Professional Documents
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Screenshot 2023-12-26 at 7.44.54 PM
Screenshot 2023-12-26 at 7.44.54 PM
The two fundamental qualitative characteristics of financial reports are relevance and
faithful representation. The four enhancing qualitative characteristics are comparability,
verifiability, timeliness and understandability.
Fundamental qualitative characteristics:
1. Relevance
The characteristic of relevance implies that the information should have predictive
and confirmatory value for users in making and evaluating economic decisions. The
relevance of information is affected by its nature and materiality. Information is
material if omitting it or misstating it could influence decision making. A financial
report should include all information which is material to a particular entity.
2. Faithful representation
The characteristic of faithful representation implies that financial information
faithfully represents the phenomena it purports to represent. This depiction implies
that the financial information is complete, neutral and free from error.
Enhancing qualitative characteristics:
1. Comparability
The characteristic of comparability implies that users of financial statements must
be able to compare aspects of an entity at one time and over time, and between
entities at one time and over time. Therefore, the measurement and display of
transactions and events should be carried out in a consistent manner throughout
an entity, or fully explained if they are measured or displayed differently.
2. Verifiability
The characteristic of verifiability provides assurance that the information faithfully
represents what it purports to be representing.
3. Timeliness
The characteristic of timeliness means that the accounting information is available
to all stakeholders in time for decision-making purposes.
4. Understandability
The characteristic of understandability implies that preparers of information have
classified, characterized and presented the information clearly and concisely. The
financial reports are prepared with the assumption that its users have a ‘reasonable
knowledge’ of the business and its economic activities.
To understand a company’s financial position—both on its own and within its industry—you
need to review and analyze several financial statements: balance sheets, income statements,
cash flow statements, and annual reports. The value of these documents lies in the story they
tell when reviewed together.
1. How to Read a Balance Sheet
A balance sheet conveys the “book value” of a company. It allows you to see what resources
it has available and how they were financed as of a specific date. It shows its assets, liabilities,
and owners’ equity (essentially, what it owes, owns, and the amount invested by
shareholders).
The balance sheet also provides information that can be leveraged to compute rates of return
and evaluate capital structure, using the accounting equation: Assets = Liabilities + Owners’
Equity.
Assets are things that a company owns that have value. This typically means they can either
be sold or used by the company to make products or provide services that can be sold. Assets
include physical property, such as plants, trucks, equipment and inventory. It also includes
things that can’t be touched but nevertheless exist and have value, such as trademarks and
patents. And cash itself is an asset. So are investments a company makes.
Liabilities are amounts of money that a company owes to others. This can include all kinds
of obligations, like money borrowed from a bank to launch a new product, rent for use of a
building, money owed to suppliers for materials, payroll a company owes to its employees,
environmental cleanup costs, or taxes owed to the government. Liabilities also include
obligations to provide goods or services to customers in the future.
Shareholders’ equity is sometimes called capital or net worth. It’s the money that would be
left if a company sold all of its assets and paid off all of its liabilities. This leftover money
belongs to the shareholders, or the owners, of the company.
A company’s balance sheet is set up like the basic accounting equation shown above. On the
left side of the balance sheet, companies list their assets. On the right side, they list their
liabilities and shareholders’ equity. Sometimes balance sheets show assets at the top,
followed by liabilities, with shareholders’ equity at the bottom.
Assets are generally listed based on how quickly they will be converted into
cash. Current assets are things a company expects to convert to cash within one year. A good
example is inventory. Most companies expect to sell their inventory for cash within one
year. Noncurrent assets are things a company does not expect to convert to cash within one
year or that would take longer than one year to sell. Noncurrent assets
include fixed assets. Fixed assets are those assets used to operate the business but that are
not available for sale, such as trucks, office furniture and other property.
Liabilities are generally listed based on their due dates. Liabilities are said to be
either current or long-term. Current liabilities are obligations a company expects to pay off
within the year. Long-term liabilities are obligations due more than one year away.
Shareholders’ equity is the amount owners invested in the company’s stock plus or minus
the company’s earnings or losses since inception. Sometimes companies distribute earnings,
instead of retaining them. These distributions are called dividends.
A balance sheet shows a snapshot of a company’s assets, liabilities and shareholders’ equity
at the end of the reporting period. It does not show the flows into and out of the accounts
during the period.
Income Statements
An income statement is a report that shows how much revenue a company earned over a
specific time period (usually for a year or some portion of a year). An income statement also
shows the costs and expenses associated with earning that revenue. The literal “bottom line”
of the statement usually shows the company’s net earnings or losses. This tells you how
much the company earned or lost over the period.
Income statements also report earnings per share (or “EPS”). This calculation tells you how
much money shareholders would receive if the company decided to distribute all of the net
earnings for the period. (Companies almost never distribute all of their earnings. Usually
they reinvest them in the business.)
To understand how income statements are set up, think of them as a set of stairs. You start
at the top with the total amount of sales made during the accounting period. Then you go
down, one step at a time. At each step, you make a deduction for certain costs or other
operating expenses associated with earning the revenue. At the bottom of the stairs, after
deducting all of the expenses, you learn how much the company actually earned or lost
during the accounting period. People often call this “the bottom line.”
At the top of the income statement is the total amount of money brought in from sales of
products or services. This top line is often referred to as gross revenues or sales. It’s called
“gross” because expenses have not been deducted from it yet. So the number is “gross” or
unrefined.
The next line is money the company doesn’t expect to collect on certain sales. This could be
due, for example, to sales discounts or merchandise returns.
When you subtract the returns and allowances from the gross revenues, you arrive at the
company’s net revenues. It’s called “net” because, if you can imagine a net, these revenues
are left in the net after the deductions for returns and allowances have come out.
Moving down the stairs from the net revenue line, there are several lines that represent
various kinds of operating expenses. Although these lines can be reported in various orders,
the next line after net revenues typically shows the costs of the sales. This number tells you
the amount of money the company spent to produce the goods or services it sold during the
accounting period.
The next line subtracts the costs of sales from the net revenues to arrive at a subtotal called
“gross profit” or sometimes “gross margin.” It’s considered “gross” because there are certain
expenses that haven’t been deducted from it yet.
The next section deals with operating expenses. These are expenses that go toward
supporting a company’s operations for a given period – for example, salaries of
administrative personnel and costs of researching new products. Marketing expenses are
another example. Operating expenses are different from “costs of sales,” which were
deducted above, because operating expenses cannot be linked directly to the production of
the products or services being sold.
Depreciation is also deducted from gross profit. Depreciation takes into account the wear
and tear on some assets, such as machinery, tools and furniture, which are used over the long
term. Companies spread the cost of these assets over the periods they are used. This process
of spreading these costs is called depreciation or amortization. The “charge” for using these
assets during the period is a fraction of the original cost of the assets.
After all operating expenses are deducted from gross profit, you arrive at operating profit
before interest and income tax expenses. This is often called “income from operations.”
Next companies must account for interest income and interest expense. Interest income is
the money companies make from keeping their cash in interest-bearing savings accounts,
money market funds and the like. On the other hand, interest expense is the money
companies paid in interest for money they borrow. Some income statements show interest
income and interest expense separately. Some income statements combine the two numbers.
The interest income and expense are then added or subtracted from the operating profits to
arrive at operating profit before income tax.
Finally, income tax is deducted and you arrive at the bottom line: net profit or net losses.
(Net profit is also called net income or net earnings.) This tells you how much the company
actually earned or lost during the accounting period. Did the company make a profit or did it
lose money?
Earnings per Share or EPS
Most income statements include a calculation of earnings per share or EPS. This calculation
tells you how much money shareholders would receive for each share of stock they own if
the company distributed all of its net income for the period.
To calculate EPS, you take the total net income and divide it by the number of outstanding
shares of the company.
Cash Flow Statements
Cash flow statements report a company’s inflows and outflows of cash. This is important
because a company needs to have enough cash on hand to pay its expenses and purchase
assets. While an income statement can tell you whether a company made a profit, a cash flow
statement can tell you whether the company generated cash.
A cash flow statement shows changes over time rather than absolute dollar amounts at a
point in time. It uses and reorders the information from a company’s balance sheet and
income statement.
The bottom line of the cash flow statement shows the net increase or decrease in cash for
the period. Generally, cash flow statements are divided into three main parts. Each part
reviews the cash flow from one of three types of activities: (1) operating activities;
(2) investing activities; and (3) financing activities.
Operating Activities
The first part of a cash flow statement analyzes a company’s cash flow from net income or
losses. For most companies, this section of the cash flow statement reconciles the net income
(as shown on the income statement) to the actual cash the company received from or used
in its operating activities. To do this, it adjusts net income for any non-cash items (such as
adding back depreciation expenses) and adjusts for any cash that was used or provided by
other operating assets and liabilities.
Investing Activities
The second part of a cash flow statement shows the cash flow from all investing activities,
which generally include purchases or sales of long-term assets, such as property, plant and
equipment, as well as investment securities. If a company buys a piece of machinery, the cash
flow statement would reflect this activity as a cash outflow from investing activities because
it used cash. If the company decided to sell off some investments from an investment
portfolio, the proceeds from the sales would show up as a cash inflow from investing
activities because it provided cash.
Financing Activities
The third part of a cash flow statement shows the cash flow from all financing activities.
Typical sources of cash flow include cash raised by selling stocks and bonds or borrowing
from banks. Likewise, paying back a bank loan would show up as a use of cash flow.
Read the Footnotes
A horse called “Read The Footnotes” ran in the 2004 Kentucky Derby. He finished seventh,
but if he had won, it would have been a victory for financial literacy proponents everywhere.
It’s so important to read the footnotes. The footnotes to financial statements are packed with
information. Here are some of the highlights:
Significant accounting policies and practices – Companies are required to disclose the
accounting policies that are most important to the portrayal of the company’s financial
condition and results. These often require management’s most difficult, subjective or
complex judgments.
Income taxes – The footnotes provide detailed information about the company’s current
and deferred income taxes. The information is broken down by level – federal, state, local
and/or foreign, and the main items that affect the company’s effective tax rate are
described.
Pension plans and other retirement programs – The footnotes discuss the company’s
pension plans and other retirement or post-employment benefit programs. The notes
contain specific information about the assets and costs of these programs, and indicate
whether and by how much the plans are over- or under-funded.
Stock options – The notes also contain information about stock options granted to officers
and employees, including the method of accounting for stock-based compensation and
the effect of the method on reported results.
Read the MD&A
You can find a narrative explanation of a company’s financial performance in a section of the
quarterly or annual report entitled, “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial
Condition and Results of Operations.” MD&A is management’s opportunity to provide
investors with its view of the financial performance and condition of the company. It’s
management’s opportunity to tell investors what the financial statements show and do not
show, as well as important trends and risks that have shaped the past or are reasonably likely
to shape the company’s future.
The SEC’s rules governing MD&A require disclosure about trends, events or uncertainties
known to management that would have a material impact on reported financial information.
The purpose of MD&A is to provide investors with information that the company’s
management believes to be necessary to an understanding of its financial condition, changes
in financial condition and results of operations. It is intended to help investors to see the
company through the eyes of management. It is also intended to provide context for the
financial statements and information about the company’s earnings and cash flows.
Financial Statement Ratios and Calculations
You’ve probably heard people banter around phrases like “P/E ratio,” “current ratio” and
“operating margin.” But what do these terms mean and why don’t they show up on financial
statements? Listed below are just some of the many ratios that investors calculate from
information on financial statements and then use to evaluate a company. As a general rule,
desirable ratios vary by industry.
If a company has a debt-to-equity ratio of 2 to 1, it means that the company has two dollars
of debt to every one dollar shareholders invest in the company. In other words, the company
is taking on debt at twice the rate that its owners are investing in the company.
Inventory Turnover Ratio = Cost of Sales / Average Inventory for the Period
If a company has an inventory turnover ratio of 2 to 1, it means that the company’s inventory
turned over twice in the reporting period.
Operating Margin = Income from Operations / Net Revenues
Operating margin is usually expressed as a percentage. It shows, for each dollar of sales, what
percentage was profit.
P/E Ratio = Price per share / Earnings per share
If a company’s stock is selling at $20 per share and the company is earning $2 per share, then
the company’s P/E Ratio is 10 to 1. The company’s stock is selling at 10 times its earnings.
Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities
Debt-to-equity ratio compares a company’s total debt to shareholders’ equity. Both of
these numbers can be found on a company’s balance sheet. To calculate debt-to-equity
ratio, you divide a company’s total liabilities by its shareholder equity, or
Inventory turnover ratio compares a company’s cost of sales on its income statement with
its average inventory balance for the period. To calculate the average inventory balance
for the period, look at the inventory numbers listed on the balance sheet. Take the balance
listed for the period of the report and add it to the balance listed for the previous
comparable period, and then divide by two. (Remember that balance sheets are snapshots
in time. So the inventory balance for the previous period is the beginning balance for the
current period, and the inventory balance for the current period is the ending balance.)
To calculate the inventory turnover ratio, you divide a company’s cost of sales (just below
the net revenues on the income statement) by the average inventory for the period, or
Operating margin compares a company’s operating income to net revenues. Both of these
numbers can be found on a company’s income statement. To calculate operating margin,
you divide a company’s income from operations (before interest and income tax
expenses) by its net revenues, or
P/E ratio compares a company’s common stock price with its earnings per share. To
calculate a company’s P/E ratio, you divide a company’s stock price by its earnings per
share, or
Working capital is the money leftover if a company paid its current liabilities (that is, its
debts due within one-year of the date of the balance sheet) from its current assets.
Bringing It All Together
Although this brochure discusses each financial statement separately, keep in mind that they
are all related. The changes in assets and liabilities that you see on the balance sheet are also
reflected in the revenues and expenses that you see on the income statement, which result
in the company’s gains or losses. Cash flows provide more information about cash assets
listed on a balance sheet and are related, but not equivalent, to net income shown on the
income statement. And so on. No one financial statement tells the complete story. But
combined, they provide very powerful information for investors. And information is the
investor’s best tool when it comes to investing wisely.
Additional Disclosure Statements
With a view to promote Transparency and accountability in Company Financial Statement,
the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) has amended the Schedule III to the Companies Act,
2013 vide notification dated 24.03.2020, wherein the certain disclosure requirements as
well as the principles as stated in respect of the preparation of the financial statements has
been amended.
These additional disclosures will definitely improve the qualities of financial Statement of
the companies but at the same time it will increase the Compliance cost of the company. It
will create friction in the easy of doing especially for smaller companies….. Additional
Disclosure introduced by MCA Vide Notification dated 24.03.2021, which need to be taken
care of by the companies.
1. Every company which uses accounting software for maintaining its books of account,
shall use only such accounting software which has a feature of recording audit trail of each
and every transaction, creating an edit log of each change made in books of account along
with the date when such changes were made and ensuring that the audit trail cannot be
disabled. it will also enhance accountability among company personnel and enable audit of
pervasive controls
2. A company shall disclose Shareholding of Promoters at the end of the Year with regards
to No of Share, %of total shares and % Change during the year
3. This disclosure will mandate the company to disclose the ageing payment cycle for MSMEs
and Non-MSME Trade Payable in the format mentioned below Particulars Outstanding for
following periods from due date of payment# Less than 1 year 1-2 years 2-3 years More than
3 years Total (i) MSME (ii) Others (iii) Disputed dues – MSME (iv) Disputed dues – Others
And the disclosure for trade receivable needs to provide in the format mentioned below
Particulars Outstanding for following periods from due date of payment# Less than 6
months 6 months – 1 year 1-2 years 2-3 years More than 3 years Total (i) Undisputed Trade
receivables – considered good (ii) Undisputed Trade Receivables – considered doubtful
(iii) Disputed Trade Receivables considered good (iv) Disputed Trade Receivables
considered doubtful
4. The company shall provide the details of all the immovable property (other than
properties where the Company is the lessee and the lease agreements are duly executed in
favour of the lessee) whose title deeds are not held in the name of the company in format
given below and where such immovable property is jointly held with others, details are
required to be given to the extent of the company’s share. Relevant line item in the Balance
sheet Description of item of property Gross carrying value Title deeds held in the name of
Whether title deed holder is a promoter, director or relative# of promoter*/director or
employee of promoter/director Property held since which date Reason for not being held in
the name of the company** PPE- Investment property- PPE retired from active use and held
for disposal – others Land Building Land Building Land Building – – – – **also indicate if in
dispute
5. Following disclosures shall be made where Loans or Advances in the nature of loans are
granted to promoters, directors, KMPs and the related parties (as defined under
Companies Act, 2013,) either severally or jointly with any other person, that are: a. repayable
on demand or b. without specifying any terms or period of repayment Type of Borrower
Amount of loan or advance in the nature of loan outstanding Percentage to the total
Loans and Advances in the nature of loans Promoters Directors KMPs Related Parties
6. Capital-Work-in Progress (CWIP): For Capital-work-in progress, following ageing
schedule shall be given: CWIP aging schedule (Amount in Rs.) CWIP Amount in CWIP for a
period of Total* Less than 1 year 1-2 years 2-3 years More than 3 years Projects in progress
Projects temporarily suspended *Total shall tally with CWIP amount in the balance sheet. (a)
For capital-work-in progress, whose completion is overdue or has exceeded its cost
compared to its original plan, following CWIP completion schedule shall be given**: (Amount
in Rs.) CWIP To be completed in Less than1 year 1-2 years 2-3 years More than 3 years
Project 1 Project 2” **Details of projects where activity has been suspended shall be given
separately.
7. For Intangible assets under development, following ageing schedule shall be given:
Intangible assets under development aging schedule (Amount in Rs.) Intangible assets under
development Amount in CWIP for a period of Total* Less than 1 year 1-2 years 2-3 years
More than 3 years Projects in progress Projects temporarily suspended * Total shall tally
with the amount of Intangible assets under development in the balance sheet. a. For
Intangible assets under development, whose completion is overdue or has exceeded its cost
compared to its original plan, following Intangible assets under development completion
schedule shall be given**: (Amount in Rs.) Intangible assets under development To be
completed in Less than 1 year 1-2 years 2-3 years More than 3 years Project 1 Project 2
**Details of projects where activity has been suspended shall be given separately.
8. Details of Benami Property held Where any proceedings have been initiated or pending
against the company for holding any benami property under the Benami Transactions
(Prohibition) Act, 1988 (45 of 1988) and the rules made thereunder, the company shall
disclose the following:- a. Details of such property, including year of acquisition, b. Amount
thereof, c. Details of Beneficiaries, d. If property is in the books, then reference to the item in
the Balance Sheet, e. If property is not in the books, then the fact shall be stated with reasons,
f. Where there are proceedings against the company under this law as an abetter of the
transaction or as the g. Nature of proceedings, status of same and company’s view on
9. Where the Company has borrowings from banks or financial institutions on the basis
of security of current assets, it shall disclose the following:- a. whether quarterly returns
or statements of current assets filed by the Company with banks or financial institutions are
in agreement with the books of b. if not, summary of reconciliation and reasons of material
discrepancies, if any to be adequately
10. Wilful Defaulter* Where a company is a declared wilful defaulter by any bank or
financial Institution or other lender, following details shall be given: a. Date of declaration as
wilful defaulter, b. Details of defaults (amount and nature of defaults), * “wilful defaulter”
here means a person or an issuer who or which is categorized as a wilful defaulter by any
bank or financial institution (as defined under the Act) or consortium thereof, in accordance
with the guidelines on wilful defaulters issued by the Reserve Bank of India.
11. Relationship with Struck off Companies Where the company has any transactions with
companies struck off under section 248 of the Companies Act, 2013 or section 560 of
Companies Act, 1956, the Company shall disclose the following details:- Name of struck off
Company Nature of transactions with struck-off Company Balance outstanding Relationship
with the Struck off company, if any, to be disclosed Investments in securities Receivables
Payables Shares held by stuck off company Other outstanding balances (to be specified)
12. Registration of charges or satisfaction with Registrar of Companies Where any charges
or satisfaction yet to be registered with Registrar of Companies beyond the statutory period,
details and reasons thereof shall be disclosed.
13. Compliance with number of layers of companies Where the company has not
complied with the number of layers prescribed under clause (87) of section 2 of the Act read
with Companies (Restriction on number of Layers) Rules, 2017, the name and CIN of the
companies beyond the specified layers and the relationship/extent of holding of the
company in such downstream companies shall be disclosed.
14. Following Ratios to be disclosed:-
a. Current Ratio,
b. Debt-Equity Ratio,
c. Debt Service Coverage Ratio,
d. Return on Equity Ratio,
e. Inventory turnover ratio,
f. Trade Receivables turnover ratio,
g. Trade payables turnover ratio,
h. Net capital turnover ratio,
i. Net profit ratio,
j. Return on Capital employed,
k. Return on The company shall explain the items included in numerator and denominator
for computing the above ratios. Further explanation shall be provided for any change in the
ratio by more than 25% as compared to the preceding year.
15. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Where the company covered under section 135
of the companies act, the following shall be disclosed with regard to CSR activities:-
a. amount required to be spent by the company during the year,
b. amount of expenditure incurred,
c. shortfall at the end of the year,
d. total of previous years shortfall,
e. reason for shortfall,
f. nature of CSR activities,
g. details of related party transactions, e.g., contribution to a trust controlled by the company
in relation to CSR expenditure as per relevant Accounting Standard,
h. where a provision is made with respect to a liability incurred by entering into a contractual
obligation, the movements in the provision during the year should be shown separately
16. Details of Crypto Currency or Virtual Currency Where the Company has traded or
invested in Crypto currency or Virtual Currency during the financial year, the following shall
be disclosed:-
a. profit or loss on transactions involving Crypto currency or Virtual Currency
b. amount of currency held as at the reporting date,
c. deposits or advances from any person for the purpose of trading or investing in Crypto
Currency/ virtual currency.”;
The required disclosures at the end of a financial statement vary based on the nation where
the statement is being released, as well as the specific type of statement. Generally speaking,
here is some of what might be on your financial statement disclosure checklist. However,
consult with a legal expert about the specific requirements for your business.
Environmental Reporting and Social Disclosures
Businesses in the US, Canada, and the EU are all required to disclose environmental risks and
impacts caused by their operations, though each nation has its own unique specifications. In
the EU specifically, companies with more than 500 employees are also required to disclose
their diversity efforts, treatment of employees, and related information. In North America,
by contrast, it may be that organizations are only required to disclose risks to profitability.
Operations Insights
Events like bankruptcy or loss of contract, which occur between financial statements, are
often required to be disclosed in a narrative. Major changes to the company structure or
operations processes may also be necessary to mention.
Conflicts of Interest
Especially in cases where a brokerage firm has prepared a financial statement, the
relationship between the brokerage and the company in question must be clearly disclosed.
If the broker has done banking for the company or if analysts/other firm members own
company stock, that isn’t necessarily a red flag. However, other parties like outside investors
deserve to be aware so they can make their own analysis of the financial statements with full
context.
Legal Disclaimers
Every financial statement will likely be accompanied by other disclaimers. These include
mentions of whether the report contains forward-looking forecasts that may differ from
future outcomes in reality. It should also be stated whether or not the information in the
report has been checked for complete accuracy, and even whether or not it is fully intended
to guide investment decisions.
As a final rule, if you are reviewing a financial statement that is not accompanied by any
disclosures whatsoever, this report cannot likely be trusted. For the issuing business, this is
why including disclosures in a financial statement is so important. It is a matter of
compliance from a legal perspective and completeness from a public perspective.
appear.
2/For purposes of this standard, supplemental information "accompanies financial
statements" when it is (1) presented in the same document as the audited financial
statements, (2) presented in a document in which the audited financial statements are
incorporated by reference, or (3) incorporated by reference in a document containing the
audited financial statements.
3/Auditing Standard No. 11, Consideration of Materiality in Planning and Performing an Audit,
Brokers and Dealers, and Attestation Standard No. 2, Review Engagements Regarding
Exemption Reports of Brokers and Dealers.
6/ See paragraph 10 of Auditing Standard No. 14, Evaluating Audit Results, which discusses
forth procedures to be followed by the auditor who, subsequent to the date of the report
upon audited financial statements becomes aware that facts may have existed at that date
that might have affected the report had he or she then been aware of such facts. AU sec. 561
applies to situations in which the auditor identifies a material misstatement of the financial
statements while performing audit procedures on supplemental information after the date
of the auditor's report on the financial statements.
It provides a clear and concise overview of the company's activities and performance
over a given period.
It helps to improve communication between the board of directors and
shareholders.
It can help to identify any potential problems or areas of concern within the
company.
It can help to build shareholder confidence in the company and its management.
It can be used to highlight any potential risks to the company's future success.
It can help to improve communication between the board and shareholders.
It can provide an opportunity for the board to explain its strategy and plans.
It can give shareholders and other interested parties an insight into the company's
performance and progress.
It can help to build confidence in the company and its management.
It can help to identify any potential risks or problems that the company may be
facing.
It can provide a record of the board's decisions and actions.
The Director's Report and the Company's Future
The Director's Report is an annual report compiled by the Board of Directors of a company.
It is a public report that outlines the company's financial situation and performance over the
past year, as well as the company's plans for the future. A report is a valuable tool for
investors, as it provides insight into the company's strategy and how well it is executing its
plans. It also helps to assess the risks of investing in the company.
The future of the company depends on its ability to execute its plans and generate profits.
The company's plans for the future should be outlined in the director's report. Investors will
want to see that the company has a solid plan in place to continue to grow and be profitable.
If the company does not have a strong plan for the future, it may not be able to attract the
investments it needs to stay afloat.
Preparation of the Director's Report
The Director's Report is typically prepared on an annual basis but may be prepared more
frequently if deemed necessary by the Board of Directors. The report should include a
summary of the company's financial position, a discussion of any significant changes or
trends in the business, and an overview of the company's operations and prospects for the
future.
Conclusion
The director's report contains information about the company’s management and
performance and is required to be submitted to shareholders annually. The report should
provide an overview of the company’s business activities, its financial performance and
position, and any material changes in corporate governance. It should also explain how the
company’s affairs are being managed and identify any potential risks that could affect the
company’s future performance.
Responsibilities & disclosure requirements. Ensuring transparency,
integrity, reputation, accountability for a sustainable businesses
INTRODUCTION
Every company wants to observe basic principles of good corporate governance for
performing efficiently and to increase their valuation in the market. A good corporate can
easily attract capital, foreign investment, investors’ trust and confidence and also takes
advantages somewhere in vibrant stock market. Corporate governance are code of
business conduct and ethics which would greatly benefit the companies enabling them to
thrive and prosper.
NEED FOR CORPORATE GOVERNANCE
Separation of Management from Owners: In most of the companies, promoters who are
holding major shares are holding key positions in the management of the company. They
have effective control of the management. Management should be separated from owners,
so it can be impartial, independent and focus on creating stakeholders friendly policies and
aims to protect their rights.
1. Bridge the gap by and between Producer and Consumers: Management should
identify that society is giving resources for production of end product of the company
and they have to sell that end product again to that society. It is pertinent to understand
that any kind of anonymity between the producer and ultimate consumer should not be
ignored.
2. Responsibility towards Stakeholders: It is most important that companies should
work in the best interest of the stakeholders at every time and maximize the value of
every resource invested by the stakeholders in the company. Stakeholders are broadly
defined as:
INTERNAL: Shareholders, Employees
EXTERNAL: Consumer, Supplier, Government, Community
RESPONSIBILITIES TOWARDS STAKEHOLDERS
SHAREHOLDERS
Shareholders are the real owners of the company as they contribute towards creating and
growing it with their money against number of shares.
Management’s responsibilities towards them
Maximize Return on Investment
Appropriate representation of shareholders in board
Redressal of grievances of investors
EMPLOYEES
Most important assets of any organization. They led to a successful enterprise from
average.
Management’s responsibilities towards them
Payment of Wages
Participation in Profits
Participation in decision-making
Participation in Equity shares via ESOPs, Sweat Equity shares, bonus shares
Safety, Hygiene & working condition
Opportunity of growth
CONSUMERS
Offering Right product at right time at right place at right price
Offering quality & value for the money
Maximum Information of Product & service, enabling them to make right buying
decision
After sale Service / Grievance Redressal
COMMUNITY
Payback for what you take; Clean and Green practices for controlling the pollution
Payment to creditors, suppliers within time
Following Fair trade practices
Corporate Social Responsibility
Investment towards sustainable business
GOVERNMENT
Payment of taxes on time, fairly and honestly
Following Anti-Corruption practices while liaisoning with public servants
Participate in Government sponsored industry forums; provide policy & industry related
feedbacks
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Board of directors are appointed as trustees, to act in best interest on behalf of
stakeholders and to run day to day operations of the company. Good governance requires
that performance of board shall be evaluated at least once in a year. The evaluation process
is constructive mechanism for improving board’s effectiveness, maximizing strengths and
tackling weakness.
1. To act within the scope of powers conferred by the Companies Act and Memorandum
and Articles of Association.
2. In the best conduct and management of the business
3. Formulation and Execution of Corporate Strategy, Business plan, Budget, major Capital
Expenditures, mergers and acquisitions, etc.
4. Formulation of Succession planning
5. Monitoring managerial performance, conflict of interest of management, board
members.
6. Assuring Return on Investment
7. Corporate Social Responsibilities
8. Compliance with Laws and regulations
9. Adequate financial reporting and ensure adequate internal financial controls
10. To develop policies and procedures
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE THROUGH DISCLOSURES
Financial Reporting & disclosures
These are generally influenced by the regulatory requirements prescribed by various
statues.
1. Companies Act, 2013
The format of Balance sheet, P&L must be in accordance to Schedule III of the act
The financial statement must be approved by BoDs & signed by at least two directors
The financial statements shall be filed to the concerned Registrar of Companies.
2. Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
The financial statement of banking companies shall be conformity with Banking
Regulations
The format of Balance sheet and Profit & Loss Statement to be followed by the
banking companies has been prescribed by the Banking Regulations
3. Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA)
The financial statement of Insurance companies must be in conformity with IRDA
Regulations
A Receipts and Payments Account is also required to be prepared.
4. Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) for listed companies
Prepare consolidated statements in addition to Individual financial statements
Disclose their quarterly results in format prescribed by SEBI
The quarterly statement shall be audited one or may limited review by the auditors
OTHER DISCLOSURES
ANNUAL REPORT UNDER COMPANIES ACT, 2013
Chairman’s Statement
Key Financial and non-financial indicators
Management discussion and Analysis report
Directors' Report
Secretarial Audit Report
Corporate Governance Audit Report
Business Responsibility Report
Segment Reporting
Human Resource Disclosure
Auditors' Report
Financial Statements
Related Party Disclosures
Joint Ventures Details
Contingent Liability Disclosure
DISCLOSURES UNDER SEBI REGULATIONS
BoD of listed entity shall authorize one or more KMPs to determine materiality of an
event or information and for the purpose of making disclosures to stock exchange(s)
Disclosure of Shareholding Pattern
Corporate Governance Disclosure
Financial Statement Disclosure
Fair Disclosure of Unpublished Price Sensitive Information
Trading by Promoters
Encumbrance of Shares by Promoters
Share re- reconciliation audit report
Transfer & Transmission of Shares Certificate
Fraud/Default Reporting and Disclosure
Other disclosures
Audit Committees
The Financial Reporting Council’s Guidance on Audit Committees (‘Guidance’) is designed to
assist company boards in making suitable arrangements for their audit committees, and to
assist directors serving on audit committees in carrying out their role. It is intended to assist
Boards when implementing the relevant provisions of the UK Corporate Governance Code.
Premium listed companies are required by the Listing Rules to state the extent to which they
comply with the Code whilst unlisted companies may voluntarily do so and by extension
follow the Guidance. The most recent version of the Guidance on Audit Committees was pub-
lished in June 2016.
The Guidance provides recommendations on the audit committee’s establishment and ef-
fectiveness, relationship with the board, role and responsibilities and communications with
shareholders.
In May 2023 the Financial Reporting Council (FRC) issued a minimum standard for audit
committees in relation to their oversight responsibilities for the external audit. The FRC has
also issued a consultation on revisions to the UK Corporate Governance Code. The Guidance
on Audit Committees will be updated so that it can be aligned with the revised Code and
Audit Committee Standard.
Establishment and Effectiveness of the audit committee
There should be at least two independent non-executive directors if below the FTSE 350
index or at least three members if above. The chairman should not be a member of FTSE 350
audit committees. At least one member should have recent and relevant financial experience.
The UK Corporate Governance Code states that the audit committee as a whole should have
competence relevant to the sector in which the company operates. The role and responsibil-
ities should be set out in written terms of reference. Meetings should be held as often as
required but there should be no fewer than three for each financial year. The audit commit-
tee and board should review annually the effectiveness of the audit committee. The audit
committee should report on the number of audit committee meetings in the audit committee
report.
The size, skills, experience and balance of the audit committee should be adequate to deal
with the complexity and risk of the business and its industry. The management of the
company should provide all necessary information, training and support to enable the audit
committee to play its role successfully. The remuneration package should be consistent with
the level of work and expertise required from the audit committee.
Relationship with the Board
As a sub-committee of the board, the role of the audit committee is defined by the board. The
audit committee performs its work on behalf of and should report how it has performed its
role and its findings to the board. If any risk management and internal control responsibilit-
ies are delegated to different committees the board should consider the impact of splitting
those responsibilities.
Role and Responsibilities
The audit committee will have oversight of financial reporting matters, the workings of both
internal and external auditors, and procedures for whistleblowing, internal controls and risk
management systems. The board has ultimate responsibility for organisation’s risk manage-
ment and internal control systems, but the board may delegate to the audit committee some
functions to assist the board in meeting this responsibility.
Any financial report that requires board approval should be reviewed by the audit commit-
tee. Except to the extent that this is expressly dealt with by the board or risk committee, the
audit committee should review and recommend to the board the disclosures included in the
annual report in relation to internal control, risk management and the viability statement.
If delegated this responsibility by the board, the audit committee should review the annual
report to determine whether, taken as a whole, it is fair, balanced and understandable and
provides the information necessary for shareholders to assess the company’s position and
performance, business model and strategy.
Communications with Shareholders
The Guidance recommends that the audit committee should report in a separate section,
signed by its chairman, about its work. This is both to highlight its role and to confer author-
ity without usurping the role of the board.
When following the Guidance, the audit committee must always be mindful that, through
open dialogue and fostering excellent working relationships with stakeholders, its role can
be performed effectively. The chairman of the audit committee should be present at the AGM
to answer questions on the separate section of the annual report describing the audit com-
mittee’s activities and matters within the scope of the audit committee’s responsibilities.
Disclosure
Additional disclosure recommendations in the audit committee report include:
o how the audit committee composition requirements have been addressed;
o how the performance evaluation of the audit committee has been conducted;
o the current external audit partner's name and for how long the partner has held the role;
o advance notice of any plans for retendering of the external audit;
o the committee's policy for approval of non-audit services;
o the audit fees for the statutory audit of the company's consolidated financial statements
and the fees paid to the auditor and its network firms for audit related services and other
non-audit services, including the ratio of audit to non-audit work;
o for each significant engagement, or category of engagements, an explanation of the services
provided and why the audit committee concluded that it was in the interests of the
company to purchase them from the external auditor;
o an explanation of how the committee has assessed the effectiveness of internal audit and
satisfied itself that the quality, experience and expertise of the function is appropriate for
the business;
o the nature and extent of interaction (if any) with the FRC's Corporate Reporting Review
team; and
o When a company's audit has been reviewed by the FRC's Audit Quality Review team, dis-
closures about significant findings and the resulting actions they and the auditors plan to
take. This disclosure should not include the audit quality category awarded.
Remuneration Committees
The key objectives of establishing a remuneration committee are to assist the Board of
Directors to maintain a formal and transparent procedure for setting policy on directors'
remuneration and to determine an appropriate remuneration packages for all directors. The
Remuneration Committee should ensure that remuneration arrangements support the
strategic aims of the business and enable the recruitment, motivation and retention of senior
executives while complying with all rules and regulations.
Remuneration Committee Structure
In Hong Kong, all listed companies must establish a remuneration committee chaired by an
independent non-executive director and comprising a majority of independent non-
executive directors.
The work of the Remuneration Committee
The Stock Exchange of Hong Kong has set out principles and recommendations for effective
remuneration committee practices in Section B of the Corporate Governance Code and
Corporate Governance Report. Listed companies should develop a written terms of reference
to properly document the roles and responsibilities of remuneration committees and the
authority delegated to them by the Board of Directors.
Determination of Directors' and Senior Management's Remuneration
The remuneration committee of a listed company is responsible for making
recommendations to the board on policy and structure for all remuneration of directors and
senior management and on the establishment of a formal and transparent procedure for
developing this policy. It is also responsible for determining specific remuneration packages
for executive directors and senior management, including compensation payments and
benefits in kind. It should also make recommendations to the board of directors for the
remuneration of non-executive directors as well. When considering remuneration structure
and policy, it should consider salaries paid by comparable companies and responsibilities of
directors and it should have access to professional advice, if necessary. It is important to
ensure that no director or any of his associates is involved in deciding his own remuneration.
In addition, Remuneration Committee should be delegated with the authority to review and
approve the following:
Management’s remuneration proposals with reference to the board’s corporate goals
and objectives;
Compensation payable to Executive Directors and senior management in connection
with any loss or termination of office or appointment; and
Compensation arrangements relating to dismissal or removal of directors for
misconduct.
Directors' Remuneration Disclosure
Disclosure requirements for director remuneration are stipulated in the Hong Kong listing
rules. Listed companies are required to disclose in their annual reports all details of current
and past directors’ pay, including:
Director fees for the financial year;
Director basic salaries, housing allowance, other allowance and benefits in kind;
Contributions to pension schemes for directors;
Bonuses paid or receivable by directors;
Amounts paid or receivable as an inducement to join or upon joining the listed company;
and
Compensation paid or receivable for loss of office.
Directors' Remuneration Disclosure - Committee Practices
In addition to the above requirements, Section L of Corporate Governance Code and
Corporate Governance Report also stipulates the disclosure requirements for remuneration
committee practices in the Corporate Governance Report. Such disclosure includes
information relating to directors' remuneration policy:
Role and function of the remuneration committee;
Composition of the remuneration committee;
Number of meetings of the remuneration committee and record of attendance of its
members; and
Summary of work performed by the remuneration committee, including determining
the remuneration policy, assessing performance, and approving the terms of service
contracts for executive directors.
CONTENTS AND PROCEDURE OF AGM
https://www.aviva.com/investors/shareholder-meetings-and-archive/
Sl.
Particulars AS 2 ICDS
No
Allowed if it provides
Change in method of Not allowed unless there is a
2 more appropriate
valuation reasonable cause
presentation
Given below are some of the key differences between As 2 and Income Computation and
Disclosure Standards (ICDS):
Some of the Major Differences between Ind AS (IAS) and AS 2
Scope of AS 2 does not deal with the inventory treatment related to Service Providers
whereas IAS 2 details the treatment related to the cost of inventories of Service
Providers
AS 2 requires lesser disclosure in the financial statements when compared to IAS 2
Cost of Inventories does not include “selling and distribution costs” under AS 2 and it
is expensed in the period in which they are incurred whereas IAS 2 specifically
excludes only “Selling Costs” and not “Distribution Costs”.
AS 2 requires the inventory value of goods which cannot be segregated for specific
projects should be assigned using FIFO or WAC whereas IAS requires the same
formula to be used for all the inventories with similar nature.
AS 9 Revenue Recognition
As per the AS 9 Revenue Recognition issued by ICAI “Revenue is the gross inflow of cash,
receivables or other consideration arising in the course of the ordinary activities of an
enterprise from the sale of goods, rendering of services & from various other sources like
interest, royalties & dividends”.
Sale of Goods
One key element for determining the recognition of revenue of a transaction involving the
sale of goods is that the seller has transferred the property in the goods to the buyer for a
consideration. In most cases, the transfer of property in the goods results in the transfer of
the significant risks and rewards in ownership of the goods.
However, there are situations where the transfer of significant risks doesn’t coincide with
the transfer of goods to the buyer, in such cases revenue has to be recognized at the time of
transfer of significant risks and rewards to the buyer.
Example: Goods sent to the consignee on approval basis. There are certain cases in the
specific industry where the performance may be substantially complete prior to the
execution of the transaction generating revenue. In such cases, when the sale is assured
under government guarantee or a forward contract or where the market exists and there is
a negligible risk of failure to sell, the goods involved are often valued at the net realizable
value (NRV).
Such amounts are not defined in the definition of the revenue but are still sometimes
recognized in the statement of profit and loss. Example: Harvesting of Agricultural Crops or
extraction of mineral ores.
Rendering of Services
Revenue recognition of services depends as the service is performed. This is further divided
into two ways:
Proportionate Completion Method: This method of accounting recognizes revenue
in the statement of profit & loss proportionately with the degree of completion of each
service. Here the service completion consists of the execution of more than one act.
Revenue is recognized with the completion of each such act.
Completed Service Contract Method: This method of accounting recognizes revenue
in the statement of profit & loss only when the rendering of services under a contract
is completed or substantially completed.
Interest, royalties & dividends
The use by others of such enterprise resources gives rise to:
Interest: Revenue is recognized on the time proportion basis after taking into account
the amount outstanding and the rate applicable. For Example: If the interest on FD is
due on 30th June and 31st Dec. On 31st March when the books will be closed, though
the interest for the period of Jan-March will be received in June, still we have to
recognize the revenue in March itself.
Royalties: Royalty includes the charge for the use of patents, know-how, trademarks,
and copyrights. Revenue has to be recognized on the basis of accrual basis and in
accordance with the relevant agreement. For Example: If the royalty is payable based
on the number of copies of the book, then it has to be recognized on that basis only.
Dividends: Revenue has to be recognized when the owner’s right to receive payment
is established. It is only certain when the company declare the dividends on the shares
and the directors actually decide to pay the dividends to their shareholders.
Deletion 0 25,000 0
IND AS 12 recognized
AS 22 recognized tax effect of tax effect of differences
Recognition differences between taxable between assets and/or
income and accounting income. liabilities and their tax
base.
AS 22 specifically provides
IND AS 12 does not
guidance regarding recognition of
specifically deal with the
Tax holiday deferred tax in the situations of Tax
situations of the tax
Holiday under Sections 80-IA, 80-
holiday.
IB, 10A and 10B of Income-tax Act.
AS 19 – Leases
AS-19 deals with the accounting policies applicable for all types of leases except certain listed
below. A lease is an arrangement between the lessor and the lessee that grants the lessee the
right to use an asset in exchange for a payment or series of payments over a predetermined
period of time.
What types of leases are excluded from this standard?
The following items are not covered by this Standard:
(a) Leases for the exploration or use of natural resources. for example Oil, gas, wood, metals,
and other mineral rights
(a) Licensing agreements for example: Films, video recordings, plays, writings, patents, and
copyrights are examples.
c) Leases for the use of land
There are two types of leases:
1. Finance a lease
2. Operating Lease
Finance Lease
All risks and rewards are transferred to the asset owner in a lease. The title may or may not
be transmitted in the future.
The following are some examples of finance leases:
1. A lease in which the lessee receives the assets at the conclusion of the lease period.
2. Lease term during which the lessee has the option to purchase the assets from the
lessor at a price that is less than fair value on the date the option is exercised.
3. Even if the title is not transferred, the lease term covers the asset’s whole economic
life.
4. A lease period in which the present value of the minimum lease payments equals or
significantly covers the leased asset’s fair value.
5. The leased asset is of a unique kind. Ex-ambulance driver (the lessee can use it
without major modifications being made)
Operating Lease
An Operating Lease is any type of lease that is not a finance lease.
In the case of a finance lease, accounting in the books of the lessee is required.
1. At the start of the lease, the lessee will record the lease as an asset or a liability equal
to the fair value of the leased assets.
2. Divide lease payments between finance charges and the reduction of the
outstanding amount.
3. Distribute the loan fee throughout the lease duration.
4. Make a depreciation journal entry.
Disclosure in the case of a finance lease
1. Leased assets should be reported separately.
2. At the balance sheet date, show the net carrying amount for each leased asset.
3. Provide a reconciliation between the balance sheet date’s Minimum Lease Payment
and their current value.
4. Show the total of minimum lease payments and their current value at the
balance sheet date for:
One year is the deadline.
After a year, but not more than five years
More than five years later
5. At the balance sheet date, the minimum sublease payment is scheduled to be
received.
6. A description of the lessee’s major lease arrangements in general
In the case of an Operating Lease, the payment is recorded as an expense in the profit and
loss account in the Lessee’s books.
In the case of an Operating Lease, the following information is provided:
1. Future lease payments for the next period
One year is the deadline.
After a year, but not more than five years
More than five years later
2. Total Lease Payments Expected in the Future
3. Lease payment is shown in the period’s profit and loss statement
4. Lessee Significant Leasing Arrangements: A General Description
In the case of a finance lease, accounting in the Lessor’s accounts is required.
1. The lessor must record assets in his or her records in an amount equivalent to the
net investment in the lease.
2. Keep track of financial revenue using a pattern that reflects a consistent periodic
rate of return.
3. Calculate the lessor gross investment in leasing by estimating the unguaranteed
residual value.
4. If the expected unguaranteed residual value decreases, modify the income allocation
for the remainder of the lease term. Reduction in the amount to be recognized
immediately in comparison to the amount already recognized. The upward
adjustment will be overlooked.
5. The initial direct cost of the lease might be reflected in the profit and loss account
right once or spread out over the lease term.
Disclosure required in the case of a finance lease
1. Reconcile the total lease investment at the balance sheet date with the present value of the
minimum lease payment. Also, reveal the same as
One year is the deadline.
After a year, but not more than five years
More than five years later
2. Finance income that was not earned
3. Residual value that isn’t guaranteed
4. Provision for uncollectible minimum lease payments receivable has accumulated.
5. In the profit and loss account, a contingent rent is recorded.
6. A general description of the tenancy agreement
7. The initial direct cost accounting policy was adopted.
In the case of an Operating Lease, accounting in the Lessor’s books is required.
1. Assets should be recorded in the balance sheet under fixed assets by the lessor.
2. Lease income should be recorded in the profit and loss account.
3. Costs incurred, including depreciation, must be recorded in the income statement.
4. Examine for impairment and account for it in the books in accordance with GAAP.
In the case of an Operating Lease, disclosure is required.
1. At the balance sheet date, accumulated depreciation, accumulated impairment, and
carrying amount for each asset class.
2. Depreciation is accounted for in the profit and loss account.
3. Impairment losses are accounted for in the profit and loss account.
4. In the profit and loss account, the impairment loss has been reversed.
5. For each of the following periods, the future minimum lease payment is:
One year is the deadline.
After a year, but not more than five years
More than five years later
6. The whole contingency is recorded in the profit and loss account.
7. A general description of the tenancy agreement
Transaction of Sale and Leaseback
1. If the sale and leaseback transaction results in a financing lease, any excess or
shortfall over the carrying amount should be delayed and amortized throughout the
lease period in proportion to the leased assets’ depreciation.
2. If a sale and leaseback transaction results in an operating lease, any surplus or deficit
over the carrying value should be reported in the book of account as soon as
possible:
3. If the sale price is less than fair value, the loss is offset by future lease payments at
a lower price; it should be deferred and amortized in proportion to the lease
payments over the estimated life of the asset.
AS19 vs. IAS17: What’s the Difference?
Basis As 19 IAS 17
Lands for lease -AS 19 does not apply to land -IAS17 has special requirements
leases. for land and building leases.
Residual
-In AS 19, the phrase “Residual -The term “Residual Value” is not
worth
Value” is defined defined in IAS 17.
the beginning -Although both terms are used -IAS 17 distinguishes between
and the start in AS 19 at times, they are not lease initiation and lease
defined and distinguished. commencement.
Recognize the -According to IAS 17, at the start
lease -According to AS 19, such of the lease period, the lessee
recognition occurs at the start must recognize financing leases
of the lease as assets and liabilities in the
balance sheet.
The following are the differences between IAS 17 and IFRS 16:
If payment to the lessor is not made on a straight-line basis, IAS 17 requires all lease rentals
to be charged to the statement of profit and loss account on a straight-line basis unless
another systematic approach is more appropriate.
IFRS 16: Unless the payments to the lessor are structured to increase in step with expected
general inflation to compensate for the lessor’s expected inflationary cost associated with
the lease, all lease rentals shall be charged to the statement of profit and loss as per the lease
agreement.
This requirement is not met if payments to the lessor vary due to factors other than ordinary
inflation.
Conclusion:
If there is an inflation component in the lease rentals, we must compute all expected rentals
and charge them equally in the statement of profit and loss over the lease term, and we must
transfer the excess/deficit to the lease equalisation account under IAS17.
Unit IV
Analysis & Interpretation of Financial Statements
Analysis and Interpretation of Financial Statements
Introduction
Analysis and interpretation of financial statements are an attempt to determine the
significance and meaning of the financial statement data so that a forecast may be made
of the prospects for future earnings, ability to pay interest, debt maturities, both current
as well as long term, and profitability of sound dividend policy.
The main function of financial analysis is the pinpointing of the strength and weaknesses
of a business undertaking by regrouping and analysis of figures contained in financial
statements, by making comparisons of various components and by examining their
content. The analysis and interpretation of financial statements represent the last of the
four major steps of accounting.
The first three steps involving the work of the accountant in the accumulation and
summarization of financial and operating data as well as in the construction of
financial statements are:
(i) Analysis of each transaction to determine the accounts to be debited and credited and
the measurement and variation of each transaction to determine the amounts involved.
(ii) Recording of the information in the journals, summarization in ledgers and
preparation of a worksheet.
(iii) Preparation of financial statements.
The fourth step of accounting, the analysis and interpretation of financial statements,
results in the presentation of information that aids the business managers, investors and
creditors.
Interpretation of financial statements involves many processes like arrangement,
analysis, establishing relationship between available facts and drawing conclusions on
that basis.
Types of Financial Analysis:
The process of analysis may partake the varying types. Normally, it is classified into
different categories on the basis of information used and on the basis of modus operandi.
(a) On the basis of Information Used:
(i) External analysis.
(ii) Internal analysis.
External analysis is an analysis based on information easily available to outsiders
(externals) for the business. Outsiders include creditors, suppliers, investors, and
government agencies regulating the business in a normal way.
These parties do not have access to the internal records (information) of the concern
and generally obtain data for analysis from the published financial statements. Thus an
analysis done by outsiders is known as external analysis.
Internal analysis is an analysis done on the basis of information obtained from the
internal and unpublished records and books. While conducting this analysis, the analyst
is a part of the enterprise he is analyzing. Analysis for managerial purposes is the
internal type of analysis and is conducted by executives and employees of the enterprise
as well as governmental and court agencies which may have major regulatory and other
jurisdiction over the business.
(b) On the basis of Modus Operandi:
(i) Horizontal analysis.
(ii) Vertical analysis.
Horizontal analysis is also known as ‘dynamic analysis’ or ‘trend analysis’. This analysis
is done by analyzing the statements over a period of time. Under this analysis, we try to
examine as to what has been the periodical trend of various items shown in the
statement. The horizontal analysis consists of a study of the behavior of each of the
entities in the statement.
Vertical analysis is also known as ‘static analysis’ or ‘structural analysis’. It is made by
analyzing a single set of financial statement prepared at a particular date. Under such a
type of analysis, quantitative relationship is established between the different items
shown in a particular statement. Common size statements are the form of vertical
analysis. Thus vertical analysis is the study of quantitative relationship existing among
the items of a particular data.
Preliminaries Required for Analysis and Interpretation of Financial Statements:
The following procedures are required to be completed for making an analysis and
interpretation of financial statements:
(i) Data should be presented in some logical way.
(ii) Data should be analyzed for preparing comparative statements.
(iii) All data shown in financial statements should be studied just to understand their
significance.
(iv) The objective and extent of analysis and interpretation should be determined.
(v) Facts disclosed by the analysis should be interpreted taking into account economic
facts.
(vi) Interpreted data and information should be in a report form.
Objectives of Analysis and Interpretation of Financial Statements:
The following are the some of the common objects of interpretation:
(i) To investigate the future potential of the concern.
(ii) To determine the profitability and future prospects of the concern.
(iii) To make comparative study of operational efficiency of similar concerns.
(iv) To examine the earning capacity and efficiency of various business activities with
the help of income statements.
(v) To estimate about the performance efficiency and managerial ability.
(vi) To determine short term and long term solvency of the business concerns.
(vii) To enquire about the financial position and ability to pay of the concerns.
Importance of Analysis and Interpretation of Financial Statements:
The following factors have increased the importance of the analysis and
interpretation of financial statements:
(i) Decision taken on the basis of intuition may be wrong and defective on the other
hand. Analysis and interpretation are based on some logical and scientific methods and
hence decisions taken on that basis seldom prove to be misleading and wrong.
(ii) The user as individual has a very limited personal experience. He can only
understand the complexities of business and mutual relationship by observation and
external experience. Thus it becomes necessary that financial statements in an implicit
form should be analysed in an intelligible way.
(iii) Decision or conclusions based on scientific analysis and interpretation are relative
and easily to be read and understood by other people.
(iv) Even to verify and examine the correctness and accuracy of the decisions already
taken on the basis of intuition, analysis and interpretation are essential.
Techniques of Analysis and Interpretation:
The most important techniques of analysis and interpretation are:
1. Ratio Analysis
2. Fund Flow Analysis
3. Cash Flow Analysis.
1. Ratio Analysis:
Two individual items on the statements can be compared with one another and the
relationship is expressed as a ratio. Ratios are computed for items on the same financial
statement or on different statements. These ratios are compared with those of prior
years and with those of other companies to make them more meaningful.
A ratio is a simple mathematical expression. Ratio may be expressed by a number of
ways. It is a number expressed in terms of another number. It i s a statistical yard stick
that provides a measure of relationship between two figures.
2. Fund Flow Analysis:
Funds Flow Analysis has been the salient feature of the evolution of accounting theory
and practice. The financial statement of a business provides only some information
about financial activities of a business in a limited manner. The income statement deals
solely with operations and the balance sheet shows the changes in the assets and
liabilities.
In fact, these statements are substantially an analysis of static aspects of financial
statements. Under this context, it is imperative to study and to analyse the fund
movements in the business concern. Such a study or analysis may be und ertaken by
using another tool of financial analysis, which is called ‘Statement of Sources, and Uses
of Funds’ or simply ‘Fund Statement’ or Fund Flow Analysis.
This statement is also called by other several names and they are:
(a) Application of Funds Statement.
(b) Statement of Sources and Applications of Funds.
(c) Statement of Funds Supplied and Applied.
(d) Where Got and Where Gone Statement.
(e) Statement of Resources Provided and Applied.
(f) Fund Movement Statement.
(g) Inflow-Outflow of Fund Statement.
Fund statement is a new contribution of science of accounting but has become the doyen
of tools of Financial Analysis.
3. Cash Flow Analysis:
Fund Flow Statement fails to convey the quantum of inflow of cash and outflow of cash.
When we say cash, we refer to the cash as well as the bank balances of the company at
the end of the accounting period as reflected in the Balance Sheet of the company. Cash
is a current asset like inventory and Accounts Receivables. Cash reflects its liquidity
position.
The term cash can be viewed in two senses. In a narrow sense, it includes actual cash in
the form of notes and coins and bank drafts held by a firm and the deposits withdrawable
on demand the company has held in commercial banks. But in a broader sense, it a lso
includes what are called ‘marketable securities’ which are those securities which can be
immediately sold or converted into cash if required.
Cash flow statement is a statement of cash flow and cash flow signifies the movements
of cash in and out of a business concern. Inflow of cash is known as sources of cash and
outflow of cash is called uses of cash. This statement also depicts factors for such inflow
and outflow of cash.
Thus cash flow statement is a statement designed to highlight upon the causes which
bring changes in cash position between two Balance Sheets dates. It virtually takes the
nature and character of cash receipts and cash payments though the basic information
used in the preparation of this statement differs from that which is used in recording
cash receipts and cash payments.
This is particularly useful to the management, credit grantors, investors and others. As
regards the management, it is helpful in budgeting cash requirements.
Ratio Analysis
Ratio analysis is referred to as the study or analysis of the line items present in the financial
statements of the company. It can be used to check various factors of a business such as
profitability, liquidity, solvency and efficiency of the company or the business.
Ratio analysis is mainly performed by external analysts as financial statements are the
primary source of information for external analysts.
The analysts very much rely on the current and past financial statements in order to obtain
important data for analysing financial performance of the company. The data or information
thus obtained during the analysis is helpful in determining whether the financial position of
a company is improving or deteriorating.
1. Liquidity Ratio
2. Profitability Ratio
3. Leverage Ratio
4. Activity Ratios
#1 – Liquidity Ratios
This first accounting ratio formula is used to ascertain the company’s liquidity position. It is
used to determine its paying capacity towards its short-term liabilities. A high liquidity ratio
indicates that the company’s cash position is good. A liquidity ratio of two or more is
acceptable.
Current Ratio
The current ratio compares the current assets to the current liabilities of the business.
This ratio indicates whether the company can settle its short-term liabilities.
Current Ratio = Current Assets / Current Liabilities
Current assets include cash, inventory, trade receivables, other current assets, etc. Current
liabilities include trade payables and other current liabilities.
Example
ABC Corp. has the following assets and liabilities on its balance sheet.
Current Assets = Short-term Capital + Debtors + Stock + Cash and Bank = $10,000 + $95,000
+ $50,000 + $15,000 =$170,000.
This accounting ratio formula indicates the company’s efficiency in generating profits. It
shows the earning capacity of the business in correspondence to the capital employed.
Zinc Trading Corp. has gross sales of $100,000, sales return of $10,000, and the cost of goods
sold of $80,000.
Operating Ratio
The operating ratio expresses the relationship between operating costs and net sales. It is
used to check the efficiency of the business and its profitability.
Operating Ratio = ((Cost of Goods Sold + Operating Expenses)/ Net Revenue from
Operations) X 100
R&M Inc. had profits before interest and taxes of $10,000, total assets of $1,000,000, and
liabilities of $600,000.
#3 – Leverage Ratios
These accounting ratios are known as solvency ratios. That is because it determines its
ability to pay for its debts. Investors are interested in this ratio as it helps determine how
solvent the company is to meet its dues.
Debt-to-Equity Ratio
It shows the relationship between total debts and the company’s total equity. It is useful to
measure the leverage of the company. A low ratio indicates that the company is financially
secure; a high ratio suggests it is at risk as it is more dependent on debts for its operations.
It is also known as the gearing ratio. The ratio should be a maximum of 2:1.
Example
INC Corp. has total debts of $10,000, and its total equity is $7,000.
Debt Ratio
The Debt Ratio measures the liabilities in comparison to the assets of the company. A high
ratio indicates that the company may face solvency issues.
Debt Ratio = Total Liabilities/ Total Assets
Proprietary Ratio
It shows the relationship between total assets and shareholders’ funds. It indicates how
much of shareholders’ funds are invested in the assets.
Proprietary Ratio = Shareholders Funds / Total Assets
Example
Duo Inc. has earnings before interest and taxes of $1,000, and it has issued debentures worth
$10,000 @ 6%.
So, the current earnings before interest and taxes can cover the interest expense 1.7 times.
#4 – Activity/Efficiency Ratios
X Corp. makes a total sale of $6,000 in the current year, of which 20% is cash sales. Debtors
at the beginning are $800 and at the year-end are $1,600.
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Unit V
Accounting Standards in India and IFRS
Accounting Standards
An accounting standard is a common set of principles, standards, and procedures that define
the basis of financial accounting policies and practices.
Accounting Standards: Concept, Meaning, Nature and Objectives
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) are a set of accounting rules for the
financial statements of public companies that are intended to make them consistent,
transparent, and easily comparable around the world.
IFRS currently has complete profiles for 167 jurisdictions, including those in the European
Union. The United States uses a different system, the generally accepted accounting
principles (GAAP).1
The IFRS system is sometimes confused with International Accounting Standards (IAS),
which are the older standards that IFRS replaced in 2001.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) were created to bring
consistency and integrity to accounting standards and practices, regardless of the
company or the country.
They were issued by the London-based Accounting Standards Board (IASB) and
address record keeping, account reporting, and other aspects of financial reporting.
The IFRS system replaced the International Accounting Standards (IAS) in 2001.
IFRS fosters greater corporate transparency.
IFRS is not used by all countries; for example, the U.S. uses generally accepted
accounting principles (GAAP).
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)
Understanding International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)
IFRS specify in detail how companies must maintain their records and report their expenses
and income. They were established to create a common accounting language that could be
understood globally by investors, auditors, government regulators, and other interested
parties.
The standards are designed to bring consistency to accounting language, practices, and
statements, and to help businesses and investors make educated financial analyses and
decisions.
They were developed by the International Accounting Standards Board, which is part of the
not-for-profit, London-based IFRS Foundation. The Foundation says it sets the standards to
“bring transparency, accountability, and efficiency to financial markets around the world."2
Public companies in the U.S. are required to use a rival system, the generally accepted
accounting principles (GAAP). The GAAP standards were developed by the Financial
Standards Accounting Board (FSAB) and the Governmental Accounting Standards Board
(GASB).
The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has said it won't switch to International
Financial Reporting Standards but will continue reviewing a proposal to allow IFRS
information to supplement U.S. financial filings.3
There are differences between IFRS and GAAP reporting. For example, IFRS is not as strict
in defining revenue and allows companies to report revenue sooner. A balance sheet using
this system might show a higher stream of revenue than a GAAP version of the same balance
sheet.
IFRS also has different requirements for reporting expenses. For example, if a company is
spending money on development or on investment for the future, it doesn't necessarily have
to be reported as an expense. It can be capitalized instead.
IFRS covers a wide range of accounting activities. There are certain aspects of business
practice for which IFRS set mandatory rules.
Statement of Financial Position: This is the balance sheet. IFRS influences the ways
in which the components of a balance sheet are reported.
Statement of Comprehensive Income: This can take the form of one statement or
be separated into a profit and loss statement and a statement of other income,
including property and equipment.
Statement of Changes in Equity: Also known as a statement of retained earnings,
this documents the company's change in earnings or profit for the given financial
period.
Statement of Cash Flows: This report summarizes the company's financial
transactions in the given period, separating cash flow into operations, investing, and
financing.
In addition to these basic reports, a company must give a summary of its accounting policies.
The full report is often seen side by side with the previous report to show the changes in
profit and loss.
A parent company must create separate account reports for each of its subsidiary
companies.
History of IFRS
IFRS originated in the European Union with the intention of making business affairs and
accounts accessible across the continent. It was quickly adopted as a common accounting
language.
Although the U.S. and some other countries don't use IFRS, currently 167 jurisdictions do,
making IFRS the most-used set of standards globally.1
IFRS is required to be used by public companies based in 167 jurisdictions, including all of
the nations in the European Union as well as Canada, India, Russia, South Korea, South
Africa, and Chile. The U.S. and China each have their own systems.1
The two systems have the same goal: clarity and honesty in financial reporting by publicly-
traded companies.
IFRS was designed as a standards-based approach that could be used internationally. GAAP
is a rules-based system used primarily in the U.S.
Although most of the world uses IFRS standards, it is still not part of the U.S. financial
accounting world. The SEC continues to review switching to the IFRS but has yet to do so.
Several methodological differences exist between the two systems. For instance, GAAP
allows a company to use either of two inventory cost methods: First in, First out (FIFO) or
Last in, First out (LIFO). LIFO, however, is banned under IFRS.
IFRS fosters transparency and trust in the global financial markets and the companies that
list their shares on them. If such standards did not exist, investors would be more reluctant
to believe the financial statements and other information presented to them by companies.
Without that trust, we might see fewer transactions and a less robust economy.
IFRS also helps investors analyze companies by making it easier to perform “apples to
apples” comparisons between one company and another and for fundamental analysis of a
company's performance.
The International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) are a set of accounting rules for
public companies with the goal of making company financial statements consistent,
transparent, and easily comparable around the world. This helps for auditing, tax purposes,
and investing.
IFRS stands for International Financial Reporting Standards, it is prepared by the IASB
(International Accounting Standards Board). It is used in around 144 countries and is regarded as
one of the most popular accounting standards.
IND AS is also known as Indian Accounting Standards or Indian version of IFRS. Indian AS or
IND AS is used in the context of Indian companies.
Let us look at some of the points of difference between the IFRS and IND AS.
IFRS IND AS
Definition
IFRS stands for International Financial Reporting IND AS stands for Indian Accounting Standards, it is also
Standards, it is an internationally recognised accounting known as India specific version of IFRS
standard
Developed by
Followed by
Disclosure
Companies complying with IFRS have to disclose as a Such a disclosure is not mandatory for companies
note that the financial statements comply with IFRS complying with Indian Accounting Standards or IND AS
Companies complying with IFRS need have specific Companies complying with IND AS need have no such
guidelines for preparing balance sheet with assets and requirements for balance sheet format, but the guidelines
liabilities to be classified as current and non-current are defined for presenting balance sheet