillslope for multiple uses including drinking water
supply, recycling in winter season for crop
production and fish production. The soil in the entire
region except at few places, have low water holding
capacity and seepage losses are very high.
According to a study at ICAR Research
Complex for NEH Region, Barapani, seepage losses
could be as high as about 55 L/m2/day. Owing to the
high rate of seepage loss, harvested water will be lost
within 1-2 months of recession of rain. Therefore,
lining of pond with LDPE agrifilm is very much
essential for retention of harvested water in the pond
for the entire dry season i.e. from November to
March.
Method Adopted for Lining of the Pond with
Agrifilm
After the pond was dug as per the design, pond bed
and sides was made weed and stone free. Steps at 50
cm vertical interval were made on sides of the pond
to hold the agrifilm at its place. On top of the sides,
continuous trench of 50x50 cm was dug for the
purpose of anchoring the agrifilm to prevent it from
sliding down. Pre-emergence weedicide was also
sprayed on sides and bed to arrest the weed growth.
After the sides and bed were dressed properly, 10cm
thick layer of sieved sand was spread uniformly on
bed and sides to provide cushion to the agrifilm.
After that, agrifim was laid properly in the pond.
LDPE agrifilm of 250 µ was used for lining. Utmost
care was taken in joining the agrifilm to suit the
shape and size of the pond. For joining, bitumen of
85/25 and 80/100 grade in the ratio of 2:1 was used.
While laying too much stretching or tightness of the
agrifilm was avoided, particularly on sides. Over
agrifilm, soil cover of 30 cm was provided. Then
stone pitching was done on sides only to safeguard
the sides of the pond against erosion and any other
external forces. Study of storage behaviour of the
pond revealed that seepage loss from agrifilm lined
pond was reduced from 55 to 2.9 L/m2/day i.e. by
94.7%. Schematic diagram of agrifilm lining of pond
is given below in Fig.7.
UV resistant plastic (silpaulin) lined Pond
Rainwater, roof water or runoff water in the form of
streams/springs can be collected in uv resistant
plastic lined dugout ponds in a cost-effective way.
Generally trapezoidal shaped storage tank are
constructed by excavating soil and dumping the
excavated soil at the four sides of the tank.
The Volume of the tank is calculated using the
following formula:
i.e., Carrying capacity of trapezoidal tank V= LbWbD
+ (Lb+Wb)zD2 + 4/3z2D3
For hindering the seepage and percolation
losses, the tank can be lined using 200 GSM UV
resistant polyethylene film commonly known as
Silpaulin. Nylon materials can also be used for the
same purpose. For this, the sheet is made into the
shape of the pond by the process of thermal welding.
After the thermal welding process, the plastic sheet is
inserted into the pond and the sides are buried into
the soil for making it stable. The pond can be further
stabilized with rubble pitching and vegetative
fencing.
Advantages of lined ponds
It is observed that the construction of a dugout pond
and lining it with strong and durable plastic sheets
for harvesting rain and spring water has the
following advantages:
i) Effective storage of harvested water by
hindering seepage losses
ii) Low capital investment per litre of collected
water
iii) Multiple use of harvested water
iv) Less stress on groundwater and recharge of
excess/spilled over water
v) Effective storage of harvested water by
preventing seepage losses
The seepage studies conducted have suggested
the unlined dugout-cum-embankment type ponds had
high rate of seepage and percolation, and could not
hold water during the crucial dry season. The
seepage studies in a nearby unlined farm pond with
similar soil characteristics have been done for
analyzing the effect of lining. Daily observations on
water depth, evaporation and rainfall were taken in
respect of water saving efficiency.
The storage behavior of the pond showed an
average rate of seepage loss up to 0.11 m3/ m2 wetted
perimeter/day. However, the maximum percolation
rate through the silpaulin-lined pond is nearly zero
and the Storage Hydrographs of the unlined pond and
lined pond (Fig 8) clearly shows the increase in water
saving efficiency of the pond after lining in terms of
both quantity and duration of storage.
(ii) Low investment per litre of harvested water
Costs involved in different works of digging out and
lining of the ponds with plastic were observed. Detail
analysis of the cost revealed that cost of construction
of the plastic lined pond per cubic meter of water
storage capacity have been to the tune of only Rs.
150.23. The cost of construction includes the cost
involved in land preparation, digging of the pond,
lining and other finishing works.
It is also observed that the cost/litre of collection of
rain water/spring water in uv resistant plastic sheets
is significantly less compared to other methods as
shown in Table.2.
Table 2. Comparative cost of construction of water
harvesting structures (lined)
Sl. No. Material Cost/litre in
Rs.
1. Concrete 4.00 – 5.00
2. Brick masonry 3.00 - 4.00
3. Ferro-cement 1.50 - 2.00
4. Fibre-glass 4.00- 5.00
5. Clay (partial seepage) 0.05-0.10
6. uv resistant plastic 0.15-0.20
(silpaulin)
773
 Storage Hydrograph

Storage Volume %
120
100
80
60
40
20
St orage Volume %(Pond- lined)
0
St orage volume %(Pond-unlined)

Days

Figure 8. Storage Hydrographs of lined and unlined ponds

(iii) Multiple use of harvested water

The universal value of perennial water collected on-

farm through in situ water harvesting measures to
enhance productivity and reduce drought related loss
has been generally underestimated. Water bodies,
both community and household, have traditionally
served a variety of functions in rural areas including
livestock and fish production. Maintaining or
enhancing the multiple uses of water bodies may be
the cornerstone of wider adoption of fish production.
Water bodies, whether farm ponds or small dams,
have important roles in nutrient conservation and
concentration in addition to their primary function of
water storage for irrigation. Irrigation of high-value
vegetable and fruit crops planted around farm ponds
have greater impacts on household food security and
income along with the fish produced. Thus the water
harvested in lined ponds can be used for multiple
uses such as fishery, duckery and thereby increase its
use efficiency.
Figure 9. Contour trench to recharge the excess water
Less stress on groundwater and recharge of
in rainwater harvesting tank
excess/spilled over water
Rejuvenation of Water Bodies
Harvesting rainwater/runoff water in large quantity
for irrigation and other farm and domestic purposes
will reduce the stress on the groundwater. Moreover, Check dams, which are made across the flow of
the excess or spilled over water from rainwater water, is one of the major water harvesting
harvesting tank can be diverted to percolation structures. They control the runoff and increase the
pits/trenches/lakes or any other depressions for infiltration by hindering water flow, which in turn
promoting groundwater recharge. In the present opens new streams and raises the water table. They
study the spilled over water from the silpaulin lined also help to store water in the locality itself. The
tank is allowed to soak into the soil through contour water stored in the check dam can be used for
trenches (Fig. 9) and its effect on the groundwater household or agricultural purposes. The check dams
table is currently under observation. reduce the chances of erosion and floods. The
localized irrigation facilities can be improved by
developing a network of checkdams, streams and
canals (Venkateswarlu, 2001).

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Table 3. Change in the depth of water table in the vicinity of a newly constructed Katta
Observation Well Distance of Av. depth of water
Observation table (m) during
well from the summer months
Katta before construction of
the Katta
OW-1 1.2 km 11.2
OW-2 1 km 10.6
Ow-4 750 m 7.8
OW-3 400 m 6.7
OW-5 200 m 5.9
Since big dams may lead to environmental
imbalance, small temporary check dams are
considered to be more suitable and effective.
Temporary check dams, commonly called as Kattas,
are being constructed in some parts of the Kasaragod
district since many years. ‘Kattas’ capture and
conserve river water for improving percolation and
thereby ground-water recharge (Samuel, 2003). They
also useful for irrigation during summer months.
Kattas are mainly constructed by farmers on a
community basis using their traditional wisdom soon
after the withdrawal of the monsoon.
It is observed that these structures are playing
the vital role for reviving the ground water reserve by
slowing down the water and making it to infiltrate
into the soil. To study the effect of traditional
checkdams on groundwater recharge, a study was
conducted in which the depth of water table in five
different observation wells within a vicinity of 200m.
400m, 750m, 1000m and 1200 m from the
construction site of the Katta were recorded.
Observations were recorded in summer months (Feb-
May) before construction of the structure and for
three consecutive years after construction the check
dam. The observations show that the depth of water
table has decreased in the observation wells after the
construction of check dams (Table 3).
CONCLUSIONS
The locally adoptable low-cost technologies for
rainwater harvesting can be implemented as a viable
alternative to conventional irrigation and drinking
water supply schemes considering the fact that any
land anywhere can be used to harvest rainwater. Rain
water harvesting, irrespective of the technology used,
essentially means harvesting and storing water in
days of abundance, for use in lean days. Storing of
rainwater can be done in two ways; (i) storing in an
artificial storage and (ii) in the soil media as
groundwater. The former is rather a temporary
measure, focusing on human or small-scale irrigation
needs, providing immediate relief from water
scarcity. The rainwater or runoff in the form a spring
or stream can be harvested in RCC/ Ferro-
cement/Plastic tanks or various types of low-cost
lined ponds for utilizing in lean periods. The studies
Av. depth of water table (m) during summer months
after construction of the Katta
I year II year III year
11.2 11.1 11.1
10.55 10.55 10.4
7.7 7.5 7.4
6.65 6.5 6.45
5.8 5.6 5.25
suggested that these technologies are sustainable,
locally adoptable, cost-effective and affordable to the
farmers.
The rainwater harvesting technology in uv
resistant plastic lined ponds is found to be very
simple and economical and ensures effective storage
of harvested water by hindering seepage losses. This
study also revealed that ground water recharge
measures and traditional water harvesting structures
have been immensely contributing to revive the
ground water reserve. Furthermore, the rejuvenation
of the traditional water harvesting structures in the
district and the implementation of community water
management schemes with maximum people’s
participation are the suitable options to mitigate all
the ill effects of drought and soil erosion prevalent in
the area.
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