Routledge Handbook of Contemporary North Korea Review:

Is the Society and Culture as Mad, Bad, or Sad as Its Country?

by Han Mogu (Alfasya)
The enigmatic nation of North Korea has long captivated the imagination of the world, a country
shrouded in secrecy and a pervasive aura of mystique. Behind its fortified borders lies a complex
tapestry of history, politics, and economics that has given birth to society and culture. The Kim dynasty's
rule has established a paradigm that centres around the cult of personality, the Juche ideology, and an
isolationist stance. Over the years, various challenges and anomalies have emerged within North Korea,
challenging the stability of the dominant paradigm. These anomalies include economic hardships,
famines, and human rights violations. Such issues disrupt the "normal science" of North Korean life
and raise questions about the sustainability of the existing paradigm. While established paradigm
remains dominant, challenges and anomalies are chipping away at its stability, creating the conditions
for a potential paradigm shift. As we explore this handbook, we must ask whether North Korea's society
and culture are as "mad, bad, or sad" as they appear or if they are on the cusp of a revolutionary
transformation, guided by the principles of Kuhn's paradigm theory (Kuhn, 1970). Thus, in this review,
we delve into this intricate web of forces that have shaped the society and culture of this isolated nation.
a. North Korea’s History: Knowing the Unknown
North Korea, officially known as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, emerged as a
sovereign state on the Korean Peninsula following the conclusion of World War II. The division of the
Korean Peninsula into North and South Korea in 1945 set the stage for a profound schism that persists
to this day. This division was catalysed by the Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet
Union, which resulted in a divided Korea along the 38th parallel. North Korea, under the leadership of
Kim Il Sung, embraced communism, and established itself as a totalitarian regime, while South Korea
pursued democracy and capitalism. The ensuing Korean War (1950-1953) further cemented the division
and left an indelible mark on the collective psyche of both North and South Koreans (Buzo, 2021: 7).
One of the defining features of North Korea's government is the cult of personality around the ruling
Kim family, initiated by Kim Il Sung and perpetuated through his son, Kim Jong Il, and grandson, Kim
Jong Un. This cult has elevated the Kims to quasi-deity status, shaping every facet of the society, from
the political hierarchy to the arts and culture. The Juche ideology, created by Kim Il Sung, emphasizes
self-reliance and serves as the foundational doctrine for governance, further isolating North Korea from
the rest of the world. The political landscape in North Korea is characterized by the monolithic rule of
the Workers' Party of Korea and a lack of political pluralism. The Juche system and Songun (military-
first) policy have shaped the government's priorities, emphasizing the military over the welfare of its
citizens. The North Korean state has consistently directed its resources toward the development of a
formidable military apparatus, often at the expense of economic well-being (Buzo, 2021: 9-56).
Economically, North Korea's centralized and state-controlled system has stifled growth and left the
country largely cut off from the global economy. Years of self-imposed isolation, combined with the
burden of maintaining a powerful military, have led to economic hardships for its citizens. Famines and
economic crises have plagued North Korea, leading to a complex web of informal markets and
clandestine activities to secure basic necessities. The impact of this historical background on North
Korean society and culture is profound. The culture is one of strict control, where citizens are expected
to display unwavering loyalty to the ruling regime. The isolationist policies of the government have
limited exposure to external influences, making its society a closed ecosystem. This isolation, coupled
with intense propaganda, has resulted in a culture where obedience is paramount (Buzo, 2021: 75-112).
In reviewing the "Routledge Handbook of Contemporary North Korea," we can understand these
historical underpinnings that have given rise to a society and culture often perceived as "mad, bad, or
sad." Understanding the complex interplay between history, politics, and economics is essential in
unravelling the enigma of North Korea and provides crucial insights into the lives of its citizens. As we
explore this handbook, we aim to discern whether North Korea's society and culture are indeed as
enigmatic, and at times troubling, as the country itself.
 b. North Korea's Society: Unpacking the Hermit Kingdom
Despite its claims of equality, North Korean society is marked by a significant socioeconomic divide.
The ruling elite in Pyongyang enjoys privileges, while those in rural areas face poverty and deprivation.
Access to resources, education, and healthcare is often determined by one's loyalty to the regime. This
divide highlights the systemic inequalities that persist in North Korean society, where the majority of
the population struggles to meet their basic needs. One of the reasons of this inequality come from one
of North Korea’s most distinctive and intriguing features, the Songbun system. Songbun, which
translates to "ingredient" or "background," is a socio-political classification system that categorizes
North Korean citizens based on their family's perceived loyalty to the regime. Especially until 1990s
before the famine, the system assigns individuals to one of three broad classes:
1) Core (nucleus) class: Comprised of those considered loyal to the regime, typically including
high-ranking officials, party members, and soldiers.
2) Wavering class: Consists of those who are viewed with suspicion or neutrality by the regime.
3) Hostile (anti-revolutionary) class: Encompasses individuals deemed disloyal or having a history
of dissent, often including defectors and their families.
The Songbun system permeates every aspect of a North Korean's life, determining access to
education, employment, housing, and even the availability of food rations. Those in the core class enjoy
privileges, while those in the hostile class face discrimination and limitations. This system reinforces
the regime's control over its citizens, as it instills a sense of fear, surveillance, and competition within
society. Songbun's influence extends to the realm of culture and society. The fear of being labelled as
hostile class creates a climate of self-censorship and conformity. It stifles individual expression,
creativity, and critical thinking, as diverging from the state-sanctioned ideology can lead to dire
consequences. As a result, North Korean culture and society often appear to be homogenized, driven by
propaganda, and lacking in diverse perspectives. Beyond the systemic implications, the Songbun system
exacts a profound human toll. Families, particularly those from the hostile class, experience
discrimination and hardship. The stigmatization can span generations, affecting even the children of
those deemed disloyal. This leaves many North Koreans with a sense of despair and hopelessness.
The Songbun system has come under international scrutiny for its human rights abuses and its impact
on the wider Korean diaspora. Many defectors from North Korea are from the hostile class and have
experienced discrimination within the country. The international community has condemned this system,
highlighting the need for reform and the recognition of individual rights (Buzo, 2021: 25-28).
Besides of that, the North Korean regime's record on human rights is a subject of international
condemnation. Citizens face severe restrictions on freedom of expression, movement, and information.
Forced labour camps, public executions, and extensive surveillance are used to suppress dissent. This
environment of fear and repression has a profound impact on the mental and emotional well-being of
North Koreans (Buzo, 2021: 199-214). The international community has raised concerns about child
mobilization in North Korea. There are allegations of child labour in various industries, including
agriculture and manufacturing. The exploitation of child labour has sparked criticism and demands for
accountability (Buzo, 2021: 225-232).
Disabled individuals encounter a society that often stigmatizes and discriminates against them. They
grapple with physical and social barriers, emphasizing the need for greater accessibility, both in terms
of infrastructure and attitudinal changes. On the other hand, North Korea's strict regime suppresses
dissent and enforces conformity, making it almost impossible for LGBT individuals to openly express
their identities (Buzo, 2021: 215-224). Consequently, many are forced to lead double lives, keeping
their sexual orientation or gender identity hidden. Yet the members of the North Korean diaspora find
themselves in foreign lands, grappling with the challenges of adaptation and cultural identity. While
some seek to integrate into their new societies, others maintain a strong connection to their North
Korean heritage, creating a unique diasporic identity (Buzo, 2021: 233-248).
In conclusion, North Korean society is indeed complex, and its evaluation cannot be limited to a
single paradigm. The coexistence of these paradigms within the broader context of Kuhn's theory
underscores the need for a nuanced and multifaceted approach to comprehend the multifaceted layers
of North Korean society. It is a society marked by oppression and suffering but also by resilience
demonstrating that the reality of North Korea extends beyond the confines of 'mad,' 'bad,' or 'sad.'
c. North Korea’s Culture: Enjoying the Propaganda
North Korea's journey towards the development of national music involved overcoming several
challenges. At the heart of this transformation was the need for music to be both contemporary and
beloved by the people. Ri Ch’anggu, a prominent musicologist, intended to create a collection of folk
songs, Chosŏn minjok ŭmak chŏnjip: minyo p’yŏn, to serve as a foundation for the theoretical and
pedagogical aspects of this new genre. However, a paradox emerged as the traditional music, deeply
rooted in oral traditions and expert knowledge, did not easily fit the state's demands (Buzo, 2021: 259).
One of the central issues was the preservation of vocal coloration, ornamentation, glottal stops, and
heavy vibrato, which were intrinsic to traditional music but contrasted with the state's vision of
melodious and lyrical national folk songs. Traditional music's distinctive vocal qualities had to be
discarded, causing unrest among traditional musicians who had spent years mastering their craft. This
tension is emblematic of the struggle to reconcile the old with the new, the local with the foreign.
Western, and more precisely, Soviet musical elements were infused to create a unique fusion,
representing the emerging national music (Buzo, 2021: 260-262).
It is crucial to consider the broader context in which this transformation occurred. North Korea's
socialist ideology sought to control various facets of culture and presented its unique set of challenges.
Cultural production was highly regulated, and the state's narrative was presented in a monolithic and
puritanical manner, often mediated by censors and ideologues. This control created a standardized and
highly controlled account of cultural development in North Korea (Buzo, 2021: 251-262).
On the other hand, North Korean literature was heavily influenced by the political ideology of the
North Korean regime and primarily served as a means of promoting the state's socialist and
revolutionary principles. Before the 1980s, the literature was primarily a tool for political indoctrination
and promoting the cult of personality surrounding Kim Il Sung. Then, the introduction of flawed
characters in post-1980s North Korean fiction marks a departure from the earlier tradition of presenting
morally superior protagonists. The complexity of these characters mirrors the changing societal values.
Sunhŭi, in Han Ung-bin's "After the Storm," is a vivid example. Her flaws and her heroism are not
mutually exclusive, and it's a portrayal that challenges the black-and-white morality typically associated
with North Korean literature. Her mistakes and the subsequent reporting of those mistakes by Hyŏnho
become symbolic of the conflict between individual desire and societal duty (Buzo, 2021: 271-279).
While this shift is notable for its realism and relatability, it remains subject to boundaries imposed
by the state. Love and desire are explored, but certain influences on romance, such as the discriminatory
categorization of citizens based on their class background (songbun), remain taboo. This highlights the
fine line North Korean literature treads between exploring the depths of human emotion and adhering
to state-mandated norms. North Korean literature is a realm where political ideology and human
emotion collide. It represents a crack in the façade of North Korea's official ideology, a space where
human emotions resist complete subjugation to the state. These narratives bring depth and complexity
to North Korean literary tradition, carving out an important place in its history. They remind us that
even within tightly controlled societies, human emotions and desires persist, questioning the limits of
conformity and offering glimpses of personal freedom in a collectivist world (Buzo, 2021: 266-279).
Yet, mass culture in North Korea under Kim Jong Un tends to idealize youth and urbanization. The
narrative portrays young, fashion-conscious characters who embrace change and modernity. However,
it is important to recognize that the vast majority of North Koreans do not have access to such lifestyles.
Rural areas and impoverished regions remain marginalized, challenging the regime's claims of social
progress. The narratives surrounding Kim Jong Un in mass culture often emphasize his role as a
modernizer and catalyst for change. However, these narratives may be more reflective of a desire to
remain relevant on the world stage than of genuine reforms. The regime's survival remains its primary
objective, and any reforms are carefully curated to maintain this status quo (Buzo, 2021: 283-288).
 The rhetoric of Mallima Culture is fraught with contradictions. While the regime promotes
modernity and innovation, it simultaneously clings to a personality cult and rigid state-controlled
narratives. These contradictions reveal the regime's struggle to navigate its survival in a changing world.
Mass culture in North Korea remains a vital tool for the regime's survival, but the tension between
propaganda and pragmatism underscores the complexities of governance in the Kim Jong Un era. By
critically assessing these narratives, scholars and observers can gain a deeper understanding of the
evolving dynamics within North Korean society and politics (Buzo, 2021: 289-293).
d. Conclusion: The Enlighten
The "Routledge Handbook of Contemporary North Korea" provides a comprehensive examination
of a society and culture often shrouded in mystery, stigma, and misconceptions. This review reveals that
North Korean society and culture are far more complex, nuanced, and multifaceted than their country's
political image might suggest. One of the most significant takeaways from this review is the importance
of challenging preconceived notions about North Korea. While the country's political leadership, human
rights abuses, and nuclear ambitions have been widely critiqued, it is crucial to recognize that North
Korean society and culture are not monolithic. Instead, they reflect a diverse range of experiences,
values, and expressions that can often be at odds with the state's official narratives.
The contributors to the handbook shed light on various aspects of North Korean society and culture,
offering readers a more holistic understanding of this enigmatic nation. The chapters on literature, art,
education, and gender dynamics, among others, underscore the resilience of North Koreans and their
ability to navigate a highly controlled environment to express themselves and forge cultural identities.
These chapters also reveal the agency of ordinary individuals who shape their communities, adapt to
changing circumstances, and even resist state control, albeit subtly.
Furthermore, the handbook's exploration of North Korean society and culture challenges the
deterministic narratives that tend to cast North Koreans as passive victims or as brainwashed ideologues.
Instead, it portrays them as individuals who grapple with their circumstances, negotiate their identities,
and find ways to connect with the outside world, even if covertly. While the handbook offers valuable
insights into North Korean society and culture, it is important to recognize the limitations of such
research. Access to North Korea remains restricted, and scholars often rely on defector testimonies and
indirect sources. These constraints can make it challenging to provide a complete picture of life.
In conclusion, the "Routledge Handbook of Contemporary North Korea" represents an important
contribution to the field of North Korean studies. By examining various aspects of North Korean society
and culture, it challenges prevailing stereotypes and invites readers to consider the multifaceted nature
of a society that defies simplistic characterization. Understanding North Korean society and culture in
all their complexity is essential for fostering more nuanced discussions regarding this mysterious nation.
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Smith, Hazel. 2000. Bad, mad, sad, or rational actor? Why the ‘securitization’ paradigm makes for
poor policy analysis of north Korea. International Affairs (Vol 76 Num 3: 593-617). Chatham House:
London.