Pressure 3drip Irrigation

Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 3: Drip/Trickle Systems
Chapter-3
3.1 Introduction
DRIP / TRICKLE IRRIGATION
Drip or trickle irrigation is a method of watering plants frequently and with a volume of water
approaching the consumptive use of plants, thereby minimizing such conventional losses as deep
percolation, runoff and evaporation. The principle of trickle irrigation is to water the plant by
means of small diameter low pressure plastic pipelines/laterals placed along the plant row and
fixed with devices called emitters or drippers at selected spacing to deliver water to the soil near
the base of the plants. From the emitter, water spreads laterally and vertically by soil capillary
forces augmented in the vertical movements by gravity. The area wetted by an emitter depends up
on the flow rate, soil type, soil moisture, and vertical and horizontal permeability of the soil.
Drip method of irrigation is one of the latest methods of irrigation, which is becoming
increasingly popular in areas with water scarcity and salt problem. As a rule, a fixed system is
used and irrigation can be carried out frequently, to achieve low moisture stress and optimum
growth, whereas the labor requirements are low. The irrigation efficiency is high, since losses by
evaporation are nearly nil and percolation losses are low. In arid regions with good management
the ratio of transpired to applied water is usually at least 0.90. Water application efficiencies
approaching nearly 100 percent and water savings of 30 to 50 percent over other irrigation
methods are obtained for those crops and conditions favoring trickle irrigation.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Drip Irrigation
Advantages
1. High degree control of water application because of this drip irrigation can achieve 90 percent
or more application efficiency, which can hardly be achieved by the other methods. For
sprinkler systems the field application efficiency usually ranges between 60 to 80% and 50 -
60% for surface methods.
The application efficiency for drip irrigation is based on the water desired in the root zone and
is not based on the whole area as sprinkler and surface methods. As opposed to the other
methods there is a possibility of exact timing and there is no limitation of irrigation time due to
wind.
2. There is considerable water saving since the water could be applied almost precisely to the
root zone and there is no need to wet the entire area between crops. The total amount of water
used is less than the water requirement for the whole area. Substantial water saving can be
achieved especially for tree crop where plant spacing are large.
There are also some more advantages of partial wetting, viz:
Lecture supporting materials Negash W. 2008 1

 Weed control;
 Helps to have permanent travel between rows and farms because they are not
totally wetted;
 Insect, disease, and fungus problems are reduced, because of the minimized
wetted surface;
 Less soil crusting, reduced cultivation, and thus less soil compacting.
3. Is the most advantageous method for marginal soils like sandy and desert soils which cannot be
irrigated by other systems.
4. When compared to the sprinkler system, the drip method operates on much lower line pressure
thus providing a saving in energy requirement.
5. Enjoy advantage of dry foliage, i.e. maintaining dry foliage decrease incidence of plant
pathogens; chemicals applied will not be washed off from plant leaves and avoid leaf burn
from using poor quality water, for example saline water and waste water.
6. Maintain high soil water potential, i.e. the water content is always at reasonable potential, and
is available to plants, due to frequent applications.
7. The method reduces salt concentration in the root zone, when irrigated with poor quality water.
i.e. there is a possibility to use poor quality water.
8. Like the sprinkler method, drip irrigation permits the application of fertilizers through the
system but here we have increased precision in application. We apply near to the plant. So
weeds do not get the fertilizer.
9. Advantageous for protected crops like flowers, pot vegetable and green house.
10. Elimination of the need for expensive drainage works.
Limitations
The disadvantages of the system includes
1. High initial cost of the system. The initial cost of the drip irrigation equipment is considered to
be its limitation for large-scale adoption. Economic considerations usually limit the use of drip
irrigation system to orchards and vegetables in water scarcity areas. The cost of the unit per
hectare depends mainly on the spacing of the crop. For widely spaced crops like fruits trees the
system may be even more economical than sprinklers. The main item of expenditure is the cost of
the lateral lines. As there is usually one lateral line for each crop row, the wider the crop row
spacing the lesser will be the initial cost on the drip system.
2. The requirement that the water, must be relatively clear. Emitters vary in size between 0.5 to
1mm and they could easily be clogged. Clogging could be:
Physical clogging: due to sands, clay particles and debris.

Chemical clogging: due to carbonate or any other chemical precipitates and
encrustation formed due to applied chemical and/or use of hard water.
3. Salt concentration in soil. Salt will be accumulated in the periphery of the root zone where
there is no continual leaching. This will not be a problem if we change position of laterals/crop
rows year after year.
4. Do not change the microclimate like sprinklers.

5. Plastic laterals are liable to mechanical damage by rodents and human being.
6. Limited root development, with localized irrigation, roots will concentrate in the wetted zone.
If this zone is too small, the spread of roots will be inadequate. Hence yields may be affected and
trees might be blown over in strong winds. However, correct placements of drippers overcome
this danger.
3.2 TRICKLE SYSTEMS COMPONENTS (EQUIPMENTS)
The components required for trickle systems are generally more involved than those for other
application systems due to the filter the water supply and to maintain a specific pressure
distribution though out the system.
The components of trickle system can be divided in to the main line, sub main and lateral. The
mainline has a pump to pressurize the system and possibly a chemical injector to conveniently
apply nutrients through the distribution system. A primary filter is used to screen the largest
particles out of the system primary pressure gauge on either side of the filter are used to
evaluate when the pressure drop across the filter is high enough to require back flushing. The
final components on the mainline are a discharge control valve and flow meter.
The sub main line has a secondary filter for finer particles and a solenoid valve to aid in system
automation. A pressure regulator is required on this line to keep the system operating with in
the close tolerances of discharge necessary for the water balance. Secondary pressure gauges
are used to verify the operating pressure. Flush valves are shown at the end of the sub mainline
to periodically clear accumulated debris from the line.
On large farms and co-operations the water is supplied by a network of underground pipelines,
fitted with pumps, pressure and flow regulators, etc.
The range of localized irrigation equipment available in the world today is so great and the types
changing so rapidly that an attempt to list and describe all the equipments in this chapter would
be most difficult and the usefulness would probably only be short-lived. Some reference is made
to some products thinking that they are indicative of the type of equipment available.
Emitters
An emitter (dripper) is a device which applies water to the soil from the distribution system. The
two major categories of emitters are point source and line source. Both categories have been
successfully used in various cropping situations. The emitter should be available in small
increments of discharge, i.e., in the order of 1 L/h.

Fig. Different models of point and line source emitters

Pressure is dissipated at the discharge orifice in the short orifice emitter. A turbulent flow vortex
emitter has increased pressure loss through the orifice compared to that operating in a laminar
flow regime. A pressure compensating emitter, aims at maintaining a constant distribution
system. The flexible membrane or diaphragm responds to pressure changes and keeps discharge
constant with in the design specifications.
Point source emitters are applied on widely spaced crops such as orchards and vineyards, and line
source systems are placed on more closely spaced row crops.
A trickle line may be designed to operate under a pressure as low as 0.4 atm and as high as 1 to
1.75 atm. A pressure drop of 0.5 to 1.0 atm may be anticipated in the head of the drip system,
including the filter. There is a further drop of pressure in the lateral. In the trickle line a pressure
of 1 atmosphere is usually considered for design. In the emitters the pressure is reduced to nil so
that the water leaves the emitter at atmospheric pressure as a drip, at a flow rate of 2 to 10 litters
per hour. There are many types of emitters available, differing both in their construction and
principle of operation and some of them are treated below.
Emitters are classified based on some characterizing features, viz:
1. Emitter discharge and its variation
A given emitter has average discharge, i.e. nominal discharge expressed at a pressure of 1 atm
and 20Oc water temperature and this varies with a variation in pressure. There are also variations
resulting from manufacturing processes this variation is measured using coefficient of variation
(cvf) and it varies between 0.02 and 0.5 of the nominal discharge.
2. Form of pressure dissipation
All pressure at the inlet should be dissipated to a level nearly equal to the atmospheric pressure, at
the outlet. To effect this different pressure dissipating mechanisms are used, viz.
 Long narrow flexible PVC or PE tubes (Micro tubes/capillary tubes)

 Nozzles or orifices of small size, varying between 0.4 to 0.6mm.
 Smaller perforations on the tricklerline.
 Spiral water paths (Coiled Microtubes or Screw threads)
3. How they are connected to the trickle line
Based on this feature emitters could be

 In - line drippers: where you cut the lateral tube and built the dripper in between.
On - line dripper or side - fitted dripper: where you make an accommodating hole and insert the
emitter.

Internally built in: manufacturers built in the emitters in the drip

line
4. Flow regime
This classification is based on whether the flow is laminar, sub laminar, or turbulent. Different
emitters will have different flow regimes.
2.1 Orifice drippers
The low discharge rate and pressure reduction are achieved by relatively small hole of 0.4 to 0.6
mm in diameter. The dripper is small in size and easily fitted to the polyethylene pipe, usually by
pressing it in an accommodating hole. The orifice dripper is relatively cheap but has the
drawback that the small hole easily is clogged up by dirt. To reduce the chance of clogging, the
orifice should be situated at the entrance. If the orifice is put at the outlet, all larger particles than
the orifice accumulate in the channel leading to the orifice and cause blockage.
For designing a trickle installation the Q-H curve of the emitter, based on experimental data, is
required and should be provided by manufacturers. However, the basic principle (relation
between pressure and discharge), can be expressed by the orifice flow formula.
The discharge from all types of orifices can be expressed by the orifice formula:
Where,
Q = the discharge;
K= the coefficient of discharge, which is approximately constant for a give orifice;
A = cross - sectional area of the orifice

g = acceleration due to gravity and
h = is the head at the inlet of the orifice.
The laterals distribute water to the emitters which deliver water directly to the root zone.
2.2 Long straight flow path tricklers - Microtubes
In this type of dripper polyethylene micro tubes are used. The resistance to flow through a micro
tube can be considered as being approximately proportional to the tube length. By increasing the
length it is possible to increase the diameter of the tube, without changing the resistance of the
flow. In this way a low discharge rate can be obtained of a tube with a larger diameter, which is
less prone to clogging. In calculating the discharge of a micro tube dripper it is supposed that the
pressure in the tube is reduced to nil and the flow is laminar.
In long straight path triklers Q and H has linear relationship.
Where:
Q = discharge in l/hr.
H = pressure at the at the inlet of the micro tube in atmosphere.
K = Coefficient.
Thus the discharge rate of a straight long flow path dripper is a function of the pressure at the
inlet of the tube.
The drawback of micro tube drippers is that the tolerable pressure variation in trickle line is lower
than for orifice drippers (efficiency of micro tube drippers fall rapidly for small pressure
variation) and as a consequence pipes of larger diameter are required. However, this disadvantage
can be met by selecting the proper tube length and in this way discharge regulation is possible.
That is why micro tube trickler is very suitable for undulating and hilly fields, where pressure in
dripper lines varies according to the elevation. If a fixed system is used, like in orchards, the
length of the micro tube can be adapted to the pressure on the spot, so that the discharge rate of
every dripper is exactly the same. However, these drippers are not suitable for arable and
horticultural crops, where the pipes have to be taken away for harvest and tillage under such
conditions orifice drippers and line drippers are used.
Another disadvantage is that rodents bite micro tube and birds find it a suitable material for nest
construction. However, this problem can be solved by inserting the micro tubes into the dripper
line, with only a short part extending outside, which part can be protected by a sleeve of hard
plastic.
When irrigation is stopped, the system drains at the lower parts of the field and this causes
suction in the micro tubes at the higher elevations, soil may be drawn in, which gives rise to
clogging of the emitters. The problems can be prevented by attaching a short piece of 25mm tube
on the outlet end of the micro tube. This piece should be at least 2.5 cm long, since shorter pieces
rend to settle into the soil. For inserting the micro tube a grommet should be used in order to
prevent constriction (which causes reduction of the flow).
If the pressure distribution along a lateral is known, uniform distribution of water can be obtained
by choosing appropriate length of micro tube.
Table--: Flow Regime of micro tube (L> 20 cm)

D (mm) Discharge lt\hr. Flow regime at discharge
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

0.5 0.5 2.0 Laminar Laminar
0.6 0.5 4.0 Laminar Laminar
0.7 0.5 6.0 Laminar Turbulent
1.0 1 12.0 Laminar Turbulent
1.1 2 12.0 Laminar Turbulent
For low flows the regime tends to become laminar and consequently variations of water
temperature will influence the discharge.
Long spiral flow path trickles

A micro tube wound in the form of a coil is the simplest form of this type of trickler.
i. Pre - coiled micro tubes
The coiled microtubes made from stiff plastic (polypropylene, pp) fit neatly round the lateral with
one end inserted into a press-fit hole in the lateral .Their performance should be identical to micro
tube of equivalent length and internal diameter.
ii. Labyrinth emitters (internal spiral emitters)
These emitters are based essentially on the long path principle, except that no capillary tube or
micro tube as such is involved. They are mold plastic accessories in which the “thread” is long
narrow passage governing the slow discharge of water. The thread is the direct equivalent to a
length of micro tube. They are called line drippers or “ in-line drippers, because the dripper
serves as a part of the pipeline. This is a distinct advantage here trickler line can be taken up at
the end of each growing season, since there is no protruding or dangling from the lines. It is also
possible to manufacture standard lines with tricklers installed in the factory.
Line or side-fitted type of distributors (drippers) may be of the multi outlet type, which is of
particular interest for light soils, where lateral spread of water is difficult.
The spiral flow in labyrinth tricklers produces centrifugal forces and a greater resistance to the
flow. A similar effect is achieved in pre-coiled microtubes.
Temperature has much influence on the discharge of long flow path drippers. As far as the flow is
laminar, the discharge is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the water. The viscosity of
water is.
1.146x10-6 cm sec-1 at 150c
0.898x10-6 cm sec-1 at 250c
0.725x10-6 cm sec-1 at 350c
The diminishing increase of the discharge is the consequence of the fact that the flow becomes
more and more turbulent under higher discharges, resulting in a decreasing influence of the
viscosity of the fluid. Viscosity has little influence on resistance of turbulent flow in tubes (see
Colebrook formula). As a result the discharge of orifice dripper is less sensitive to variation in
temperature because flow in orifice drippers is turbulent.
The sensitivity of flow rate to temperature is characterized by a flow rate relative to the “normal”
flow rate for the micro tube and pressure tested. If the index 100 indicates the flow at 20 0c, the
value of indexes presented in table below can be used for different temperatures.
Table: Average flow rate index for various diameters and temperatures
D(mm) 200c 300c 400c 500c
0.5 100 110 120 125
0.6 100 108 115 122
0.7 100 106 112 117
0.8 100 105 110 115

0.9 100 104 108 112
1.0 100 104 107 111
1.1 100 104 107 110
It seems that a value of CV of 3 to 7 is common with present standards of manufacture. However,

it has been noted that some distributors in this category have given unsatisfactory performance,
with a CV as high as 25% or more. Another important characteristic for the selection of a long
path emitter is the q = f (H) curve.
Vortex drippers
Attempts have been made to increase the orifice diameter of orifice drippers, in order to reduce
the tendency of clogging, by increasing the flow resistance by a spiral construction of the inlet.
The vortex dripper is such an improved orifice dripper. The water enters tangentially to the
circumference of a circular chamber and causes a fluid to whirl around. As a result of this
whirling action, centrifugal force comes into operation and these forces produce greater resistance
to the flow. The advantage of a vortex dripper is that its diameter (for same discharge and
operating pressure) can be approximately 1.7 times larger than that for a simple orifice type.
However, low discharge as 2.4 lt/hr at 10m of water pressure is difficult to obtain.
Table: performances of some vortex type emitters.

Nominal Estimated Temperature q = f(H)
Discharge, lt/hr coefficient index at 500c
or variation
CV %
6 1.7 Negligible sensitivity q = 2.4 H0.39
8 2.1 q = 3.0 H0.40
11 3.1 q = 4.2 H0.42
4 6.8 q = 1.7 H0.39
Other types of drippers
i. Twin-wall trickler (bi-wall trickle lines)

This system is developed in order to minimize clogging of emitters. The trickle line consists an
inner pipe or supply chamber for water conveyance and outer pipe or emission chamber for
distribution of water. The supply chamber is fitted with orifices (0.5-0.75 mm diameter),
normally spaced in accordance to the infiltration pattern of the soil (0.5-3.6m) .
ii. Large calibrated orifices with sleeve system.
This system consists of a polyethylene pipeline, usually 23mm-25mm diameter, with inserted
larger orifices of 1.6-2.1mm covered by sleeve that deflects and breaks the water jet escaping
from the nozzles . The discharge rate of each orifice is high, usually around 65 lt/hr, different
types are available to suit the soil and pressure condition. To avoid wild flooding that may
develop on most soils with such high discharge, the pipelines and the orifices are laid in a small

furrow divided into reaches, each of them separated by a small ridge. Each reach is served by one
orifice, and has a length that varies between 3.5m and 7m.
Pipelines
Most of the plastic pipelines used in irrigation are composed of the following four kinds of
materials.
- polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
- polyethylene, low density (PEb) and high density ( PEh)
- polypropylene (PP)
- Acrylonitrile - Butadiene - Styrene (ABS)
Of these four, PVC, PEb and PEh are by far the most widely used in trickle irrigation. Because of
its higher hydrostatic design stress, PVC is more economical in large sizes where as the PE’S
(with much lower design stress) are used mainly for small diameter pipes where flexibility is
desired such as for laterals and sometimes sub mains.
For the purposes of localized irrigation the major factors of concern in the selection of plastic
pipelines are.
i. Pressure (class) rating (PR) - this is the estimated maximum water pressure that pipe can
withstand continuously with a high degree of certainty that failure of the pipe will not
occur.
ii. Maximum operating pressure (MOP) - which is the maximum allowable operating
pressure taking into account a safety factor (higher than the one entering in the
determination of PR).
Utmost PR could be equal to MOP. However this doesn’t provide allowance for water-hammer
pressures. These two characteristics are directly related to the dimensions of the pipe, diameter
and wall thickness, which may be expressed by the SDR (Standard Dimension Ratio). The SDR
is the ratio of the average pipe diameter to minimum wall thickness.
For PVC and ABS pipes, the SDR is calculated by dividing the average outside diameter of the
pipe by the pipe’s minimum wall thickness, while for PE pipes it is the average inside diameter
that has to be considered.
The following expressions, commonly known as the ISO (International Standardization

Organization) equation, are used to relate SDR, hydrostatic design stress and pressure rating.
For PVC and ABS pipes:
2S = SDR - 1 or 2S = DO - 1
PR PR t
for PE pipes

2S = SDR + 1 or 2S = DI + 1
PR PR t
Where,
S = the hydrostatic design stress or the maximum tensile stress in the wall of the pipe (in
the circumferential orientation) due to internal hydrostatic water pressure that can be
applied continuously with a high degree of certainly that failure of the pipe will not
occur.
DO and DI = outside and inside diameters respectively.
t = wall thickness.
In designing an irrigation system, it is important therefore, to select pipes of an adequate pressure

class rating. The standard generally admitted for both PVC and PE pipes is that the maximum
operating pressure (MOP) should not exceed 72% of the pressure class rating (PR) or MOP <
0.72 PR and this corresponds to a 2.8:1 safety factors. Table below gives the PR and MOP for the
PVC and PE pipes mostly used in irrigation.
PVC PEh
SDR PR(m) MOP(m) PR(m) MOP(m)
5.3 - - 141 101
7.0 - - 112 81
9.0 - - 88 63
11.5 - - 70 50
13.5 221 159 - -
15.0 - - 56 40
17.0 176 127
21.0 141 101
26.0 112 81
32.5 88 63
41.0 70 50
51.0 56 40
81.0 35 25
Table: General estimates of trickle system equipment requirements (Adapted from

Hanks and Roller, 1972)
Type of crop Row spacing Plants per Emitters per Lateral Length
(m) hectare hectare (m/ha)

Ordinary 6 250 500-1500 1900

orchards
Dwarf orchards 3.7 1000 2000 3040
and vine yards
Berries & wide 1.5 15000 7500 6840
spaced row
crops
Green house 1.0 25000 10,000 10640
and close-
spaced row
crops
Example: A typical orchard is to be developed on a field with dimensions of 253m by

439m. The orchard will be irrigated using a trickle system laid out so that each tree is served
by four emitters based on peak period requirements at full tree maturity. The following
additional information is provided.
a) operation pressure head at the emitter = 10m
b) peak period crop water requirement = 5mm/d
c) distribution pattern efficiency = 92%
d) operating time = 18h/d
Estimate the following design parameters.

a) Number of emitters required
b) Required emitter discharge, L/h
c) Length of lateral, m
Soln
From table 1 for ordinary orchard, plant density is 250 trees per hectare. Thus,
number of emitters required.
N = 253m * 439m * emitters/tree
N = 11,108 emitters
- the equivalent application rate,
- Required emitter discharge, in l/h
…………For single emitter
From table 1, Lateral Length = 1900
L=1900

L = 21,103 m
3.3 CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS RELATED TO TRICKLE SYSTEMS
Crop water Requirements
As a first step in the proper design of an irrigation scheme it is necessary to know the crop water
requirements. Direct measurement procedures are laborious and times consuming consequently
large number of estimation methods have been developed. The four most widely known and used
are the Blaney-Criddle, Radiation, FAO-Penman and Pan Evaporation methods. The crop
water requirement is designated as ET crop and is expressed in millimeters per day (mm/day) or
inches per day (in/day).
In general terms, the crop water requirement (ET crop) is equivalent to the rate of
evapotranspiration necessary to sustain optimum plant growth.
Determination of Crop water Requirements
The accuracy of the determination of ETcrop will be largely dependent on the type of climatic data
available and the accuracy of the method chosen to estimate the evaportanspiration. The penman
and radiation methods are best for mean estimates over short period of about 10 days. The pan
evaporation method is often the second choice, but can be superior with light winds. In many
climates the Blaney-Criddle method is best for periods of one month or more.
In brief, the procedures for calculation of ETcrop are listed below.
i) Calculation of reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo)
ETo is the rate of evapotranspiration from an extended surface of 8 to 15 cm tall green grass cover
of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water.
 Based on meteorological data available, a method to calculate ETo is selected-

penman, radiation, pan other if applicable
 ETo is computed for each 30 or better 10 day period using mean climatic data.
 The magnitude and frequency of extreme values of ETo for the given climate are
analyzed.
 The frequency distribution of ETo is presented.
ii) Selection of crop coefficient (Kc)

Kc is the ratio between crop evapotranspiration, ET crop, and the reference crop evapotranspiration,
ETo, when both apply to large fields under optimum growing condition.
 The crop growing period is selected

 The crop characteristics are determined - time of planting or sowing, rate of crop
development, growing period
 The crop coefficient, kc, is selected for given crop and stage of crop development
under prevailing climatic conditions, and for each a crop coefficient curve is prepared.

iii) Calculation of Crop evaportanspiration (ETcrop)

The crop evapotranspiration for each 30 or 10-days period is calculated by:
ETcrop = kc*ETo
iv) Consideration of factors affecting ETcrop under prevailing local conditions
 The effect of climate and its variability over time and space on ETcrop
 The effect of soil water availability on ETcrop.
 The effect of agricultural and irrigation practices on ETcrop.
 The relationship between ETcrop and level of crop production.
Crop water requirement - Trickle systems.
For trickle irrigation calculation of the peak demand is very complicated since only a part of the
root system is irrigated. Trickle irrigation is used mainly for orchard and row crops where only
part of the soil surface is occupied by the crops. The canopies of young and widely spaced crops
intercept only a portion of the incoming radiation. When an unshaded surface is wetted by surface
or sprinkler irrigation, a portion of the potential benefit of the water applied is lost through
evaporation from the soil or transpiration from weeds. Therefore, the figures of crop water
requirements determined by conventional methods include the non-beneficial evaporation or
transpiration. Consequently a reduction factor, kr, should be applied to the conventional ETcrop
calculations.
The following suggested relations may be used to estimate the value of the reduction factor, kr. In
the relations, GC is the fraction of the total surface area actually covered by the foliage of the
plants when viewed from directly above.
i) Keller and karmeli ( 1974 ) suggest

, Whichever is the smallest
ii) Freeman and Garzoli suggest
Kr = GC + 1/2 (1 - GC)
iii) Decroix, Ctgref proposes
Kr = (0.10+GC) or 1, which ever is the smallest.
This relation given by Decroix gives reasonable result
Table: Vales of Kr suggested by various authors

GC% Kr Kr Kr
Keller and Karmeli Freeman and Garoli Decroix CTGREEs
10 0.12 0.10 0.20
20 0.24 0.20 0.30
30 0.35 0.30 0.40

40 0.47 0.40 0.50

50 0.59 0.75 0.60
60 0.70 0.80 0.70 *
70 0.82 0.85 0.80 *
80 0.94 0.90 0.90 *
90 1 0.95 1*
100 1 1 1*
*
Values to be used in design.
Irrigation water requirements
The irrigation water requirement, IR, is the water, which must be supplied to the crop plant to
ensure that it received its full water requirement or a predetermined portion of it. If irrigation is
the sole source of water, the irrigation requirement will be at least equal to the water requirement
(ETcrop) and may often have to be greater to allow for possible losses in the irrigation system, such
as leaching, deep percolation, or uneven distribution.
On the other hand, if the plant is receiving some of its water from other sources such as rainfall,
stored water in the soil, or underground seepage, the irrigation requirement may be considerably
less than the water requirement.
The net irrigation requirement

IRn = ETcrop* kr +Lr - R
Where:
kr = reduction factor
Lr = Leaching requirement it any
R = Water received by the plant from sources other than Irrigation.
The gross irrigation requirement

IRg = IRn/Ea
Where: Ea is the irrigation efficiency.
Irrigation Efficiency for localized systems
In a good design leaking and evaporation losses can be neglected in trickle systems and the only
losses of significance are the percolation losses, resulting from irregular distribution of water.
Even if ideally all emitters have the same discharge at a certain pressure, the distribution will be
irregular due to unavoidable pressure variation in laterals and due to emitters manufacturing
errors.
The overall application efficiency of trickle irrigation (Ea) may be defined as follows.
Ea = ks.*Eu
Where:

. ks is a coefficient (<1) which expressed the water storage efficiency of the soil. It takes in
to account unavoidable deep percolation as well as other losses and is given by the ratio:
Ks =
. Eu is a coefficient (<1), which reflects the uniformity of application (distribution),
discharge efficiency. It estimates the percentage of average depth of application required by
a system to irrigate adequately the least watered plants.
The value of ks depends on management. Since ideally localized irrigation does not involve loss
of water by deep percolation, it is generally unnecessary to provide water in excess of that
calculated to meet the crop requirement. However, on porous soils of poor water holding
capacity, some allowance should be made. Suggested values of ks for different soils are given
below.
Soil type Ks (fraction)

Coarse sand, or light
Topsoil with gravel subsoil 0.87
Sands 0.91
Silts 0.95
Loams and clays 1
In trickle irrigation, water is conveyed in a pipe network to the points where it infiltrates into the
soil. Therefore, the uniformly of application (Eu) depends entirely on the uniformity of the
distribution and discharge rates throughout the system. The variation in discharge rates between
the different emitters (the irregular distribution) is a function of the unavoidable pressure
variations in the laterals, discharge characteristics or emitters and manufacturing errors.
Emission uniformity (EU) from all the emission points within a trickle irrigation system is
important because it is one of the major components of irrigation efficiency. From field test data
EU, percent, can be computed by equation:
Where
= average discharge of the lowest 25 percent of the field-data discharge readings,
gallons per hour.
= average of all the field-data emitter discharges, gallons per hour.
In the design phase, the variation expected in emission rates must be estimated by some analytical
procedure. Unfortunately, it is not practical to consider in a formula for EU all the influencing
factors, such as full or partial clogging, changes in water temperature, and aging of emitters. It is
not possible to look at a design and compute or even satisfactorily estimate the unpredictable
variations in emission rates these factors may cause. Other items, however, can be known. The
manufacturer should provide information about the relation of pressure to rate of emission and
also about manufacturing variation for the emitter. Topographic data from the intended site and a
hydraulic analysis of the proposed pipe network can give the needed information about expected
variation in pressure.
The basic concept and formulas for EU were initially published in studies by Keller and Karmeli.
The basis of their formula is the ratio of the lowest emission rate to the average emission rate.
This process treats below-average emission rates as more important than those above average and
treats the lowest emission rates as more important than those somewhat below average. This
scheme seems reasonable for evaluating trickle irrigation, which applies reduced amounts of
water to the plant and irrigated only a part of the plant’s root zone. In trickle irrigation, under
watering is a greater hazard than over watering.
For a proposed design, an estimate of EU can be computed by equation:
Where:
CVf = coefficient of manufacturing variation of the emitter, obtained from the
manufacturer or by equation (CVf = /qav.),
CVf(total) = system coefficient of manufacturing variation,
n = minimum number of emitters per plant,
qminimum = minimum emission rate computed from the minimum pressure in the system,
based on the nominal flow rate-vs pressure curve,
qaverage = average or design emission rate.
The ratio of qminimum to qaverage expresses the relationship of minimum to average emission rate that
results from pressure variation within the system. The 100 is needed to convert the ratio to a
percentage. The factor in the middle adjusts for the additional non-uniformity caused by
anticipated manufacturing variation between individual emitters.
Table, shows the efficiencies (EU) to be achieved with different emitters at different pressure
variations in the laterals.
Table Discharge Efficiencies in Drip Laterals (Baars, 1976)

Pressure Orifice Trickler Long spiral path Long straight path
variation trickler trickler
H1/Hn
Discharge Water Discharge Q1/Qn Water Eu Q1 Water Eu
variation losses Efficiency losses % Qn losses %
Q1/Qn % %

1.05 1.025 0.8 99.2 1.037 1.2 98.8 1.05 1.7 98.3
1.10 1.050 1.7 98.3 1.074 2.5 97.5 1.10 3.3 96.7
1.15 1.075 2.5 97.5 1.111 3.7 96.3 1.15 5.0 95.0
1.20 1.095 3.2 96.8 1.147 4.9 95.1 1.20 6.7 93.3
1.25 1.120 4.0 96.0 1.187 6.1 93.9 1.25 8.3 91.7
1.30 1.140 4.7 95.3 1.217 7.2 92.8 1.30 10.0 90.0
H1 = pressure at the first trickler

Hn = pressure at the end trickler
Q1 = discharge of the first trickler
Qn = discharge of the end trickler.
Determination of spacing between emission points
A point delivery system causes a three dimensional infiltration pattern, and the shape of the
wetted volume (depth and width) of soil depends on capillary forces and gravity.
As soil differ greatly so will the wetting patterns. These patterns will be influenced by the soil
texture, the horizontal and vertical permeability, the capillary suction, presence or absence of
impermeable layers, the volume of water applied per irrigation, the rate of application and the
initial moisture content of the soil.
Attempts are made by many researchers to calculate the distribution patterns on the basis of the
physical properties of the soils. The methods are complicated, laborious and not quite reliable
since soil profiles are seldom homogeneous.
Field measurement of water distribution
Since the infiltration pattern can only be observed in a dry soil, field investigations should be
carried out in a dry period during the growing season.
The equipment required is as follows.
- An empty drum with a capacity of about 100-200 litters in which a constant water level is
maintained from a water source, by a float valve .
- A polyethylene hose with a diameter of about 12 mm and a length of some 10m or more
which is connected to the tank,
- Distributors (emitters), which are connected to the hose every 2m and separated by taps. The
distributors must be arranged according to their discharge rate, the smallest nearest to the
tank,
- Generally, capillary microtubes are used - different discharges may be obtained by
adjusting the tube length.
The amount of water to be applied is determined on the basis of the depth of the root zone, the
moisture content of the soil at the time of the test and the moisture content at field capacity. As
soon as the required amount of water has been applied, the emitter is shut off by closing the tap.
The test is then repeated for another emitter with a different discharge rate. About one day later

the infiltration pattern is measured. This can be done by excavation, tensiometers or any other
moisture sensors.
In this way the horizontal and vertical extents of the wetted pattern can be obtained, even for non-
homogeneous or stratified soils, for various volumes of water applied. From this you can decide
on the spacing between emitters.
Percentage of root zone wetted.
One of the most important items to consider in system design is the proportion of area or soil
volume, which may be wetted, compared to the whole area of potential root zone. This value is
designated as P and expressed as a percentage. The value of P will depend on the discharge, the
type of soil, the spacing of the emitters on the laterals and the spacing of the laterals themselves.
An “absolute minimum “ satisfactory P has not been established. In a short-term experiment,

Black (1971 showed that young apple trees continued to grow fairly well with water supplied to
only 1/4 of the potential root zone (P = 25 %).
It seems that generally on average about P = 50% would be quite satisfactory. A reasonable
design objective is to wet a minimum of 1/3 (P = 33%) of the potential root zone of widely
spaced tree crops. If the plants are close most of the soil volume may need to be wetted to ensure
an adequate supply of water to each plant. In areas of intermittent heavy rainfall, where irrigation
is supplementary it is suggested that P = 20 percent is a reasonable design objective.
For row crops the usual aim is to wet a strip of soil along which one or two rows of crops will
grow. If emitters are spaced at some 0.8 or 0.9 of the horizontal diameter of the wetting pattern,
then approximately 90% to 95% of the strip will be wetted and the minimum width of wetting
will be about 90% of the width of the strip.
Keller and karmeli (1974) have developed a table for estimating the percentage of wetted volume
P (Table -). This table is a guide for estimating P for a single, straight, equally spaced lateral
lines, with uniformly spaced emitters for coarse, medium and light soils and for various
discharges. The emitter spacing along the laterals suggested in the table should give a continuous
wet strip of fairly uniform width approximately 0.30 m beneath the soil surface.
The values given are for average conditions when applying approximately 40 mm per irrigation
cycle.
To use table -, enter the left hand column with the spacing between laterals ( depends on plant
row spacing adopted) find the value of P for the soil type concerned and emitter discharge rate.
The corresponding emitter spacing on the laterals, which will give a continuous wet strip, is
shown in conjunction with each soil type and discharge of emitter.
When irrigation is applied in relatively short pulses, the table should be entered with a discharge,
which is equal to half the instantaneous rate.
For soils with hard pans, clay or other stratification, which increase the horizontal spread of the
moisture, the table may be entered with up to twice the continuous rate for regular applications.

The values suggested in the table are valid for the prediction of P for a single row of uniformly
spaced emitters in a straight line as shown below.
Fig. Single straight lateral for each row of trees.
Sometimes double laterals are used, or the distributors may be clustered around each tree instead
of being uniformly spaced on the lateral. For double laterals the value of P obtained from Table -
should be adjusted as follows.
Fig. Double lateral for each row of trees.
Where: S1 = the inner spacing (in m or ft) between pairs of laterals. Which should be
taken from tables, corresponding to P = 100%, the value for the given
emitter discharge rate, soil type and spacing.
P1 = is taken from table- for S1
P2 = is taken from table - for S2
S2 = the outer spacing (in m or ft) b/n laterals
Sr = the spacing between tree rows (in m or ft ).
Adequate anchorage is important for trees and vines. It seems the exact requirements have not
been determined but common sense suggests the root pattern should be symmetrical. This means
a minimum of two emitters per tree in heavy soils and three or more per tree in light soils. This
can be achieved in several ways as show in the diagram below: Multi-outlet distributors, 3 or
more micro tubes with well spaced discharge point, a sub lateral laid around the tree, two laterals
per tree etc.
In such cases the following formula applies.
in which

n = the number of emission point per tree

Se = the spacing between emission points
Sw = the width of the wetted strip, which corresponds to the S l value taken from table
given up p = 100% for the given emitter discharge, soil and Se (m, ft)
St = the spacing between trees in the rows (m, ft)
Sr = the spacing between tree rows (m, ft).

GUIDE FOR DETERMINATION OF P
(Percentage of soil wetted by various discharge and spacings for a single row of uniformly spaced emitters in a straight line applying 40mm of water per cycle over the weted area)
Emission point Discharge

Effective less than 1.5 lph 2 lph 4 lph 8 lph more than 12 lph
Spacing Recommended spacing of emission points along the lateral for
Between Coarse, Medium, Fine Textured soils
Laterals Sl, m
C M F C M F C M F C M F C M F
Sl, m Se=0.2 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.7 1 0.6 1 1.3 1 1.3 1.7 1.3 1.6 2
Percentage of soil wetted
0.8 38 88 100 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
1 33 70 100 40 80 100 80 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
1.2 25 58 92 33 67 100 67 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
1.5 20 47 73 26 53 80 53 80 100 80 100 100 100 100 100
2 15 35 55 20 40 60 40 60 80 60 80 100 80 100 100
2.5 12 28 44 16 32 48 32 48 64 48 64 80 64 80 100
3 10 23 37 13 26 40 26 40 53 40 53 67 53 67 80
3.5 9 20 31 11 23 34 23 34 46 34 46 57 46 57 68
4 8 18 28 10 20 30 20 30 40 30 40 50 40 50 60
4.5 7 16 24 9 18 26 18 26 36 26 36 44 36 44 53
5 6 14 22 8 16 24 16 24 32 24 32 40 32 40 48
6 5 12 18 7 14 20 14 20 27 20 27 34 27 34 40

Depth per applications
The maximum net amount of water that can be applied per irrigation can be expressed in the same
way as for sprinkler irrigation but taking in to account that only part of the soil volume is wetted.
Where:
d = maximum amount (depth) of water to be applied taking into account
suitable reduction as not all the potential root zone is wetted in trickle
systems.
FC = the volumetric moisture at field capacity (mm/m)
PWP = the volumetric moisture at wilting point (mm/m)
MAD = management allowed depletion (%)
Drz = depth of root zone (m)
P = the volume of soil wetted as a % of the total volume.
Table maximum/minimum values of Drz for some crops:.
Crop Drz(m)
Tomatoes 1-0 - 1-2

Vegetables 0-3 - 0-6
Citrus 1-0 - 1-2
Deciduous 1-0 - 2-0
fruits
Grapes 1-0 - 3-0
As a general rule the allowable moisture deficit is often taken as 0.3 (30%) for drought-sensitive
crops and up to 0.6 (60%) for non-sensitive crops.
The depth of irrigation, d, computed by the above equation is the maximum amount that should
be considered. Shallower depths at more frequent intervals are often recommended. For very light
soils pulse irrigation might be required to minimize losses.
4.6 Interval between irrigation (T)
Knowing the net amount of water applied, d, the irrigation interval can easily be computed, if the
water consumed by plant is known
A simple method of determining the interval between irrigations is to irrigate whenever a

predetermined water deficit (or a fixed amount of evapotranspiration) has been reached. For
design purposes it is suggested that the deficit to be taken into account should correspond to the
daily deficit that occurs during the “average maximum” water use by plants i.e. the IRn (the peak
net average irrigation requirement or the peak average maximum consumptive use.). Therefore
the irrigation interval T can be given as:
Lecture Supporting Materials By Negash Wagesho 2009 23

Physical properties or some soils (localized irrigation, FAO Paper 36)
Soil Available Holding

texture Moisture percentage capacity by
by weight volume
FC WP Available mm/m
Sandy 9 4 5 85
(6-12) (2-6) (4-6) (70-100)
Sandy loam 14 6 8 120
(10-18) (4-8) (6-10) (90-150)
Loam 22 10 12 170
(18-20) 98-12) (10-14) (140-190)
clay loam 27 13 14 190
(25-31) (11-15) (12-16) (170-220)
Silty clay 31 15 16 210
(27-35) (13-17) (17-18) (180-230)
Clay 35 17 18 230
(31-39) (15-19) (16-20) (200-250)
Duration of each irrigation (t)
The cheapest system will be one which is designed with the duration of application as long as
possible, thus keeping the flow rates through out the system low. Trickle irrigation installations
are usually fixed systems and irrigation can go on day and night. However, it is impossible to
irrigate 24 hours per day on an average, several limitations to maximum application time. For
instance, for very coarse soils which have very poor water holding capacity, water must be
applied when the plant is using it (when there is photosynthesis) and as close to its consumptive
use as possible, in order to avoid losses by deep percolation. In most cases for these types of soils
irrigation should preferably take place between 9:00 AM in the morning and 3:00 PM in the
afternoon i.e. only for about 6 hours.
Apart from the particular cases of coarse soils, the choice of application duration is influenced by
allowance of some margins for breakdowns, general maintenance, cleaning of filters, slow
decrease in average emitter discharge in time. Some margin or factor of safety is necessary to
allow for any under estimates of crop requirements; this factor is best incorporated in the time of
application as it can be modified without affecting the hydraulics of the system.
Therefore, estimate of maximum time of application based on providing water for the plant when
it can use it and allowing for an adequate factor of safety would be 6 to 10 hours/day for very
porous soils and 10 to 18 hours per day for soils of good water holding capacity. For peak
periods, however, the duration could be increased to 20 to 22 hours per day. For design purpose
20 effective irrigation hours can be realized.
NB. Time of application and discharge will be interrelated via the overall irrigation requirement.
3.4 Emitter Hydraulics

The relationship between emitter discharge and operating pressure is dependent up on flow
regime. The flow regime is determined by the Reynolds number which is computed as:
RN = where RN = Reynold’s number, dimensionless
V= flow velocity, m/s
D = emitter diameter, mm
= kinematic viscosity of water (m2/s)
= 10-6 m2/s @ 200c
The following categories are used to describe the flow regime as a function of the Reynold’s
number
Laminar flow : RN =
Unstable flow regime : 2000<RN  4000
Partially turbulent flow regime: 4000<RN 10,000
Fully turbulent flow RN > 10,000
Different equations relating emitter discharge and operating pressure are required depending on
the type of emitter and flow regime. The discharge equation for an orifice emitter in fully
turbulent flow is given as
q =3.6(A)Co (1)
Where
q = emitter discharge, L/h
A = emitter cross-sectional flow area, mm2
Co = orifice coefficient, dimensionless
g = acceleration of gravity = 9.807 m/s2
H = orifice operating pressure head, m
The orifice coefficient is typically assumed equal to 0.6 for application in eq.(1).
The governing equation for a long-path emitter operating in a laminar flow regime
is given as
Q = 0.11384(A) (2)
Where f = friction factor, dimensionless
L = emitter length, m
D= inside diameter of the emitter ,mm
Under turbulent flow, the governing equation for discharge from a long-path emitter
is given by
Q = 0.1138 (3)
Different expressions are required for the friction factor f dependent upon flow regime; The
linear expression for laminar flow is given as
f= (4)

For fully turbulent flow, f is said to be a function of the relative roughness of the pipe or tubing
material. The expression for the friction factor in the fully turbulent regime is given by
(5)
where
absolute roughness of pipe or tubing, mm
The relative roughness is equal to and requires that the absolute roughness and diameter be
expressed in the same units. The logarithmic expression in Eq. (5) is to the base 10.
Table 2 Values of the absolute roughness for various pipe and tubing materials.
(Adapted from Albertson et al, 1960.)
Absolute Roughness (mm)

Material Minimum Maximum
Plastic 0.003 0.03

Commercial and wrought iron 0.03 0.09
Galvanized iron 0.06 0.02
Aluminum 0.1 0.3
Concrete 0.3 3.0
Riveted steel 0.9 9.0
Corrugated metal pipe 30.0 60.0
Application of Eqs, (1) through (5) is demonstrated in the following example problems.
Example problem 2
Determine the required diameter for an orifice emitter in a turbulent flow regime with a design
discharge of 10 l/h and operating pressure head of 10.0 m. Assume a value of 0.6 for the orifice
coefficient.
Solution: Applying Eqn : (5),
Q = 3.6 (A) (0.6) = 30.26A
Substituting the design discharge and solving for the cross- sectional area and hence the diameter,
A= = 0.3305 mm2 =
D = 0.65 mm
Example problem 3
Compute the required length of a long-path emitter for a system with a design discharge of 4.0
L/h and operating pressure head of 10.0m using smooth plastic micro-tubing with an inside
diameter of 1.0mm. Assume the standard value of 1.0 x 10-6 m2/s for the kinematic viscosity of
water.
Solutions: Compute the Reynold’s number using equation…... to determine the flow
regime.

V= = = 1.4147m/s
RN =
RN = 1415 < 2000

Therefore the flow is laminar. Compute the friction factor using Eq, (4)
f= = 0.0452
Substituting into Eq. (2), the only unknown is the length of micro-tubing.
Q = 0.11384(A)
4.0L/h = 0.11384
= 1.472
L = 2.167m
Example problem 4.
Compute the required length of a long-path emitter for the same system as that given in example
problem 3,except that the design discharge is 28 L/h
Solution:
Compute the Reynolds number for this flow regime. Since the Reynolds number is a linear
function of flow velocity and the velocity is directly proportional to the discharge, we can set up
the Reynolds number as a function of that computed in example problem 3
RN = 1415 = 9905
Assume a flow regime will be fully turbulent at this high Reynolds number. Apply Eq. (5) for the
friction factor. Use the value of from table 2 for plastic equal to 0.003 mm for the absolute
roughness.
= 2 log
= 2 log (1.0mm/0.003mm) +1.14

f = 0.0261
Substituting into e.q. (3) and solving for emitter length,
Q = 0.1138
28.0 L/h = 0.11384(0.7854mm2)
L= 0.0242 m

The length requirements have therefore been substantially reduced by increasing the discharge
from a laminar to turbulent flow regime.
Emitter Uniformity
A key element in the design of trickle irrigation systems is the close balance between the crop
water requirement and the emitter discharge. To properly maintain this balance, it is important
that the discharge along a lateral have a high degree of uniformity. Quantification of the
uniformity is given by the emission uniformity.
Ue = 100[1.0-(1.27/ ) Cv] (6)

Where Ue = emission uniformity, percent
n = number of emitters per plant for point source emitters on a permanent
crop , which ever is greater of (a) or (b) for a line source emitter on an
annual row crop
(a) spacing between plants divided by same unit length of lateral line used by
manufacturer to compute Cv
(b) 1
Cv = manufacturer’s specified coefficient of variation
qmin = minimum emitter discharge , l/hr
qavg = average or design emitter discharge, l/hr
The minimum emitter discharge corresponds to the point of minimum pressure in the distribution
system. The manufacturer’s coefficient of variation is the function of the type of emitter and the
quality control exercised during the manufacturing process. Examples of values of the coefficient
of variation different types of available emitters are indicated below in table 3.
Table 3. Manufacturer’s coefficient of variation and emitter exponent for various

types of emitters (adapted from Solomon, 1979)
Type of Device Coefficient of Emitter Discharge
Variation Exponent
Single vortex 0.07 0.42
Multiple-flexible orifice 0.05 0.70
Multiple-flexible orifice 0.07 0.70
Ball and slotted seat- 0.27 0.50
non-compensating
Ball and slotted seat- 0.35 0.15
pressure compensating
Ball and slotted scat - 0.09 0.25
pressure compensating
Small tube 0.05 0.70
Small tube 0.05 0.80
Spiral long-path-no flushing 0.02 0.65
Spiral long-path-manual flushing 0.06 0.75
Long-path –pressure compensating 0.05 0.40
Long-pressure compensating 0.06 0.20
Tortuous long-path 0.02 0.65
Groove and flap short-path 0.02 0.33

Slot and disk, short – path 0.10 0.11

Slot and disk, short – path 0.08 0.11
Porous pipe 0.40 1.00
Twin – wall lateral 0.17 0.61
Table 4. Recommended emitter classification based on manufacturer’s coefficient

of variation, (Adapted from ASAE standard EP 405,)
Coefficient of
Emitter Type variation Classification
Point source < 0.05 Good

0.10-0.10 Average
0.10-0.185 Marginal
<0.10 Unacceptable
>0.15 Good
Line source 0.10-0.20 Average
>0.20 marginal to unacceptable
Standards have also been developed by ASAE for recommended ranges of design emission
uniformity as a function of type of emitter, crop spacing and field topography. These design
standards are given in Table 5.
Table 5. Design standards for emission uniformity and uniformity coefficient for arid
areas (Adapted from ASAE standard EP 405,1985)
Type
of emitter crop spacing Field Topography Emission Uniformity(%)
point source widea uniformc 90-95

Steepd or undulating 85-90
Closeb uniform 85-90
Steep or undulating 80-90
Line source Close Uniform 80-90
Steep or undulating 75-85
a b
Spaced greatcr than 4 m apart Space less than 2 m apart
c d
Slope less than 2 percent Slope greater than 2 percent

Fig.2 : Discharge rates for various emitter designs as a function of operating head.
Example Problem 5
A trickle system is to be designed for an established orchard in which the field slope is greater
than 2 percent and spacing between trees is greater than 4 m. Four point source emitters
corresponding to long-path-type C ….are to be used per tree. Design emitter discharge is 8.0 L/h
and the manufacturer’s coefficient of variation is 0.08.
Compute the minimum emitter discharge and corresponding minimum emitter pressure.
Solution:
From ASAE Standards in Table 5 the minimum design emission uniformity is
Uc-min = 85 percent
Substituting problem variables into eqn. (6) for emission uniformity.
85 = 100 [1.0 – (1.27/4)0.08] [qmin/( 8.0L/h] ,Solving for qmin,
qmin = 8.0 L/h(0.85)/0.9746
qmin = 6.977 = 7 L/h
Referring figure 2, for long path Type – C emitter for q = 7 l/h , H min = 5m. This is the minimum
pressure head required on the lateral to maintain the design standards for emission uniformity.
If measured value of Cv , qmin and qavg are substituted in to eq n. 6 , the result is the field emission
uniformity. Specific procedures have been established so results from different fields are
comparable.
These procedures are based on making measurements of emitter discharge along four lateral lines
on a sub main: one at the inlet, one at the far end, and two in the middle at the one- thirds and
two- thirds positions. Four positions are tested on each lateral: one at the inlet, one at the far end,

and two in the middle at the one-thirds and two-thirds positions. This gives a total of 16
measurement positions.
Measurements of emitter discharge are made at each measurement position for two adjacent
emitters. This is done by measuring the flow volume collected in a graduated cylinder over a one
minute period. The average discharge, minimum discharge and coefficient of variation are
calculated using data fro the 16 positions and the results are substituted in to eq n.(6). General
criteria for the field emission uniformity are (a) 90 percent or greater-excellent: (b) 80 to 90
percent-good: (c) 70 to 80 percent-fair: and (d) less than 70 percent- poor (Bralts, 1986).
A simplified way to quickly determine a measure of uniformity is to calculate the emitter flow
variation using the following equation:
qvar = 100 (7)
where
qvar = emitter flow variation, percent
qmax = maximum emitter discharge, L/h
General criteria for the emitter flow variation are (a) 10 percent or less-desirable: (b) 10 to 20
percent-acceptable: and (c) greater than 20 percent-not acceptable (Bralts, 1986). This method
does not give as much information about the system as using the procedure to compute the field
emission uniformity, but it is simple to apply.
The emitter discharge exponent given in the table 3 is used to relate emitter discharge to
operating pressure by the equation,
q = k(H)x (8)
where
k = empirical factor
x = emitter discharge exponent
The empirical factor k also includes conversion constants to balance both sides of eq n (8). The
discharge exponent is a measure of the change in emitter discharge with variation in operating
pressure. For discharges measured at two operating pressures, eqn. (8) can be rearranged as
x= (9)
Values of x should range from 0 for a pressure compensating emitter to 1.0 for an emitter in a
laminar flow regime. The discharge exponent should equal about 0.5 for emitters operating in a
turbulent flow regime. The higher the value of the emitter discharge exponent, the greater degree
of care is required to maintain the proper pressure distribution along the lateral for the same
uniformity of application.
3.5 Lateral Hydraulics
Governing Relationships

The hydraulics of trickle irrigation distribution systems up to the lateral are virtually the same as
those for other distribution systems. The head losses in lines and across control devices are
computed using the same procedures descried in the chapters on Sprinkler systems and pipelines.
The pump must deliver adequate pressure head to overcome friction losses in the distribution line,
filters, and control devices, compensate for changes in elevation head, and still deliver the design
pressure to the emitters.
Computation of the friction head loss along a lateral will be handled similarly in this chapter as
the loss along a sprinkler lateral. The hydraulic principles are identical in that the actual friction
head loss must account for the fact that the flow rate is reduced along the lateral with no
discharge through the emitters. The friction head loss along a lateral with no discharge through
the emitters will be calculated using the following form of the Darcy-Weisbach equation:
Hf = 6.377fL (10)
Where
Hf = frictional loss along the lateral, m
L = lateral length, m
Q = total lateral flow rate,
D = lateral diameter, mm
The friction factor is computed using eqn.(4) or eqn.(5) for laminar or turbulent conditions,
respectively.
The actual friction head loss along a lateral accounting for discharge through the emitters is given
as:
= Fhf ………………………………………………….(11)
where
= actual friction head loss, m
F = Christiansen’s friction factor
The Christiansen fiction factor in eqn. (11) is the same as that introduced in the Sprinkler system
Design chapter. As was demonstrated for sprinkler systems, the increase in elevation head would
have to be added to the actual friction head loss in eq n.(11) to determine the total head required at
the inlet to provide the required head at the emitter. Application of eq n..(10) and (11) Will be
demonstrated in the following example problem.
Example Problem 6
A lateral is to be designed for a vineyard with 30 single orifice emitters along the line . The
lateral is 10 mm in diameter. The emitters are spaced 1.0 m apart with the first emitter at one full
space from the lateral entrance from the sub main. The field surface is level; A secondary
pressure regulator maintains a pressure head of 10.0m at the entrance to the lateral which
corresponds to a design emitter discharge of 12 l/h. Calculate the discharge of the final emitter on
the lateral using Fig.2 for the discharge to pressure relationship.
Solution:
Compute the total discharge on the lateral.

Q = N(q) = 30(12.0 ) = 360

Compute the flow velocity and Reynolds number to verify the flow regime assuming the standard
value of dynamic viscosity.
V= = = 1.2732
Substituting into eqn. ** for the Reynolds number,
RN = = = 12,372
Flow is therefore fully turbulent. Compute the friction factor for smooth
plastic using eqn.5
= 2 log (10mm/0.003mm) + 1.14
f = 0.0149
Compute the friction head loss in the lateral for all flow passing through the lateral using eq n.10.
hf = 6.377(0.0149) (30 m) (360 L/h)2/ (10 mm)5
hf = 3.70 m
Compute the actual friction head loss accounting for discharge through the emitters. Apply the
Christiansen friction factor from Table 7-12 (or using equations) for first discharge point one full
spacing from the entrance with m = 2 and N = 30
F = 0.350
hac = 0.350(3.700 m) = 1.30 m
Since the field is level, the actual friction head loss equals the total head loss on the lateral.
Calculate the operating pressure head at the last emitter in the lateral.
Hfinal = 10.0 m -1.30m = 8.7 m
Referring to Fig. 2 ( type – A) for an orifice emitter and pressure head of 8.7 m.
q = 11 L/h
The total variation of discharge in percent along the lateral as a ratio of the design discharge is
therefore ,
q=
q = 8.3 % ……… acceptable !!!!
Discharge per emitter or set of emitters:
Once a decision has been made on the amount of water to be applied per irrigation for a selected
irrigation interval between irrigations, and on duration of application, then the discharge per
emitter or group of emitters will be:

Where:
q = discharge of emitter or group or emitters
Dg = the peak gross depth of irrigation for the interval considered
t = duration of each irrigation application
A = total area allocated to each plant
The number of emitters per plant will then have to be defined based on q required and nominal
discharge of emitter selected or available.
3.6 System capacity:
The capacity of the system is then can be determined arithmetically as.
Where:
At = total area to be irrigated (area per plant * no. of plants)
n = number of farm blocks/units
t = duration for each application
T = interval between irrigation
Dg = gross depth per application
Q = System capacity
For non rotational system value of n = 1. But for rotational systems, i.e. in a system where the
farm is devised in to blocks/unit, and a group of units are irrigated for a number of days n > 1.
If n is the number of units or rotational blocks into which the farm is divided, the following
equation is always valid.
3.7 Filtration and water treatment systems
Emitter clogging

The most serious problem in proper operation and maintenance of trickle irrigation system is
emitter clogging. The orifices of trickle system emitters are extremely small in comparison to
sprinkler nozzles and the potential for emitter clogging by particulates chemical precipitates, or
bacteria is very high. Emitter clogging can have sever impact on crop development because of the
careful balance between crop water requirements and emitter discharge built in to the design of
trickle irrigation systems.
Materials which can clog emitters are divided in to physical components in the form of suspended
solids, chemical precipitates and biological materials produced by bacteria or algae. Some of the
clogging materials such as suspended sand, silt and clay are easily identifiable at the sources and
can be removed by filtration. Other components such as chemical precipitates and bacteria are not
visible and can become apparent only after initiation of the system operation.
Table: Principal physical , Chemical and biological components contributing to

clogging of trickle system emitters (Bucks et al., 1979)
Physical Chemical Biological

(suspended solids) (precipitation) (bacteria and algae)
Inorganic particles Ca CO3 , Mg CO3 Filaments
Sand Ca SO4 , Heavy metal Hydroxides, Slimes
Silt Carbonates, silicates and sulfides Microbial depositions
Clay Oil or other lubricants
Plastic Fertilizers
Organic particles Phosphate , aqueous ammonia,
Aquatic plants Iron, copper, Zinc , Managnese
(phytoplankton/alga
e)
Aquatic animals
(Zooplankton)
Bacteria
Criteria to judge the susceptibility of water supplies to emitter clogging have been developed to
enable the design engineer to make the decisions about the utility of water supplies for trickle
irrigation. The criteria set in table below can aid the design engineer in deciding if trickle irrigation
is the most adaptable system for a particular water supply and what type of filtration and water
treatment devices may be required depending on the severity of the potential clogging problem.
Table: Criteria for using Irrigation water used in trickle Irrigation systems
(Bucks and Nakayama , 1980)

Type of problem Minor Moderate Severe

Physical 50
Suspended solidsa 50-100 100
Chemical 7
PH 500 7- 8 8
Dissolved solidsa 0.1 500 – 2000 2000
Managnesea 0.1 0.1- 1.5 1.5
Irona 0.5 0.1-1.5 1.5
Hydrogen sulfidea 0.5-2.0 2.0
Biological 10,000
Bacteria Populationb 10,000-50,000 50,000
a
maximum measured concentration from representative numbers of water
samples using standard procedures for analysis (mg/L)
b
maximum number of bacteria per milliliter obtained from portable field samplers
and laboratory analysis.
Filters
Filters are used to remove undesirable material from the water supply before it enters the
distribution system and creates the potential for emitter clogging. Some type of filtration system is
required on virtually any trickle system to ensure efficient system operation. Different types of
filtration devices are effective in removing different size material from the water source. When
possible , the manufacturer’s recommendation should be used to size the required filter media. In
cases where there are no such recommendations , the filter should be sized based on the emitter
opening and the type of material to be removed.
1. Screen filters:
These are the most common filters applied in trickle irrigation systems. They are some times used
as the first step in filtration process being operated in series with media filters. Screens are sized
according to the diameter of the particulates they are expected to remove from the flow. Table ….
Indicate the standard mesh classification for screens and the equivalent diameter of the screen
opening. Many commercially available emitters are sized to require screening of material of the
150 or 75 micron (100 to 200 mesh size or No.)
2. Media filters:
Media filters are made up of graded fine gravel and sand within pressurized tanks. They can
remove relatively large amounts of suspended solids before requiring back- flushing. They are
available to remove particulate matter in the 25 to 100 micron size.The ASAE standard for flow
rates through this type of filter is a maximum of 14 L/s per square meter of filtration surface. The
thickness of the filtration media should be at least 50 cm.
Table: Classification of Screens and particle sizes (Nakayama , 1988)

Screen mesh Equivalent Diameter Particle designation Equivalent Diameter

Number (microns) (microns)
16 1180 Coarse sand >1000

20 850 Medium sand 250 – 500
30 600 Very fine sand 50 – 250
40 425 Silt 2 – 50
100 150 Clay <2
140 106 Bacteria 0.4 – 2
170 90 Virus < 0.4
200 75
270 53
400 38
3. Centrifugal filters:
They are used to remove particles which are heavier than water and larger than 75 microns and
which can settle out within the resident time of the fluid passing through the filter. This type of
filter is not effective in removing organic compounds. Some times a centrifugal filter is placed on
the suction side of a pump as a primary sand removal system. This reduces the abrasion on the
pump impeller due to sand as well as removing sand particles from the trickle system distribution
line.
Back- flushing:
Back flushing is the operation whereby the flow is reversed from its normal direction through the
filter and accumulated particulate matter is removed from the filtration system. The capacity of the
filtration system should be large enough so it can operate without frequent back-flushing or
cleaning. Pressure drop in excess of 70 KPa across the filter media indicate that back- flushing or
cleaning are required.
Bacterial treatment:
Trickle distribution systems can be clogged in a very short time – on the order of one week – by
bacterial slime which renders the system inoperative. High bacteria concentration requires
treatment by bactericides containing chlorine or other compounds which must remain in contact
with the water source long enough to kill off the bacteria. Ten to 30 minutes of contact in a
solution with a free residual chlorine concentration of 1 mg/L is normally an adequate time for
this purpose.
Chemical treatment:
Chemical treatment is required to reduce the potential for precipitation of insoluble salts at the
orifice and internal parts of emitters which causes clogging. These precipitates are commonly
caused by the reaction of soluble calcium and carbonates in the irrigation water producing calcium
carbonate. The normal procedure to inhibit this reaction is to inhibit this reaction is to control the
solution pH by addition of acid.
The tendency for calcium carbonate formation is based on the Langelier Saturation Index (LSI). A
calculated pH , pHc, is compared to the measured pH of the water source, pHm.
LSI = pHm - pHc
If pHm – pHc is positive , this indicates a potential for CaCO3 precipitation.

The pH is defined as the negative base 10 logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity and p will be used
to indicate a negative log transformation in general. The following relationship for the calculated
pHc involves the solubility product of CaCO3 , Ks, and the dissociation constant for the HCO3-, Kd.
Ks = (Ca2+) (CO32-) ……………………………….(1)
Kd = …………………………………(2)
where concentrations are in meq /L . The calculated pHc is given by,
pHc = …………….(3)
where ACF = Activity Coefficient Factor for Ca2+ and HCO3-
The terms in brackets are all in moles/L. HCO 3- is used in equation 3 above instead of total
alkalinity because it is the dominant species. K d and Ks are temperature dependent and an
expression applicable to eqn. (3) is:
pKd - pKs = 2.586 – 2.621*10-2 T + 1.01*10-4 T2

where T = solution temperature , OC
The activity coefficient factor is dependent up on solution concentration and is calculated by:=
P(ACF) = 7.790*10-2 + 2.610*10-2 TDS – 5.477*10-4 TDS2 +5.323*10-6 TDS3
Where, TDS = Total dissolved ion concentration, meq/L
If the measured pH of the irrigation water is greater than the pH calculated using eq. (3) , there is
potential for CaCO3 precipitate to form. The following example problem demonstrates this
application.
Example:
A water source is measured to have the following concentration, pH, and temperature:
Ca2+ = 1.8 meq/L TDS = 8.6 meq/L
HCO3- = 4.6 meq/L T = 27 oC pH = 7.8
Determine whether there is a potential CaCO3 precipitation problem.
Solution:
Compute pKd – pKs and p(ACF) terms:
pKd - pKs = 2.586 – 2.621 *10-2(27oc) + 1.01 *10-4 (27 oc)2 = 1.952
p(ACF) = 7.790*10-2 + 2.160 *10-2(8.6 meq/L) – 5.477*10-4(8.6 meq/L)2
+ 5.323*10-6(8.6 meq/L)3
= 0.227
 Calculate the molar concentration of Ca2+ and HCO3- and substitute in to equation 3.
Molecular weight of HCO3- = 61.018g and the equivalent weight = 61.018 / 1 = 61.018g
Molecular weight of Ca2+ = 40.03g and the equivalent weight = 40.03 / 2 = 20.015g
 Calculate concentration in mg/L.

HCO3- = 4.6 meq/L* (61.018 g/eq) = 280.683 mg/L

Ca2+ = 1.8meq/L*(20.015g/eq) = 36.027 mg/L
 Calculate the concentration in mole /L and p factors.

HCO3- =
and p
Ca2+ =
and p , substituting the respective values in the pHc equation,
pHc = 1.952 + 3.046 +2.337 + 0.227 = 7.562

 Compute the langelier index:
LSI = pHm – pHc = 7.8 – 7.56 = 0.24.
The positive difference indicates a potential for CaCO3 precipitation.
Decreasing the pH of irrigation water , pHm , by the addition of acid will cause the saturation
index to become negative indicating that precipitation will not occur if all other factors remain
equal. A portion of the saturation index value is temperature dependent.Thus if a water source has
negative saturation index at a temperature of 25 oC at the system intake , this index could become
positive as the water temperature is elevated along the submains and laterals. Once precipitates are
formed, redissolution takes place at only very slow rates.
Although the most common precipitation problem in trickle irrigation is calcium carbonate,
manganese and ferric sulfides also cause problems in some locations. These precipitates have black
colors and difficult to remove chemically. Thus the pH level required to control is different from
that for calcium carbonate.
The addition of acid to a solution causes an increase in total dissolved solids as well as adjusting
the pH. The increase may have some effect on the overall irrigation water salinity and perhaps this
must be checked.
Fertilizer injection systems:

Trickle irrigation systems are particularly adaptable to fertilizer injection in to the distribution
system because the water is applied directly to the plant root zone. This can lead increased
efficiency of fertilizer use, reduced energy and labour costs since same system is used for
distribution water and fertilizer and flexibility in field management.
At the same time, care must be taken to see that the fertilizer and concentrations used are not
corrosive to distribution system parts.
Injection equipment:
Similar equipment be may be used for chemical injection to control bacteria and Ph for fertilizers.
This is with the exception of Chlorine gas which is normally bled in to the line from pressurized
tanks. The equipment available includes venture injectors, differential pressure systems with
pressurized supply tanks and diaphragm or piston driven positive displacement injectors. Fertilizers
can be directly fed in to the suction side of a pump which feeds the fertilizer solution in to the
distribution line.
Table: Severity of corrosion damage to common metals caused by fertilizers(Martin , 1955)

Complete
Type of metal Calcium Ammonium Ammonium Urea Phosphori Diammonium fertilizer
Nitrate Nitrate Sulfate c phosphate 17N-17P-
acid 10K
Galvanized Iron M SV C N SV N M
Sheet Aluminum N SL SL N M M SL
Stainless steel N N N N SL N N
Phosphor-Bronze SL C C N M SV SV
Yellow Brass SL C M N M SV SV
pH of fertilizer 5.6 5.9 5.0 7.6 0.4 8.0 7.3
solution
Note: N = None SL = Slight M= Moderate C = Considerable SV = Severe
Another common system of fertilizer injection is the pressure differential type. The flow rate
through the pressurized fertilizer holding tank is controlled by valves on either side of the tank. A
pressure reducing obstruction or device on the line causes adequate difference in pressure to derive
fluid through the tank. The advantage of this type of system is that there are no moving parts. A
disadvantage is that the nutrient concentration is not constant but continuously changing with time.
The function for the concentration of material remaining in the tank as a ratio of the original
concentration is given as:
Where C = concentration of material remaining in the tank, percent

qt = flow rate through the tank per unit time as a ratio of tank capacity, percent
t = time with units corresponding to qt.
Flow rates through bthe tank can be controlled by valves and meters. The governing equation for
the orifice diameter is given by:
Where:
D = orifice diameter, mm
Qt = flow rate through the tank , L/min
Co = orifice coefficient (standard value of Co = 0.62)
P = pressure differential across the orifice, KPa
Operating procedure:
The basic principle of operating fertilizer and chemical injection systems is that the material should
not be allowed to set in the lines when the system is not operating. This is done to avoid potential
corrosion problems and excessive bacterial growth. Material should not be injected in to the system
until all lines are filled and emitters are discharging. A standard practice to accomplish the
objectives is not to begin injection until one hour after flow has begun and to terminate injection
one hour before shutting down the system. This time period should insure adequate flushing of
potentially problem chemicals from the line.


Pressure 3drip Irrigation

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Pressurized Irrigation Chapter - 3: Drip/Trickle Systems

Advantages and Disadvantages of Drip Irrigation

There are also some more advantages of partial wetting, viz:

Lecture supporting materials Negash W. 2008 1

The disadvantages of the system includes

Physical clogging: due to sands, clay particles and debris.

Lecture supporting materials Negash W. 2008 2

3.2 TRICKLE SYSTEMS COMPONENTS (EQUIPMENTS)

Lecture supporting materials Negash W. 2008 3

Fig. Different models of point and line source emitters

Lecture supporting materials Negash W. 2008 4

Emitters are classified based on some characterizing features, viz:

1. Emitter discharge and its variation

2. Form of pressure dissipation

 Long narrow flexible PVC or PE tubes (Micro tubes/capillary tubes)

3. How they are connected to the trickle line

Based on this feature emitters could be

Lecture supporting materials Negash W. 2008 5

Internally built in: manufacturers built in the emitters in the drip

2.1 Orifice drippers

A = cross - sectional area of the orifice

2.2 Long straight flow path tricklers - Microtubes

In long straight path triklers Q and H has linear relationship.

Table--: Flow Regime of micro tube (L> 20 cm)

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

Long spiral flow path trickles

ii. Labyrinth emitters (internal spiral emitters)

0.8 100 105 110 115

It seems that a value of CV of 3 to 7 is common with present standards of manufacture. However,

Table: performances of some vortex type emitters.

Other types of drippers

i. Twin-wall trickler (bi-wall trickle lines)

ii. Large calibrated orifices with sleeve system.

Lecture supporting materials Negash W. 2008 9

The following expressions, commonly known as the ISO (International Standardization

For PVC and ABS pipes:

Lecture supporting materials Negash W. 2008 10

DO and DI = outside and inside diameters respectively.

In designing an irrigation system, it is important therefore, to select pipes of an adequate pressure

Table: General estimates of trickle system equipment requirements (Adapted from

Lecture supporting materials Negash W. 2008 11

Ordinary 6 250 500-1500 1900

Example: A typical orchard is to be developed on a field with dimensions of 253m by

Estimate the following design parameters.

- Required emitter discharge, in l/h

…………For single emitter

From table 1, Lateral Length = 1900

Lecture supporting materials Negash W. 2008 12

3.3 CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS RELATED TO TRICKLE SYSTEMS

Crop water Requirements

Determination of Crop water Requirements

In brief, the procedures for calculation of ETcrop are listed below.

i) Calculation of reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo)

 Based on meteorological data available, a method to calculate ETo is selected-

ii) Selection of crop coefficient (Kc)

 The crop growing period is selected

Lecture supporting materials Negash W. 2008 13

iii) Calculation of Crop evaportanspiration (ETcrop)

iv) Consideration of factors affecting ETcrop under prevailing local conditions

Crop water requirement - Trickle systems.

i) Keller and karmeli ( 1974 ) suggest

iii) Decroix, Ctgref proposes

Kr = (0.10+GC) or 1, which ever is the smallest.