Name:- Mahmoud Alaa Abdelraouf

ID:- 120230065

E-mail:- mahmoud.120230065@ejust.edu.eg

Experiment:- Thermoelectric effect

Section:- 3
Abstract:
The purpose is to investigate the temperature dependence of the
thermoelectric voltage produced by the Seebeck effect. The Seebeck effect
or the thermoelectric effect is the phenomenon where a temperature
difference between two points in a conductor gives rise to an electric
potential difference between these two points. The experiment is designed
to measure the Seebeck coefficient of different thermocouples.

Aim of the experiment:

The aim is to Measure the thermoelectric potential of two types of
thermocouples at different temperatures with the melting of ice as a
reference temperature throughout the whole experiment in order to obtain
the Seebeck coefficient 𝑺 for the material.

Introduction:
Thomas Johann Seebeck studied medicine in Berlin and at the University of
Gottingen, earning an M.D. in 1802. However, in numerous investigations
on the magnetizability of various metals, he discovered an abnormal
response of magnetized red-hot iron, which eventually led to the phenomena
known as hysteresis. Experiments with various metal pairings and
conductors indicated that the numerous conducting materials might be
combined into a thermoelectric series. His most significant contribution was
the Seebeck effect. He observed that if a copper strip and a bismuth strip
were connected to form a closed circuit, heating one junction caused an
electrical current to travel across the circuit as long as the temperature
difference remained. This was true for any pair of metals, and his first
experiment demonstrated that simply holding one junction by hand was
sufficient to generate a detectable current.
The temperature differential between the two junctions determines the
voltage that is generated. The Seebeck coefficient, also known as the
constant of proportionality (S or a), is sometimes referred to as
"thermopower" despite having more to
do with potential than with power. The
Seebeck voltage is independent of the
temperature distribution along the
metals between the junctions, as
Gustav Magnus observed in 1851,
indicating that the thermopower is a Figure 1 V = a(Th - Tc)

thermodynamic state function. This is

the fundamental structure of a thermocouple, which is frequently used to
measure temperature.

The difference between the temperatures of the hot and cold junctions, Th –
Tc, is directly proportional to the voltage differential, V, generated between
the terminals of an open circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, A and
B, whose two junctions are maintained at different temperatures.

Seebeck examined a wide range of substances, including minerals, alloys,

and elements. He also categorized the relative Seebeck effects of these
substances, chalcogenide minerals like cobalt arsenide and PbS, and zinc
antimonide. 1910 saw Werner Haken's quantitative characterization of the
Seebeck coefficient (now expressed in uV/K) and electrical conductivity of
a wide range of elements, alloys, and compounds. He correctly identified
Sb2Te3, Bi2Te3, Bi0.9Sb0.1, SnTe, Cu-Ni alloys, and even PbTe as good
thermoelectric materials, building on Becquerel's ZnSb and CdSb studies
Peltier Effect:

Jean Charles Athanase Peltier, a French watchmaker and occasional

physicist, discovered in 1834 that an electrical current may cause heating or
cooling at the intersection of two different metals. Lenz (1838) demonstrated
that heat could be generated to melt ice by reversing the current or taken from
a junction to freeze water into ice depending on which way the current was
flowing. The electrical current at the junction determines how much heat is
generated or absorbed. The Peltier coefficient is the name given to the
proportionality constant.

Thomson Effect:

Twenty years later, in a paper titled "Kevin Relations," William Thomson

(later Lord Kelvin) provided a thorough elucidation of the Seebeck and
Peltier Effects and their interrelationship. Thermodynamics explains the
relationship between the Seebeck and Peltier coefficients. The Seebeck
coefficient multiplied by the absolute temperature is the Peltier coefficient.
Thomson was able to predict a third thermoelectric effect—the Thomson
effect—thanks to this thermodynamic derivation. When current passes
through a substance that has a temperature gradient, heat is either produced
or absorbed, according to the Thomson effect. Both the electric current and
the temperature gradient are proportional to the heat. The Seebeck
coefficient and the proportionality constant, also referred to as the Thomson
coefficient, are connected by thermodynamics.

The maximum efficiency of a thermoelectric generator (1909) and the

performance of a cooler (1911) when the design and operating
circumstances are fully tuned were first determined by Edmund Altenkirch
using the constant property model . The 'figure of merit' (zT) was devised
based on the correct relationship that big Seebeck coefficients, low thermal
conductivity (to limit heat loss), and high electrical conductivity (to
minimize Joule heating due to electrical resistance) are characteristics of
desirable thermoelectric materials. The method that becomes crucial for
thermoelectric materials is the considerable reduction of lattice thermal
conductivity caused by point defects prevalent in alloys, as early thermal
conductivity tests on solids by A Eucken rapidly demonstrated.

Thermoelectric Applications:

- Excitement and Disappointment 1920 - 1970

Thermoelectricity was intensively researched for use in useful technologies,
namely cooling and power generation for both military and civilian
applications, during and after the world wars. Such gadgets were politically
and economically significant, which made advancements more challenging
and sluggish to publicize, especially amongst Eastern European and Western
nations. Generator efficiency reached 5% by the 1950s, and it was shown
that they could cool ambient air down to below 0 C, which finally led to the
development of certain successful companies. Many believed that
conventional heat engines and
refrigeration would soon be replaced by
thermoelectrics, and interest in and
research into thermoelectricity rose
quickly at government research centers,
universities, and big appliance firms like
Westinghouse. But by the late 1960s,
Figure 2-Oil burning lamp powering a radio using the first
commercial thermoelectric generator containing ZnSb and
development had slowed down, with some constantan built in USSR beginning in 1948

suggesting that zT might be close to 1, and

numerous research projects had been abandoned. (despite multiple zT > 1
findings).
Thermoelectric Industry - Niche Applications 1970 – 2000

Although conventional techniques

are more efficient,
thermoelectricity's simplicity and
dependability allow this solid-state
technology to find niche
applications. Apart from
thermocouples, a tiny but steady
industry developed to make Peltier
Figure 3-USA missions utilizing Radioisotope Thermoelectric
coolers based on Bi2Te3-Sb2Te3. Generators for Electrical Power

These companies currently make coolers for a wide range of devices,

including seat cooling/heating systems, small refrigerators, and
optoelectronics. Some specialized uses for thermoelectric power generation
are made possible by the necessity for dependable, distant power sources.
Numerous specialized scientific conferences and organizations have
emerged as a result of the advancement of thermoelectricity in research,
industry, and commerce. The largest of these is the International
Thermoelectric Society, which has been holding meetings since 1970.

Thermoelectric Generators for Space:

The light from the sun is insufficient for

space exploration missions, especially those
that travel beyond Mars, to power a
spaceship equipped with solar panels.
Rather, thermoelectric couplings are used to
transform the heat from a Pu238 heat source
into electrical power. NASA has employed
Figure 4- Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
these types of Radioisotope Thermoelectric (RTG) Used on Voyager 1 & 2

Generators (RTG) in numerous missions,

including Apollo, Pioneer, Viking, Voyager, Galileo, and Cassini. After
more than 35 years of operation, Voyager's power sources—which have no
moving parts—continue to function, enabling the spacecraft to make
scientific findings. The first rover on Mars to run on thermoelectric power
using a Multi-Mission RTG (MMRTG) is the Curiosity rover.

New Concepts in Thermoelectricity 2000:

With the introduction of novel concepts, thermoelectricity saw a resurgence

of interest in the 1990s. The field of thermoelectric material research has
been reenergized by the expectation that designed structures will improve
zT, especially at the nanoscale scale. Some of these concepts have proven
to be unproductive, but others have resulted in the development of
completely new classes of intricate thermoelectric materials.

The demand for alternative energy sources around the world has rekindled
interest in commercial applications (see the Energy Sustainability Page) and
sparked research on low-cost, eco-friendly thermoelectric materials.

The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference

between two dissimilar conductors or semi-conductors produces a potential
difference. When two metals A & B are linked together to form a closed
loop (as shown in Fig. (5)), If one junction is
kept at a high temperature 𝑻 and the other at
lower temperature 𝑻𝟎, that will cause a current
to flow in the circuit. The voltage that drives
this current is known as the thermal
electromotive force (emf). It is defined as the
energy per unit charge. Figure 5
The mechanism behind this effect is the diffusion of conduction electrons as
they transfer thermal energy as well as charges, thus a current follows
whenever a thermal conduction arises. Electrons always diffuse from the hot
side to the cold side but the different thermal conductivities between Aand
B, which depend on the material result in a net current flow.
Accordingly, no current will flow if A & B are the same material.

The magnitude of the emf (𝑽) produced between the two junctions depend
on the material and the temperature difference ∆𝑻𝟎−𝟏 through the linear
relation which defines the Seebeck coefficient 𝑆.

∆𝑽 = 𝑺 ∆𝑻𝟎−𝟏 (𝟏)

The Seebeck coefficient 𝑺 is a measure of the

magnitude of an induced thermoelectric voltage in
response to a temperature difference across that
material due to the Seebeck effect. The Seebeck
coefficient can be measured by connecting wire- A
in a circuit with wire B. The two junctions are held
Figure 6
at two temperatures, and V measured as T1 is
varied (as shown in Fig. (6)).

Experimental procedures & equipment:

1- Apparatus:

- Heater (hot junction)

- Thermos (cold junction)

Figure 7
- Two different types of
thermocouples.

- Thermometer
- Connecting wires

- Digital multimeter

- Converter

2- Procedures:
Figure 8

1. Put some ice into the thermos (cold junction) to keep the junction at
0 °C.
2. Connect the setup as shown in fig.3.
3. Check the main switch of the heater is
OFF and plug the AC cord into AC
100V outlet.
4. Set the heater controller at 150 °C and
read the change in the voltage as the Figure 9

temperature increase and tabulate your

data. (Take a read every 5 °C).
5. Repeat the same steps for another type of thermocouple.
6. Use equation (1) to determine the value of Seebeck coefficient 𝑆 for
each thermocouple.

Results and Discussion:

T(°c) ∆T(k) ∆V(Mv) ∆V(v)

1 55 55 2.2 2200
2 60 60 2.38 2380
3 65 65 2.63 2630
4 70 70 2.89 2890
5 75 75 3.15 3150
6 80 80 3.45 3450
7 85 85 3.69 3690
8 90 90 3.96 3960
9 95 95 4.23 4230
10 100 100 4.5 4500

Figure 10 x- ∆T(k) y- ∆V (v)

∆𝑽 = 𝑺 ∆𝑻𝟎−𝟏

𝑺 = ∆𝑽/∆𝑻𝟎−𝟏

Slope = ∆𝑽/∆𝑻𝟎−𝟏 = 52.12 V/K

Conclusion:

To sum up, the experiment's goal was to look at how the thermoelectric
voltage caused by the Seebeck effect changed with temperature. The
phenomenon known as the Seebeck effect occurs when there is an electric
potential difference between two places in a conductor due to a temperature
variation. Using the melting of ice as a reference temperature, the
experiment's goal was to determine the Seebeck coefficient of several
thermocouples by measuring the thermoelectric potential at various
temperatures. The amount of the induced thermoelectric voltage in response
to a temperature differential across a material is represented by the Seebeck
coefficient, or 𝑆. Through the experiment's execution and data analysis, the
values of the Seebeck coefficient for each thermocouple can be determined
using the equation: ∆𝑽 = 𝑺 ∆𝑻𝟎−𝟏

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