Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Situation Analysis
There are numerous ways to characterize a strong woman. In this study, a strong

woman is defined as one who can raise her children without the assistance of the father.

Therefore, for the purposes of this study, a single mother is the definition of a strong

woman. Being a single mother has always been difficult for whoever experiences it.

Despite the challenges they face, which include physical, emotional, and physiological

issues, financial strain, and sole responsibility for meeting their children's needs, they

remain committed to becoming the best parents possible. Single mothers prioritize the

needs and desires of their families over their own. When children are raised by a single

mother, they are exposed to their mother's parenting style, which has a substantial impact

on the type of person they will become. This also helps a child develop into a robust

individual. This study aims to reveal the psychological obstacles they face and how they

are able to overcome them. This study also aims to contribute to the expanding body of

knowledge and research on this subject.

Zakaria et. al. (2019) said that Single motherhood is now the "norm"; the number

of single mothers has been steadily increasing for a variety of reasons, including unwed

pregnancy, separation, divorce, annulment, the death of a partner, and the choice of some

women to have a child and remain single. Single mothers include widows, unwed

mothers, women who are separated or divorced, and unmarried women who have adopted

children. However, the definition of single mothers has been expanded to include a
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woman who is the breadwinner and caregiver in the family due to husband ill health,

disability, or substance and alcohol abuse, followed by a woman abandoned by her

husband and taking care of the children without the support of the husband, a woman in

the divorce process in which the husband did not provide the financial assistance and

other forms of support for their children, and finally a woman who was never married and

is taking care of the children without the support of the husband. Furthermore, according

to Zakaria, over the past few decades, family structures have shifted, and the number of

single-parent households led by women has increased globally. By 2020, depression was

predicted to be the second leading cause of disease burden worldwide, with women more

likely than men to experience mental health problems. In addition, studies have

demonstrated that a substantial number of these women were mothers.

According to Rousou et al. (2019), family kin networks have been identified as

important mental health predictors. Particularly, single motherhood is associated with

mental illness. Compared to other female groups, single mothers demonstrate higher

levels of psychiatric symptoms, such as depressive symptoms. Poor mental health among

single mothers is linked to financial insecurity and an increase in the frequency of daily

stressors. Other data indicate that access to support networks is crucial for empowering

individuals to deal with everyday problems and overcome obstacles. Higher levels of

mastery and social support were found to be associated with fewer depressive symptoms,

and single mothers without additional personal support for their child, as well as poor

single mothers, exhibited greater levels of psychological distress. Similarly, a review of

the literature indicates that single motherhood not only places women in an unfavorable
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social position, but also leaves them vulnerable in terms of their overall health status,

primarily due to prolonged exposure to stressful conditions. In fact, a growing body of

evidence indicates that single motherhood is associated with risky health-related

behaviors such as smoking and drinking, minor psychiatric morbidity, psychological

distress, psychosomatic symptoms, and depression

Globally, the percentage of single-parent families is steadily increasing. In at least

45 other countries, approximately one out of every five families is a single-parent

household on average. In Germany, it is estimated that over 2.5 million single parents in

2020, with approximately 83% of them being mothers (StatistischesBundesamt [Federal

Statistical Office], 2021). This proportion is comparable to the majority of European

nations (Council of Europe, 2021). According to Sartor et al. (2022), numerous studies

indicate that single mothers are at a greater risk for physical and, more importantly,

mental health issues than married mothers. They rate their health as poor or very poor

nearly twice as frequently as mothers in two-parent households. In addition, their

research revealed that living without their partners imposes a burden in terms of carrying

out household responsibilities. This burden diminishes their capacity to stand on their

own and results in emotional incapacity.

This finding is also supported by the research data that was gathered by Atkins

(2023), which revealed that single mothers are more likely to have experienced an

episode of depression than married mothers, based on secondary data analysis of a

National Population Health Survey sample of women. Two to three times more single

mothers than married mothers sought treatment for psychiatric disorders. Single mothers
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reported higher lifetime and one-year rates of depression than married mothers,

regardless of whether they had never been married, were separated, or were divorced. In

a sample of 404 single and married mothers in north London, the risk of developing

depression doubled for single mothers compared to married mothers. More depressed

were single mothers than other groups. These findings clearly demonstrate that single

mothers are a vulnerable population with a heightened risk for depression. This is partly

because single mothers exhibit a disproportionate number of demographic, psychosocial,

and personal characteristics that predict depression.

Furthermore, Hafni and Sairah (2021) hypothesized that the participants in

Coping Stress Post-Mortal Spouse: A Qualitative Study of Single Mothers experienced

stress symptoms in the form of elevated blood pressure, frequent postponement of work,

irritability, dietary changes, and sleep disturbances. Each component's source of stress is

a depreciation of economic, social, and psychological resources. The participants' stress

coping strategies include planned problem solving, confrontation, social support seeking,

distance, escape/avoidance, positive response, self-control, and acceptance of

responsibility.

A study of Fiadzo & Osei (2019) in Ghana reported that single parents employ a

variety of coping strategies in order to overcome the numerous difficulties associated

with single parenting. The strategies vary based on the underlying causes of single

parenthood and the individuals involved. The most common tactic employed is nurturing.

Some single parents use remarriage as a coping mechanism to avoid embarrassment and

stigmatization by isolating themselves from society. Others look to their parents and
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other responsible adults for counseling services. These adults provide guidance on how to

manage the condition of single parenting. It appears that the majority of coping strategies

employed by single parents are ineffective. Therefore, single parents in Kpedze, Ghana

require a solution to their issues. They require social, emotional, and financial assistance

in order to overcome their conditions.

In addition, according to a study by Theodoritsi et al. (2019), the family structure

has undergone significant changes in recent decades, resulting to an increase in single-

parent families. Almost three out of ten children are raised in single-parent households,

and this proportion is anticipated to rise in the future. It appears that the majority of

single parent households are headed by single mothers, who frequently encounter a

number of challenges and obstacles in their parenting role. Compared to married couple

families, single parents, particularly single mothers, experience higher levels of stress,

anxiety, and depression, encounter greater socioeconomic challenges, and lack social

support. In addition, the lack of an additional primary caretaker who could share

domestic responsibilities may result in feelings of low self-esteem and isolation. In

addition, aggravating factors such as the child's chronic health conditions can make the

sole parent's burden even heavier to bear. In addition to the aforementioned, solitary

parenting may be associated with a number of mental health issues in children, such as

anxiety, depression, and externalizing disorders; in some cases, it may also result in

school dropout and poor health. It is deemed necessary for mental health practitioners to

support single parents in their parenting role and improve their mental health, given the

obstacles single parents face in numerous aspects of their lives and the escalating rate of

single parenthood.
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Furthermore, Pond (2018) identified a total of 6925 mothers with children

younger than 3 years, of which 7.5% were single mothers and 92.5% were married

mothers. The average age of participating mothers was 31.6 years. About 30% of single

mothers reported depressive or anxious symptoms, compared to 14% of married mothers.

In addition, a greater proportion of single mothers reported high levels of both general

stress and parenting stress than did partnered mothers. The adjusted model confirmed a

higher risk of depression and anxiety among single mothers. In the modified model,

single mothers were also at a higher risk for general life stress and parenting stress.

Numerous psychosocial factors, including welfare receipt, lack of perceived social

support, and a history of childhood maltreatment or physical domestic violence, had a

significant impact on these risks. Compared to partnered mothers, single mothers were

much more likely to report these factors.

Single parents, particularly single mothers, are a socially and economically

vulnerable group that is at risk for a variety of physical and mental health problems in the

Asian context, particularly in Korea. For example, Kim & Kim (2020) found out that

single mothers have poorer physical and mental health than parents who are married.

Furthermore, the same study revealed that single mothers were more likely than married

mothers to have elevated stress levels, depressive symptoms, and alcohol-related issues.

These findings indicate that single mothers have poorer mental health and Quality of Life

(QOL) than married mothers. In a previous study, single mothers were more likely than

married mothers to experience higher levels of chronic stress and depression, as well as

lower levels of perceived social support and less frequent contact with friends and family.

Thus, single mothers are typically in poorer health and have greater socioeconomic
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disadvantages than married mothers. Consequently, it is anticipated that the Quality of

Life (QOL) scores in all domains namely physical, psychological, social, and

environmental will be lower in the single mothers.

In Japan, Kato et al. (2021) observed that single mothers without intergenerational

cohabitation experienced harsher living conditions than other household types. 11% of

single mothers without cohabitation experienced severe psychological distress, compared

to 6% of single mothers with cohabitation and 4% of mothers in two-parent households.

In addition, a study conducted by Liang et al. (2019) revealed that roughly 30% of

single mothers reported depressive or anxiety symptoms and 37% reported general stress,

which was twice as high compared to partnered mothers. Additionally, parental stress

was elevated. Models of adjusted regression confirm that single mothers are twice as

likely to report depressive or anxious symptoms. Similar risk factors are associated with

stress, depression, and anxiety. Inadequate social support and a history of maltreatment

by a partner or as a child were also consistent risk factors across all outcomes.

In China, recent social changes have led to an increase in divorce and childbirth

outside of marriage, creating a large population of single mothers with dependent

children (Kuang et al., 2022). According to the Ministry of Civil Affairs of the People's

Republic of China (2020), there were approximately 4.7 million divorces in 2019, a 5.4%

increase from the previous year. In metropolitan cities such as Beijing and Shanghai, the

estimated divorce rate is as high as forty percent (Fu & Wang, 2019). In China, non-

marital childbearing is not recognized by law, so there are no official statistics on single

mothers who are not married. Nevertheless, local projections indicate a rise in the number
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of unmarried single mothers despite strict regulation of childbirth outside of marriage.

Moreover, the 2010 National Census estimated that 90 million people did not have

household registration, the majority of whom were illegitimate children, making up

approximately 7.1% of the nation's total population (Sun, 2018). Due to entrenched

cultural norms against single motherhood, Chinese single mothers frequently face stigma

and stress that endanger their physical and mental health (Zhao & Basnyat, 2021).

For a long time in Philippine society, the notion of a family consisting of a

heterosexual couple and their unmarried children was regarded as the norm. As a result,

solo mothers are frequently stigmatized because their family structure deviates from the

norm (Del Mundo et al., 2019). Despite receiving stigma from other people, solo mothers

eventually came to terms with it. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2020)

reported from a recent survey funded study by the Department of Health and the

University of the Philippines-National Institutes of Health that the Philippines has

around 15 million single parents, of whom 95% are women, or more than 14 million.

Del Mundo et al. (2019) asserted that physical and mental health issues are also a

part of the difficulties faced by single mothers. These can be linked to the financial

difficulties of single mothers. Compared to their married counterparts, low-income single

mothers are more likely to suffer from mental and physical health disorders. In addition,

they tend to report more issues with pressure and inability to relax. Common

psychological stressors for single mothers include feelings of isolation, insecurity, and

insecurity. In addition, they report feelings of helplessness and despair. The health

problems of single mothers can be attributed to two factors: the economic pressures that
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affect their well-being and their extensive exposure to stressful life events. Despite this,

single mothers have demonstrated the same capacity to manage stress as their married

counterparts.

Single parenting is a challenge, especially for single mothers. It requires a single

parent to simultaneously fulfill the roles of raising children and managing the household.

These obstacles contribute to the living experience of single parents, resulting in factors

that describe and influence their way of life. The study conducted by Garcia et al. (2021)

revealed the participants' experiences, challenges, and difficulties as single parents. Due

to the fact that they are the sole holders of responsibilities, living without their partners

diminishes their ability to stand on their own and results in emotional incapacity. In

addition, it is not uncommon for a single parent to feel overburdened and, in some cases,

to be subjected to repetitive and frequent stress due to the fact that he or she is

responsible for all aspects of child rearing. In many cases, this can contribute to the

adversities of single parent families, including mental health issues such as depression,

especially when one parent is left to parent with little or no support, which can ultimately

add to a sense of loss for some, causing them to grieve even more (Rhiger, 2019).

As a natural human response to stress, single mothers who have assumed both

parenting roles, act as the head of the household, and are the sole provider for their

children developed a variety of coping mechanisms (Maness & Munoz, 2019). Algorani

and Gupta (2022) define coping as the utilization of cognitions and behaviors to manage

internal and external stressful situations. It refers to the conscious and voluntary
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mobilization of actions, as opposed to "defense mechanisms," which are subconscious or

unconscious adaptive responses designed to reduce or tolerate stress.

Therefore, it could be concluded that single parents utilize a variety of coping

mechanisms. This is because they view the occurrence as difficult and debilitating. It

poses a number of threats to their survival and family sustenance. Consequently, the

coping strategies enable single parents to face socioeconomic obstacles (Fiadzo & Osei,

2019).

Moreover, Dagupon and Garin (2022) discovered that single mothers use a variety

of coping mechanisms, with the majority employing physical, spiritual, and social coping

mechanisms to address solo parenting issues. The majority of them occupied their time

with their hobbies or their families. Some vented their frustrations to their friends, while

others felt at ease while browsing their social media accounts.

In Manila, Mundo et al. (2019) found out that problem-focused coping was found

to address both financial and health concerns. The primary reasons why single mothers

do not seek medical treatment are time or availability, the severity or severity of the

symptoms felt, and the availability of funds. Self-medication has been the option for

parents concerned about the cost of illness, demonstrating that the child is always the top

priority. The sacrifice of a single parent transcends all other considerations. The study

offered the explanation that solo mothers engage in self-care behaviors, both in general

and in coping with stress, because they desired to live longer, to care for their children,

and to see them mature, while emotionally-focused coping was reflected in the

respondents' preference for spirituality as a source of strength and self-care. While

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religion did not solve problems directly, it did provide respondents with a sense of hope

and security. They felt safe in the knowledge that a Greater Being cared for them and that

everything would eventually fall into place. Other coping mechanisms include sharing

emotions with friends and participating in spiritual groups.

Muarifa et al. (2019) revealed that a single mother requires social support to

achieve a state of subjective well-being. To enhance social support for single mothers,

therefore, a community service that provides psychoeducational groups is required. The

service may also include counseling and psychoeducational groups to boost the

subjective well-being of single mothers. In addition, numerous mothers expressed the

difficulty of balancing their class schedules with those of their children. Some

respondents mentioned their families as a significant support system, emphasizing the

importance of their families in their college journey. Some participants found after-school

programs helpful, explaining that they would not have been able to manage college

without their assistance (Maness & Munoz, 2019).

Furthermore, social resources such as social support have the potential to make up

for the absence of economic resources. Therefore, the social networks of single parents

could help to promote good health by mitigating the adverse health effects of separation,

poverty, and social inequality (Keim-Klarner, 2022).

According to Mishra et al. (2021), the absence of assistance from one's biological

relatives, methods of managing household duties, and societal disapproval all play a

major role in negatively affecting the well-being of single mothers. Even though they

may have escaped from violent situations, they still confront obstacles of a different
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nature. As a result, single mothers require improved resources and a support system that

can help them stay healthy and effectively manage their families.

In the Philippine context, other individuals provide assistance to students who are

single mothers, ranging from financial support to emotional support. Emotional support

can come in the form of kind words, guidance from friends and family, and brief

conversations with peers (Serrano et al., 2022). In the Philippines, support from the

government is also present. Based on the Administrative Order No. 86 in 2003, several

laws has been implemented to help single parents to enhance their social functioning as a

form of support such as comprehensive programs and services made by the government.

It is due to the increasing number of solo parents in the Philippines (DSWD, 2003).

In the City of San Fernando, as of 2023, the total population of the registered

single mothers is 1,192. This is according to the City Social Welfare and Development

Office. With its 125,640 citizens, from 32, 184 households (CPH, 2020), the City of San

Fernando is the most populous area in the province of La Union, and the sixth most

populous city in Region one. The single mothers make up 3.70% of this population.

Despite their struggles, women are self-empowered and equipped with strong

determination to fulfill their responsibilities. However, they require additional support to

continue their noble endeavor. Their struggles are more than sufficient to compel the

government to provide more macrosocial assistance.

In most cases, when family life is disrupted by events such as death, divorce,

separation, or abandonment, only one parent is left to care for the child alone. This results
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in single parenting, which has a significant effect on the character of custodial parents. In

addition to contributing to the growing body of literature highlighting the challenges and

coping strategies employed by single mothers through their lived experiences, the

purpose of this study was to suggest possible interventions for the development or

improvement of appropriate programs and policies to address the concerns of single

mothers and to ensure their overall well-being.

Framework of the Study

The theoretical framework provides a connection between the researchers as well

as the preexisting knowledge of the study. Theories can be useful in understanding some

facets of single mothers' lives and experiences. The study was anchored on the theory of

Dr. Norman Garmezy (Resilience Theory), Albert Bandura (Social Cognitive Theory),

Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Theory), Murray Bowen (Family Systems Theory), Marsh

and Herbet (Family Deficit Theory), and Farideh Mohammadkhani Orouji (Theory of

Everyday Stresses).

Garmezy’s Resilience Theory (1991), states that individuals can bounce back in

life after experiencing an adverse situation in a strength-focused approach (Li, 2020).

According to Moore (2019), the theory argues that it’s not the nature of adversity that is

most important, but how we deal with it. When we face adversity, misfortune, or

frustration, resilience helps us bounce back. It helps us survive, recover, and even thrive

in the face and wake of misfortune. By developing the ability to manage their emotions

and be adaptable to the changing circumstances that life presents, single-parent

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households can overcome challenges including the physical, emotional, mental, and

psychological suffering that comes with losing their partners and filling the void left

behind.

According to the theory of resilience, individuals who have experienced adversity

and stress can develop protective factors that enable them to manage with and adapt to

future challenges. In the context of single mothers, the resilience theory suggests that

some mothers may be able to develop coping strategies to manage the stresses of single

parenthood, such as financial distress, social isolation, and childrearing responsibilities.

According to research, some single mothers are resilient and can maintain positive mental

health despite adversity.

The Social Cognitive Theory, developed in 1960s by Albert Bandura, emphasizes

the processes of observational learning and modeling, and the influence of self-efficacy

on the production of behavior (Vinney, 2019). Parenting self-efficacy (PSE) refers to

parents' belief in their ability to perform the parenting role successfully, and derives from

Bandura's concept of personal self-efficacy formulated within the social cognitive theory.

PSE was defined as a parent's belief in their ability to successfully parent their child. It

has been demonstrated to be a strong predictor of parenting functioning (Boruszak-

Kiziukiewicz & Kmita, 2020). Single mothers are capable of dealing with problems of

raising a child on their own as long as they believe and trust themselves. On the other

hand, Atkins et al. (2023) revealed that parents who are lacking in sense of efficacy to

manage expanded familial demands are highly vulnerable to stress and depression and
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suffer physical and emotional strain. Women who have a strong sense of efficacy to

manage multiple families and work demands experience a positive sense of wellbeing.

Social cognitive theory highlights the significance of cognitive and behavioral

influences on human behavior. In the context of solo motherhood, social cognitive theory

suggests that a mother's confidence in her abilities and the efficacy of her coping

strategies can impact her psychological distress.

As stated in the research of Soomar (2019) on Single Parenting: Understanding

Reasons and Consequences, the psychosocial theory given by famous psychologist Erik

Erikson in 1959 consists of eight stages that cover up all the stages of individual’s life,

i.e. from infancy to late adulthood. The stages contain conflict that leaves positive and

negative impacts on individual’s personality. Erikson called these conflicts as crisis that

need to be resolved before moving to next stage. There is a chance that the child of single

parent experience crisis on all stages. For instance, in the initial stage of infancy, the child

wants their caregiver to be approachable to feed them, relieve their anxiety and make

them laugh. However, single parent cannot fulfill their needs and expose them to crisis.

All these dissatisfactions may lead to hopelessness and other psychological problems like

depression.

Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory proposes that individuals progress through

distinct stages of psychological development throughout their lifetimes, each

characterized by a distinct developmental task. Psychosocial theory suggests that, in the

context of single motherhood, mothers may encounter challenges related to their life

stages, such as identity formation or generativity. Thus, single mothers may experience
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psychological distress due to their parental responsibilities and capacity to provide for

their children.

Bowen’s Family Systems Theory understands human behavior through a complex

web of emotional processes in one’s family, work, and social systems. It describes how

the emotional interdependence among family/society members impacts individuals’

character and life choices. Family systems theory is a way to make sense of human

behavior by focusing on the interactions between people in a family. It views the family

as a complex system of interconnected and interdependent individuals (Drew, 2022).

In family systems theory, individuals are influenced by the systems in which they

are embedded, such as their families or communities. In single motherhood, family

systems theory suggests that a mother's psychological distress may be affected by her

relationships with her children, other family members, and social support network. Social

support can be a protective factor for single mothers, reducing their psychological

distress.

According to Marsh and Herbet (1990), the Family Deficit theory views the

nuclear or two parent families as the ideal family structure and single parenting as bad for

the single parent and children. The theory sees the absence of the other parent as a deficit

to the family because his/her services are missed. Emotional needs and social satisfaction

are critical to each family member. Therefore, the absence of the other parent is regarded

as a deficit to the family. The deficit present challenges to both the single parent and the

children. The consequence is that in single parent families, all parental responsibilities are

borne by the single parent. The implication is that single parent families have negative
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impact on children simply because they do not have at least a nuclear family structure.

The lack of family structure leads to a dysfunction in the maintenance of the

family because the members would face some challenges and need to find ways to

deal with them. In finding ways to deal with the challenges, the single parent family

must adopt some coping strategies (Fiadzo & Osei, 2019).

Family deficit theory suggests that families that lack specific resources, such as

financial or social support, are more likely to experience adverse outcomes. In the context

of single motherhood, the family deficit theory suggests that resource-poor mothers may

be more susceptible to psychological distress. According to research, unmarried mothers

who face financial difficulties or lack social support are more likely to experience

psychological distress.

Theory of Everyday Stresses by Orouji (2021) states that parents need to learn

how to cope with the stressful generators of their child's daily upbringing. Adaptation is

part of the job. One-dimensional thinking about parenting stress, which is a sign of

mental illness or injury in the family, actually ignores decades of psychological research.

In fact, according to this theory, parenting stress is a process that happens every day.

The theory of everyday stresses posits that people experience daily annoyances

and stressors that, over time, can contribute to adverse outcomes. In the context of single

motherhood, the theory of commonplace stresses posits that mothers may experience

daily stressors associated with childrearing, finances, and social support, which can

contribute to psychological distress. According to research, single mothers are exposed to

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high levels of daily stressors, which can contribute to adverse outcomes like depression

and anxiety.

The theories presented helped the researchers in formulating research questions

needed for gathering necessary data that will later be used in this study.

Figure 1 illustrates the expected relationship between the constructs of this study.

The Theory of Everyday Stresses (red box) describes how the daily buildup of stressors

can cause psychological distress in single mothers. Both Family Systems Theory and

Family Deficit Theory (blue boxes) demonstrate how the occurrence of psychological

distress can impact every family member. Meanwhile, Resilience Theory, Social

Cognitive Theory, and Psychosocial Theory (apple green boxes) highlight the coping

strategies employed and developed by single mothers.

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Fig 1. Framework of the Study

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Research Paradigm

The research paradigm is the guiding principle for the entire research study. It

provides a set of guiding principles and assumptions that influence the researcher's

approach to investigating the research problem and producing knowledge.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

1. Semi-structured
1. Psychological
interview
distresses faced by questionnaire.
single mothers
2. Thematic
Analysis of the Data Program for Single
2. Coping mechanisms
Gathered Mothers.
used by single mothers
3. Formulation of
3. Type of Support given Program
to Single mothers

FEEDBACK

Fig 2. Research Paradigm of the Study

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Statement of the Problem

The main objective of this research study is to determine the psychological

challenges that the single mothers experience and how they are able to go through it.
Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What are the psychological distresses faced by single mothers?

2. What are the coping mechanisms used by single mothers?

3. What type of support is given to single mothers, if there is any?

4. Based on the findings, what program can be evolved from the study?

Definition of Terms

This section provides precise and accurate definitions of the key terms used
throughout this research. Each definition will be accompanied by a brief explanation to
provide contextual relevance and aid in understanding their significance within the
context of the research.

Psychological distress- A collection of painful mental and physical symptoms associated

with normal mood fluctuations in the majority of people.

Single mother- Included among single mothers are widows, unmarried mothers, women

who are separated or divorced, and unmarried women who have adopted children.