Screenshot 2023-12-29 at 6.43.01 PM

By:
Prof. Amr Mohamed Abdelghany
Basic Science Department

2023-2024
Horus University in Egypt ‫جامعة حورس مصر‬
Faculty of Dentistry
‫كلية طب االسنان‬
GBDS 111
By:
Basic Science Department
2022-2023
- I -
HUE VISION
Horus university′s main Goal is to be a Prominent Figure in the Educational

Field in the Middle East. This Goal Will only be achieved Through Both
Participating and Contributing to the Cultural, Technological, social, and political
development of the Arabic World as a whole. Moreover, Hue Targets to build a
new, Productive, Independent, and Responsible Generation that will leave a
distinctive sign through scientific research and applied methodology in all fields
of study; Sciences, Economics, Media, Engineering, Medicine…etc.
HUE MISSION
(HUE) provides its students with all the needs that create an integrated
Educational atmosphere that guarantees a prospective successful Educational
scheme. In turn, the student will be a well–fit graduate both on the behavior level
and academic Knowledge level. (HUE) the graduate will be a Productive
Promising strength able to get Benefits to the extreme from the surrounding
environment to match with the changing long steps of our scientific and
technological world.
- II -
Contents
Chapter 1
Dimension and units
1.1 Basic definitions 1
1.2. Units 1
1.3. Dimensions of basic and derived quantities 2
1.4. Some prefixes of the power of ten 2
1.5. Dimensional Analysis 3
Chapter 2
Fluid dynamics
2.1. Classification of Fluids 7
2.2. Viscosity and viscosity coefficient 8
2.3. Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids 9
2.4. Measurement of shear viscosity 10
2.5. Ostwald Viscometer 11
2.6. Falling sphere viscometers 12
Chapter 3
Heat and thermodynamics
3.1. Definitions 14
3.2. Temperature scales 15
3.3. Temperature scale conversion 15
3.4. State of materials 16
3.5. Thermal expansion 17
3.6. Clinical importance in Dentistry 20
3.7. Thermal conductivity (k) 20
Chapter 4
Material Science
4.1. Materials classification 23
4.2. Crystal structure 27
4.3. Unit Cell 28
4.4. Crystal systems 29
4.5. Atomic packing factor (APF) 31
4.6. Lattice defect in solids 33
- III -
Chapter 5
Mechanical Properties of materials
5.1. Introduction 36
5.2. The concept of stress and strain 36
5.3. Stress-Strain Curve 37
5.4. Terms and definitions 38
Chapter 6
Optical Properties
6.1. Introduction 44
6.2. Reflection and refraction 45
6.3. Total internal reflection 47
6.4. Optical fiber 49
6.5. Fiber optic endoscopes 50
Chapter 7
Laser
7.1. Emission and Absorption of photons 52
7.2. Types of Emission 53
7.3. The Ruby Laser 55
7.4. Laser Safety 56
7.5. The Use of Laser in Medicine 56
7.6. Dental curing light 57
Chapter 8
Electricity
8.1. Properties of Electric Charges 62
8.2. Material classification 62
8.3. Electric force and electric field 63
Chapter 9
The spectrum of the Hydrogen atom
9.1. The Bohr Model of the Atom 66
- IV -
Preface
Like all other sciences, physics is based on experimental observations and
quantitative measurements. The main objectives of physics are to identify a limited
number of fundamental laws that govern natural phenomena and use them to develop
theories that can predict the results of future experiments. The fundamental laws used
in developing theories are expressed in the language of mathematics, the tool that
provides a bridge between theory and experiment.
Classical physics includes the principles of classical mechanics,
thermodynamics, optics, and electromagnetism developed before 1900. Important
contributions to classical physics were provided by Newton.
A major revolution in physics usually referred to as modern physics, began near
the end of the 19th century. Modern physics developed mainly because many physical
phenomena could not be explained by classical physics. The two most important
developments in this modern era were the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.
Einstein’s special theory of relativity not only correctly describes the motion of objects
moving at speeds comparable to the speed of light; but it also completely modifies the
traditional concepts of space, time, and energy. The theory also shows that the speed of
light is the upper limit of the speed of an object and that mass and energy are related.
Quantum mechanics was formulated by several distinguished scientists to
provide descriptions of physical phenomena at the atomic level. Many practical devices
have been developed using the principles of quantum mechanics. Scientists continually
work at improving our understanding of fundamental laws. Numerous technological
advances in recent times are the result of the efforts of many scientists, engineers, and
technicians, such as unmanned planetary explorations and manned moon landings,
microcircuitry and high-speed computers, sophisticated imaging techniques used in
scientific research and medicine, and several remarkable results in genetic engineering.
The impacts of such developments and discoveries on our society have indeed been
great, and future discoveries and developments will likely be exciting, challenging, and
of great benefit to humanity.
- V -
‫جامعة حورس‬-‫رؤية ورسالة كلية طب األسنان‬
‫جامعة حورس‬-‫رؤية كلية طب األسنان‬
‫التميز والريادة في مجال طب األسنان محليا ً وإقليميا ً ودوليا ً من حيث التعليم والبحث العلمي وخدمة‬
‫المجتمع‬
Vision of the Faculty of Dentistry - Horus University
Excellence and leadership in the field of dentistry locally, regionally and

internationally in terms of education, scientific research and community
service.
‫جامعة حورس‬-‫رسالة كلية طب األسنان‬
‫إعداد خريجين مؤهلين بالمعرفة النظرية والمهارات العمليه والسلوكيات اإلنسانية التي تمكنهم من‬
‫المنافسه في سوق العمل ونقل المعرفة من خالل إجراء الدراسات والبحوث العلمية وتقديم الخدمات‬
.‫المجتمعيه المتميزه للمواطنين‬
Mission of the Faculty of Dentistry - Horus University
Preparing qualified graduates with theoretical knowledge, practical skills and

human behaviors that enable them to compete in the labor market and transfer
knowledge through conducting studies and scientific research and providing
distinguished community services to citizens.
‫عميد الكليه‬ ‫مديروحدة ضمان الجوده‬
‫ محمد حامد غازي‬/‫د‬.‫ا‬ ‫ ريهام محمد عبد للا‬/‫د‬.‫ا‬

dt-quality@horus.edu.eg ‫وحدة ضمان الجوده‬
1
Overall Aims of Course
The aims of this course are to:
Identifying the principle laws and theories of physics in addition to
1.1
understanding the steps of equations derivation.
1.2 Provide students with statistical concepts in the field of dentistry
1.3 Help students to conduct some statistical analyses
1.4 Enable students to evaluate and interpret quantitative results
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO's)

a- Knowledge and understanding:
By the end of this course, the student should be able to:
Recognize the different types of measuring systems and units in addition to basic
a1 statistical terms
Recognize the importance of Physics in our daily life and the human body and
a2
Identify different types of variables
Discuss the main differences between classification methods of materials
a3
and the list of steps of medical analysis
Record different sources of data and identify measures of central tendency
a4
and dispersion
a5 List different electromagnetic waves and their applications
Identify practical solutions to problems that most physicists are likely to
a6
encounter in their practice
b- Intellectual skills:
b1 Evaluate the technical concepts of the syllabus
Appraise theory and its relevance to different situations, analysis of tasks into
b2
understandable and manageable subtasks
b3 Evaluate different types of data distribution
b4 Analyze common frequency measures: ratios, proportions, and rates
Distinguish the uses, advantages, and disadvantages of measures of
b5
dispersion
c- Professional and practical skills:
c1 Perform an experiment to describe the physical properties
c2 Dissect the physical meaning of terms and their correlation with certain
applications.
c3 Interpret measures of dispersion
c4 Plot various graphs according to the type of data
c5 Construct frequency distribution tables for various types of variables
d- General and transferable skills:
d1 Criticize lectures with continuous self learning
d2 Utilize some Internet and/or Library searching strategies.
d3 Writing a short report using appropriate scientific language
Chapter 1
Dimension and units
1.1 Basic definitions
Basic Quantity : Basic quantity is defined as the quantity that cannot be
expressed in terms of one or more other quantities.
There are three basic quantities namely, Length, Mass
and Time abbreviated (L, M, and T).
Derived Quantity : Derived quantity is defined as the quantity that can be
expressed in terms of more than one basic quantity.
Velocity, acceleration, force, pressure are examples of
the derived quantities.
Scalar Quantity : A quantity that is defined only in terms of their
magnitude such as price, age, speed, etc …
Vector Quantity : A quantity that is defined not only in terms of their
magnitude but also combined with their direction such
as force, pressure, etc …
1.2. Units
Systems of units commonly used in science, commerce, manufacturing, and
everyday life are (1) the SI system, in which the units of length, mass, and time
are the meter (m), kilogram (kg), and second (s), respectively; and (2) the C.G.S.
system, in which the units of length, mass, and time are the cm, gm and second,
respectively. Throughout most of this text, we shall use SI units because they are
almost universally accepted in science and industry. We will make limited use of
C.G.S units in the study of classical mechanics.
- 1 -
1.3. Dimensions of basic and derived quantities

Quantity Formula Dimensio MKS CGS
n
Mass M M Kg gm
Basic
Length L L Meter Cm
Time T T Second Second
Charge
Temperature
Area A=L×L L2 m2 cm2
Volume V = L × L× L L3 m3 cm3
Velocity v= x/t LT-1 m.s-1 cm.s-1
Acceleration a = v/t LT-2 m.s-2 cm.s-2
Kg.m.s-2 g.cm.s-2
Force F= m × a MLT-2
(Newton) (dyne)
Pressure P=F/A ML-1T-2 Kg m-1 s-2 g cm-1 s-2
Derived
Viscosity
Energy
Power
Force Gradient
Pressure Gradient
Rate change of
Energy
1.4. Some prefixes of the power of ten
- 2 -
1.5. Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis can be used in physics for different reasons:
1- To check the correctness of mathematical equations that describe a

physical experiment
Physical equation assumed to be correct only if both sides of the equation have
the same dimensions and units regardless of the numeric constants.
Example 1.1 check the correctness of the equation;
x = vo t + 1/2 at2
Dimensions of L.H.S. x = L
Dimensions of R.H.S. vo t + 1/2 at2 = LT-1.T + LT-2 . T = L + L = L
LHS = RHS
Equation may be correct
2- To check units of certain constants in the equations
Example 1.2 Find dimension and units of the gravitational constant for masses
m1, m2 separated a distance r;
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹 =𝐺
𝑟2
𝑀𝑀
𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 = 𝐺
𝐿2
G = M-1 L3 T-2
G = Kg-1 m3 S-2
G = g-1 cm3 S-2
- 3 -
3. To find an expression describing physical experiments
Example 1.3 Find an expression describing the velocity of a particle of mass (m)
falls a distance (h) under the effect of gravity (g);
Velocity depends on (mass m) (acceleration due to gravity g) (high h)
Velocity = const (m)x (g)y (h)z (1)
LT-1 = const (M)x (LT-2)y (L)z
LT-1 = const (M)x (L) y (T) -2y (L)z
LT-1 = const (M)x (L) y+z (T) -2y
From power of M in both sides  x = zero
From power of T in both sides  -2y = -1  y = 0.5
From power of L in both sides  y+z = 1  z = 0.5
Using above results in equation (1)
Velocity = constant (gh)1/2
- 4 -
Sheet 1
A- Check if the following statements is correct (T) or not (F)
No. Question T F
1.1  Basic quantity is defined as the quantity that cannot be
expressed in terms of one or more other quantities.
1.2  Basic quantity is defined as the quantity expressed in
terms of one or more other quantities.
1.3  Length, Mass, and Time abbreviated (L, M, and T)
considered as basic quantities
1.4  Length, Mass and Time, and velocity considered basic
quantities
1.5  Derived quantity is defined as the quantity that can be
expressed in terms of more than one basic quantity
1.6  Velocity, acceleration, force, pressure are examples of
the derived quantities
1.7  Length, Velocity, acceleration, force, pressure are
examples of the derived quantities.
1.8  A scalar quantity is the quantity defined only in terms of
their magnitude such as price, age, and speed
1.9  Vector quantity is the quantity that is defined not only in
terms of their magnitude but also combined with their
direction such as force and pressure
1.10  Vector Quantity is the quantity that defined only in terms
of its direction such as force and pressure
1.11  The equation V = Vo + a t is not correct
V is the velocity, Vo is the initial velocity, a is the
acceleration and t is the time
1.12  The equation X = Vo t + 2 a2 t2 is correct
acceleration, X is the distance and t is the time
1.13  The equation V2 = Vo2 + 2 a X
acceleration, and X is the distance
- 5 -
B - Chose the correct answers

1. Dimension of pressure is ………….
(a) ML-1T-2 (b) Pascal (c) mm Hg (d) Torr
2. MKS units of Force is ……..
(a) Newton (b) Dyne (c) Kg m2 s-2 (d) g cm s-2
3. A velocity of 10 km/h is equal to …………..
(a) 3.6 m/s (b) 36 m/s (c) 0.2777 m/s (d) 2.7777 m/s
4. Viscosity dimension can be expressed as
(a) ML-1T-1 (b) ML-1T-2 (c) ML-2T (d) ML-1
5. Velocity of light in certain media in (CGS system of units) is a constant
equal to
(a) 5  108 m/s (b) 3  108 (c) 3  1010 cm/s (d) 3  107
m/s m/s
6. The density of 7.8 gm/cm3 is equivalent to …………..
(a) 7800 (b) 7800 (c) 780 kg/m3 (d) 78 g/m3
gm/cm3 kg/m3
7. The dimension of gravitation constant (G) in Newton's equation
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹 = 𝐺 given by ………
𝑟2
(a) M-1 L3 T-2 (b) M-2 L3 T-2 (c) M-2 L2 T-2 (d) M-1 L T-2
8. The cgs units of relative humidity defined as the ratio between actual
vapor density to the saturation vapor density is
(a) unitless (b) g cm-3 (c) kg m-3 (d) kg m3
9. 1 Newton equivalent to when converted to Dyne multiplied by
(a) 105 (b) 10-5 (c) 103 (d) 10-3
10. Which of the following is a basic quantity
(a) Current (b) Temperature (c) Voltage (d) Current density
- 6 -
Chapter 2
Fluid dynamics
2.1. Classification of Fluids

Both liquid and gas can be considered as fluid and when fluid is in motion,
its flow can be of two main types. The flow is said to be steady, or laminar, if each
particle of the fluid follows a smooth path such that the paths of different particles
never cross each other as shown in Figure (2-1). In steady flow, every fluid
particle arriving at a given point has the same velocity. Above a certain critical
speed, the fluid flow becomes turbulent. Turbulent flow is irregular flow
characterized by small whirlpool-like regions as shown in Figure (2-2).
The term viscosity is commonly used in the description of fluid flow to
characterize the degree of internal friction in the fluid. This internal friction, or
viscous force, is associated with the resistance that two adjacent layers of fluid
have to move relative to each other.
Figure (2-1) Laminar flow around an Figure (2-2) Hot gases from a cigarette made
automobile in a test wind tunnel visible by smoke particles. The smoke first
moves in laminar flow at the bottom and then
in the turbulent flow above.
- 7 -
Because the motion of real fluids is very complex and not fully understood,
we make some simplifying assumptions in our approach. In our model of ideal
fluid flow, we make the following four assumptions:
1. The fluid is non-viscous. (internal friction is neglected)
2. The flow is steady. (all particles passing through a point have the same
velocity)
3. The fluid is incompressible. (density of an incompressible fluid is constant)
4. The flow is irrotational. (the fluid has no angular momentum about any point)
The path taken by a fluid particle under a steady flow is called a streamline. The
velocity of the particle is always tangent to the streamline as shown in Figure 2-3
and a set of streamlines form a tube of flow.
Figure (2-3) A particle in laminar flow follows a streamline, and at each point, along its path, the
particle’s velocity is tangent to the streamline
2.2. Viscosity and viscosity coefficient
Viscosity is a quantitative measure of a fluid's resistance to flow and is

defined as the internal friction of fluid.
From viscosity measurements, we can obtain much useful information for

various products. A frequent reason for the measurement of viscosity can be found
in the area of quality control, where raw materials must be consistent from batch
to batch, and flow behavior is an indirect measure of product consistency and
quality.
- 8 -
Isaac Newton defined viscosity considering liquid as layers of the same

area (A) separated by a small distance (dx) moving in the same direction with
different velocities (V1, V2) as shown below
Figure (2.4) Newton representation of viscosity

𝐹 𝑑𝑉
= 𝜂
𝐴 𝑑𝑥
Where  is the viscosity coefficient
Share stress () =  rate change of strain ()
2.3. Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids

A Newtonian fluid's viscosity remains constant, no matter the amount of
shear applied for a constant temperature. These fluids have a linear relationship
between viscosity and shear stress.
Examples: Water, Mineral oil, Gasoline, Alcohol.
A non-Newtonian fluids are the opposite of Newtonian fluids. When shear is

applied to non-Newtonian fluids, the viscosity of the fluid changes. The behavior
of the fluid can be described in one of four ways:
- 9 -
2.4. Measurement of shear viscosity

An instrument that measures the viscosity is called viscometers that
measure viscosity under one flow condition.
The most popular viscometers used to measure share viscosity are
1. Capillary flow viscometer

2. Circular coquette flow viscometer
3. Cone & plate flow viscometer
4. Parallel plate flow viscometer
Figure (2.5) Measurement principle of viscometer
a) Capillary viscometer
b) Rotational Viscometer
c) Falling ball viscometer
1. Capillary 2. Sample 3. Coaxial Cylinder

4. Torque sensor 5. Measuring ball 6. Glass Cylinder
M1, M2 Measurement Marks
- 10 -
2.5. Ostwald Viscometer

These devices are also known
as glass capillary viscometers, named
after Wilhelm Ostwald. Consists of a
U-shaped glass tube held vertically in
a controlled temperature bath. In one
arm of the U is a vertical section of a
precise narrow bore (the capillary).
Above there is a bulb, with it is
another bulb lower down on the other
arm. In use, the liquid is drawn into
the upper bulb by suction, then
allowed to flow down through the
Figure (2.6) Ostwald
capillary into the lower bulb. Viscometer
Two marks (one above and one below the upper bulb) indicate a known
volume. The time taken for the level of the liquid to pass between these marks is
proportional to the kinematic viscosity. Liquids must be calibrated by a fluid of
known properties
𝜂
𝑡=𝐵
𝜌
Where B is the a constant and  is the fluid density
Such viscometers can be classified as direct flow or reverse flow. Reverse

flow viscometers have the reservoir above the markings and direct flow are those
with the reservoir below the markings. Such classifications exist so that the level
can be determined even when opaque or staining liquids are measured.
- 11 -
2.6. Falling sphere viscometers

Stokes' law is the basis of the falling sphere
viscometer, in which the fluid is stationary in a
vertical glass tube. A sphere of known size and
density is allowed to descend through the liquid. If
correctly selected, it reaches terminal velocity, which
can be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks
on the tube.
Figure (2.7) Falling sphere
Knowing the terminal velocity (v), the radius (r) and density (1) of the
sphere, and the density of the liquid (2), Stokes' law can be used to calculate the
viscosity of the fluid. A series of steel ball bearings of different diameters are
normally used in the classic experiment to improve the accuracy of the
calculation. The school experiment uses glycerine as the fluid, and the technique
is used industrially to check the viscosity of fluids used in processes. It includes
many different oils and polymer liquids such as solutions.
If the particles are falling in the viscous fluid by their weight, then a
terminal velocity, also known as the settling velocity, is reached when this
frictional force combined with the buoyant force exactly balances the
gravitational force. The resulting settling velocity (or terminal velocity) is given
by:
F = mg – m`g = 6  r  v
4 3
𝜋𝑟 (𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝐿 ) = 6  r  v
3
Note that Stokes flow is assumed, so the Reynolds number must be small.
- 12 -
Sheet 2
A- Check if the following statements is correct (T) or not (F)
No. Question T F
1  Materials can be classified as solid and non-solid
2  Both liquids and gases called fluids
3  Compressible fluid is defined as fluid that change in
pressure gives no change in density
4  Steady flow means that the velocity of fluid may be
changed with time
5  Streamlines are imaginary lines and do not intersect
6  Ideal fluid must be non-viscous and incompressible
7  Ideal fluid is rotational and incompressible
8  In viscous fluids, the internal friction can be neglected
9  Tube of flow consists of a set of streamlines
10  Newtonian fluid is the fluid that changes in shear stress
give no change in viscosity
11  Non-Newtonian fluid is the fluid that changes in shear
stress give no change in viscosity
12  Streamlines do not intersect
13  Tube of flow represented by a streamline
14  Tube of flow represented by a set of streamlines
15  Streamlines do not intersect in a steady flow and intersect in
turbulent flow
16  Streamlines are real lines that represent the direction of flow
17  An instrument used to measure viscosity is called a
viscometer
- 13 -
Chapter 3
Heat and thermodynamics
3.1. Definitions
Temperature is an interpretation of the amount of internal energy of the system.
Heat: is defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system due to
a temperature difference between the system and its surroundings.
Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects would not exchange

energy by heat or electromagnetic radiation if they were placed in thermal contact.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics (the law of equilibrium): If objects A and B are

separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
Thermometers: are devices to measure temperature, and all of its types depend
on the same principle that some physical property (volume, color, dimension,
resistance, etc.) changes with the temperature.
3.2. Temperature scales

There are different scales by which temperature can be measured including
Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit scales. Every scale was designed based on two
fixed points (the lower fixed point at which pure water freezes and the upper fixed
point at which pure water boils and evaporates).
- 14 -
3.3. Temperature scale conversion
Celsius Scale Kelvin Scale Fahrenheit Scale
Higher calibration Steam point Steam point Steam point

point
(100 oC ) (373 oK) (212 oF)
Lower calibration Ice point Ice point Ice point

point
(0 oC) (273 oK) (32 oF)
Conversion TC = TK - 273.15 TK = TC +273 TF =(9/5) TC + 32 oF
Figure (3.1) thermometers and temperature scale
- 15 -
Example
It is well known that the ideal human body temperature is about 37 oC.
Convert this temperature to its equivalent values in both Fahrenheit and Kelvin
scales.
Sol.
For Fahrenheit scale
TF =(9/5) TC + 32 oF
= (9/5)37+32 = 98.6 oF
For Kelvin
TK = TC + 273
= 37+ 273 = 310 oK
3.4. State of materials
Materials can be found basically in three different states (Solid, Liquid, and
gas) which can be transformed from one state or phase by absorbing or emitting
heat energy.
Heat capacity C: of a sample is the amount of energy needed to raise the

temperature of the whole sample by 1oC.
Specific heat c: of a substance is the amount of energy needed to raise the

temperature of 1 gram of sample by 1oC. (heat capacity per unit mass).
Phase change: the case whenever the physical characteristics of the substance
change from one form to another.
- 16 -
Figure (3-2) Phase change and latent heat

The quantity of heat needed to change the temperature of an object can be
expressed as
Q = m c T
Where c is the specific heat capacity defined as the quantity of heat needed to
raise the temperature of 1 gm of material 1C. While (C = m c) is the heat capacity
defined as the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of material 1C.
Latent heat (L) is the quantity of heat needed to change material from phase to
phase at constant temperature (Q = m L).
The triple point of water: is the single temperature and pressure at which liquid
water, gaseous water, and ice (solid water) coexist in equilibrium with each other.
3.5. Thermal expansion
If the temperature of the material increases this will lead to an increase in

the internal energy of the material. As a result of this, the amplitude of the
oscillation of the atoms and molecules will increase (increase in the average
distance between atoms) increasing the material dimensions.
- 17 -
Consider a rod of length (Li) subjected to a temperature change (T = Tf - Ti). The
average change in length (L) given by;
L =  Li T
Where  is the linear expansion coefficient (C-1)
While the final length can be given as
Lf = Li + L
= Li (1+  T)
Example
A segment of steel rail road track its length is 30 m at 0 oC, what its length at 40
o
C.
Sol.
L =  Li T
= 11 × 10-6 ×30 × (40-0)
= 0.013 m
L = Li + L
= 30 + 0.013 = 30.013 m
- 18 -
Calculate the surface expansion coefficient?
Assume a sheet of material of length Li and width Wi expand with temperature in

both directions
Lf = Li (1+  T)
Wf = Wi (1+  T)
The initial area
Ai = Li × Wi
Af = Lf × Wf
= Li (1+  T) × Wi (1+  T)
= Li Wi (1+  T)2
= Ai (1+ 2 T + 2 T2)
For small expansion coefficients 2 can be neglected
= Ai (1+ 2 T)
Af = Ai (1+  T)
Where  is the surface expansion coefficient
 = 2
- 19 -
3.6. Clinical importance in Dentistry:

The selection of material for a specific purpose is an important issue,
especially in dentistry. Close matching between the coefficient of thermal
expansion (α) of both tooth and restorative materials to prevent marginal leakage
that may result in:
i. Marginal leakage
ii. Discoloration
iii. Recurrent caries
iv. Hypersensitivity
Figure (3-3) Marginal leakage result from a mismatch of thermal expansion coefficient
3.7. Thermal conductivity (k)

Thermal conductivity is defined as the amount of heat in calories or joules
passing per second through a body 1cm thick, 1cm2 cross-sectional area when the
temperature difference is 1°C.
- 20 -
∆𝑇
𝑄=𝐾𝐴
∆𝑥
Thermal expansion Thermal conductivity K

Material
Coefficient × 10-6 /C × 10-6 /C(mm2/s)
Amalgam 22-28 9.4
Composite 20-60 0.25
GIC 10-11 0.15-0.35
Tooth 11.4 0.18-0.47
Clinical importance in Dentistry:
1. Metallic dental filling materials (e.g. Amalgam).
Figure 3.4. Amalgam restoration
2. Metallic denture base materials.
Figure 3.5. Metallic denture base material
- 21 -
Sheet 3
Choose the correct answer
No. Question Answer
3.1  Human body temperature in Kelvin scale equal
(a) 37
(b) 310
(c) 236
(d) 98.6
3.2  Human body temperature in Fahrenheit scale equal
(a) 37
(b) 310
(c) 236
(d) 98.6
3.3  Room temperature in Kelvin scale equal
(a) 298
(b) 310
(c) 236
(d) 25
3.4  Room temperature in Fahrenheit scale equal
(a) 25
(b) 248
(c) 298
(d) 77
3.5  A segment of steel rail road track its length is 30 m at 0 oC, what its
length at 40 oC. α of steel 11 × 10-6
(a) 30.013 m
(b) 0.013 m
(c) 31.013 m
(d) 1.013 m
3.6  Calculate surface expansion coefficient of steel (α of steel 11 × 10-6)
(a) 11 × 10-6
(b) 22 × 10-6
(c) 33 × 10-6
(d) 44 × 10-6
 Calculate surface expansion coefficient of steel (α of steel 11 × 10-6)
(a) 11 × 10-6
(b) 22 × 10-6
(c) 33 × 10-6
(d) 44 × 10-6
- 22 -
Chapter 4
Properties and Structure of Materials
Material property is intensive and quantitative that used as
a metric character by which the benefits of one material versus another can be
assessed and aid in materials selection for specific purposes.
A property may be a constant or maybe a function of one or

more independent variables, such as temperature. Materials properties often vary
to some degree according to the direction in the material in which they are
measured, a condition referred to as anisotropy. Materials properties that relate to
different physical phenomena often behave linearly (or approximately so) in a
given operating range. Modeling them as linear can significantly simplify
the differential constitutive equations that the property describes.
Materials properties are most reliably measured by standardized test

methods. Many such methods have been documented by their respective user
communities and published through ASTM International.
4.1. Materials Classification

There are thousands of materials available for use in engineering
applications. Most materials fall into one of three classes that are based on the
atomic bonding forces of a particular material. These three classifications are
metallic, ceramic, and polymeric. Additionally, different materials can be
combined to create a composite material. Within each of these classifications,
materials are often further organized into groups based on their chemical
composition or certain physical or mechanical properties. Composite materials
are often grouped by the types of materials combined or the way the materials are
arranged together. Below is a list of some of the commonly used classifications
of materials within these four general groups of materials.
- 23 -
1. Metal and alloys
Metals and Alloys Metals are pure elements that comprise about three-fourths of
the periodic table Few are used in their pure form because of their hardness or
cost. Scarcity of elements Engineers needs certain characteristics that can only
be accomplished by a blending of basic elements Metallic materials include
alloys, which are combinations of metals and other elements.
Metals possess material properties, including:
high strength and toughness
high electrical conductance
high thermal conductance
luster
Examples aluminum - copper - gold - zinc - iron - lead - nickel silver - thorium -
chromium - tin – beryllium.
Alloys Consist of materials composed of two or more elements, at least one being
a metal. This combination of elements gives the material a combination of
properties from each element.
Examples Steel- iron, carbon, and impurity elements such as boron copper or
silicon.
2. Polymer chain-like molecules are made of many (poly) smaller molecular units
(mono”mers”). Polymerization is responsible for the formation of natural fibers,
wood, lignin, rubber, skin, bone, and the tissues of animals, humans, and insects.
Plastics Human-made polymers
Plastics are workable or moldable. Thermosetting plastics are formable once (e.g.
epoxy, phenolic, polyurethane) Thermoplastics can be heated repeatedly and
formed into new shapes (e.g. polyethylene, nylon, Plexiglas).
- 24 -
Elastomers (shapeless) structure consisting of long coiled-up chains of entangled

polymers can be stretched at room temperature to at least twice its original length
and return to its original shape after the force has been removed. The process to
strengthen an elastomer: vulcanization a chemical process used to form strong
bonds between adjacent polymers to produce a tough, strong, hard rubber
(automobile tires)
3. Ceramics Crystalline compounds combining metallic and non-metallic

elements. The absence of free electrons makes ceramics poor electrical
conductors. Because of the strength of the bonding, ceramics have high melting
temperatures
Example Clay products Inorganic material which is shaped, dried, and fired.
Examples: brick, floor and wall tiles, drainage tile, roof tile, sewer pipe, chimney
flue, china, and porcelain. Ceramics are designed to provide acceptable
mechanical or chemical properties while at high temperatures. Most are based on
stable oxides such as carbides, nitrides, and borides. An example of refractory is
the machinable all-silica insulating tiles on the U.S. space shuttle . Glass Based
on silica with additives that alter the structure or reduce the melting point,
optimize optical properties, thermal stability, and resistance to thermal shock.
4. Composites
Laminar or Layer Composites - alternate layers of materials bonded together.

(e.g. plywood, safety glass, Formica, bimetallic strips).
Particulate Composites - discrete particles of one material surrounded by a

matrix of another material. (e.g. concrete, asphalt, powdered metals, and
ceramics)
Fiber-Reinforced Composites - composed of continuous or discontinuous fibers

embedded in a matrix of another material. (e.g. Kevlar, rayon, steel-reinforced
tires, fiberglass, graphite-epoxy)
- 25 -
Figure (4.1) Materials classification
- 26 -
4.2. Crystal Structure
Solid materials could be classified according to how the atoms are

arranged in the material to crystalline and amorphous (non-crystalline)
materials.
SiO2 in its crystalline form it is SiO2 in its amorphous form

called as quartz known as glass
Figure (4.2) Classification of materials according to crystal structure.
Amorphous materials
Short-range ordered material.
Examples of amorphous solids are glass and some types of plastic. The
physical properties of amorphous solids are identical in all directions along any
axis so they are said to have isotropic properties.
Crystalline materials
Atoms or molecules are arranged in a long periodic order. The smallest
repetitive patterns are called unit cells. Unit cells with each other formed what
is known as crystals.
- 27 -
Crystalline materials are not like amorphous materials, it have a sharp phase
transition from solid to liquid.
4.3. Unit cell
The unit cell is the smallest repetitive unit in the lattice structure, so it
is considered the basic building block of the lattice structure.
Figure (4.3) Schematic diagram of the unit cell
The distance from one atom to another atom measured along one of the
axes is called the space constant.
The unit cell is formed by primitives or intercepts a, b, and c along X, Y,
and Z axes respectively.
A unit cell can be completely described by the three vectors, and
( P, Q, R) which is known as lattice vectors. The three angles between the lattice
vectors (α, β, and γ) are called interfacial angles. Both lattice vectors and
interfacial angles represent the unit cell parameters.
- 28 -
4.4. Crystal systems
If all the atoms at the lattice points are identical, the lattice is said to be Bravais
lattice. Fourteen independent ways of arranging points in three-dimensional space
grouped into 7 different types of lattice geometries as shown in Fig.
Figure (4.4) 14 Bravais lattices
- 29 -
The number of lattice points in unit cell can be calculated by appreciating the
following:
At the corner = 1/8th of the point
at the face = ½th of the point
at the center = 1 of the point
The number of lattice points per unit cell for simple cubic (SC),
= 8 atom at corners x 1/8 = 1
Figure (4.5) A simple cubic lattice cell
The number of lattice points per unit cell for body‐centered cubic (BCC)
= 8 atoms at corners × 1/8 + 1 atom at the center = 2
Figure (4.6) A Body Centered Cubic (BCC) lattice cell
- 30 -
The number of lattice points per unit cell for face‐centered cubic (FCC)
lattices
= 8 atom at corners × 1/8 + 6 × 1/2 (atom at the faces) = 4
Figure (4.7) A Face Centered Cubic (FCC) lattice cell
4.5. Atomic packing factor (APF):
This is defined as the ratio of the total volume of atoms in a unit cell to the total
volume of the unit cell. This is also called relative density of packing (RDP).
Example:
Calculate the APF for the simple cubic structure.
Sol.:
- 31 -
Total volume of atoms in a unit cell

𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
Total volume of the unit cell
4 4 𝑎 3
 𝑟3  ( )
= 3 3 = 3 32 = 0.52
𝑎 𝑎
Example:
Calculate the APF for the Face Centered cubic structure.
Sol.:
- 32 -
4.6. Lattice defect in solids
1- Point Defects:
Point defects formed in the crystal lattice

as a result of
• An atom of the regular structure is
missing (Vacancy).
• Self-interstitial atom.
• Substitution impurity atom
• Interstitial impurity atom.
Figure (4.8) Point Defects
2- Line imperfections
In linear defects, groups of atoms are in irregular positions.
• Linear defects are commonly called dislocations.
• Any deviation from a perfectly periodic arrangement of atoms along a line

is called the line imperfection
Figure (4.9) Line Defects
- 33 -
3- Planner Defects
• Planar defects exist at the grain boundaries, it can be created when two or
more crystals are mismatched at the boundaries.
• The grain boundary is less dense than the bulk
• Diffusion of gas or liquid takes place along the grain boundaries
• Atoms of grain boundaries possess higher energy than the bulk resulting in
a more chemically reactive site at the bounders.
Figure (4.10) Planer Defects
- 34 -
Sheet 4
1. Differentiate between Crystalline and non-crystalline solids?

2. Metal characterized by a) ……………………………….
b) ……………………………….
c) ……………………………….
d) ……………………………….
3. Polymers can be classified as a) ……………………………….
b) ……………………………….
4. Composites can be classified as a) ……………………………….
b) ……………………………….
c) ……………………………….
5. Find the atomic packing factor of a simple cubic structure
6. Find the atomic packing factor of face-centered cubic structure
7. Lattice defects on solids can be classified as
a) ……………………………….
b) ……………………………….
c) ……………………………….
8. Classify the following materials

a) Copper and Gold
b) Epoxy ……………………………………………….
c) Plexiglas ……………………………………………….
d) Drainage Tile ……………………………………………….
e) Formica ……………………………………………….
f) Concrete ……………………………………………….
g) Kevlar ……………………………………………….
- 35 -
Chapter 5
Mechanical Properties of materials
5.1. Introduction
Materials can be classified according to their mechanical properties into

two general types elastic and plastic.
Elastic materials are materials that return to their original size and shape when
applied load was removed while plastic materials are materials that do not return
to their original size and shape when the applied load was removed.
5.2. The concept of stress and strain
When a force was applied to certain material, a term Stress () that defined
as the force (F) per unit area (A) and given by;
𝐹
𝜎=
𝐴
While the change in length (L) per original length considered as strain
∆𝐿
𝜀=
𝐿
1- Longitudinal stress, Longitudinal stress, and Young's modulus

The force was applied on wire and results in an increase in length
- 36 -
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹/𝐴

𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝑌) = =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆𝐿/𝐿
2- Bulk Stress, Bulk Strain and Bulk Modulus
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹/𝐴

𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝐵) = = −
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑉/𝑉
3- Shear Stress
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹/𝐴

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝐺) = = −
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑥/ℎ
5.3. Stress-Strain Curve
For small deformations, most elastic materials such as springs exhibit linear
elasticity and can be described by a linear relationship between stress and strain.
This relationship is known as Hooke's law.
- 37 -
Force (F) = Constant (k) × extension (x)
In such a case material returns to its original size and shape without any
deformation (elastic change). When force increases stress is also proportional to
strain and material returns to its original size and shape but not in a linear
relationship.
Figure (5.1) Stress-strain curve of ductile material
5.4. Terms and Definitions

Yield Stress: the maximum tensile stress that a material can behave elastically
Ultimate Stress: the maximum tensile stress that a material can withstand before
rupture
Fracture Stress: the stress at which material breaks or fracture
Ductility is the ability of the material to deform under tensile stress; this is often
characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire.
- 38 -
Malleability is the ability of the material to deform under compressive stress; this
is often characterized by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by hammering
or rolling.
Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform

without fracturing. One definition of material toughness is the amount of energy
per unit volume that a material can absorb before rupturing. It is also defined as a
material's resistance to fracture when stressed.
Stiffness is the rigidity of an object — the extent to which it resists deformation

in response to an applied force. The complementary concept is flexibility: the
more flexible an object is, the less stiff it is.
Hardness is the ability of the material to withstand scratching and indentation
Wear is the removal and deformation of material on a surface as a result of

mechanical action of the opposite surface when two surfaces are sliding on each
other.
Creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency of a solid material to move
slowly or deform permanently under the influence of mechanical stresses. The
strain of such material depends on time.
Brittle material is the material that breaks without significant deformation

(strain) when subjected to (stress).
Flexural (Bending) stress force per unit area when material subjected to flexural
loading (bending) result in shear stress tends to resist sliding of one portion of a
body over another. Flexural force can produce all three types of stresses but in
most cases fracture occurs due to tensile component.
- 39 -
Flextural stresses produced in a Flextural stresses produced in a

three-unit fixed dental prosthesis two-unit cantilever bridge
Resilience is the amount of energy per unit volume that is sustained on loading
and released upon unloading of a test specimen.
Fatigue failure: most prosthesis & restoration fractures develop progressively

over many stress cycles after initiation of a crack from a critical flaw, and
subsequently by the propagation of the crack until a sudden, unexpected fracture
occurs.
- 40 -
Figure (5.2) Stress-strain curve for different types of materials
- 41 -
If a force is applied along the surface of tooth enamel by a sharp-edged instrument

parallel to the interface between the enamel and the orthodontic bracket, the
bracket may debond by shear stress failure of the resin luting agent.
In the oral cavity, shear failure is unlikely to occur due to:
1. Many of the brittle materials in restored tooth surfaces generally have

rough, curved surfaces.
2. The presence of chamfers, bevels, or changes in the curvature of a bonded
tooth surface.
3. To produce shear failure, the applied force must be located immediately
adjacent to the interface. The farther away from the interface the load is
applied, the more likely it that it is a tensile failure.
Impression Material
The impression materials should have a low modulus of elasticity to enable it to

be removed from the undercut areas in the mouth.
Modulus of elasticity should not be very low that the material cannot withstand
tearing.
- 42 -
Sheet 5
Define the following terms
1. Yield Stress
2. Ultimate Stress
3. Fracture Stress
4. Ductility
5. Malleability
6. Toughness
7. Stiffness
8. Hardness
9. Wear
10. Creep
11. Brittle material
12. Flexural (Bending) stress
13. Resilience
14. Fatigue failure
15. Stress
16. Strain
17. Hooks Law
- 43 -
Chapter 6
Optical Properties
6.1. Introduction
Engineering materials are important in everyday life because of their

versatile structural properties. Other than these properties, they do play an
important role because of their physical properties. Prime physical properties of
materials include electrical properties; thermal properties; magnetic properties;
and optical properties.
The optical properties of engineering materials are useful in different
applications. Ex.: domestic, medicine, astronomy, manufacturing.
The optical property of a material is defined as its interaction with
electromagnetic radiation in the visible. Visible light is one form of
electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from 0.39 to 0.77μm. Light
can be considered as having waves and consisting of particles called photons.
Light is a transverse wave that propagates in a vacuum with velocity c = 3 ×
108 m/s
Figure (6.1) Light transverse wave
- 44 -
Light propagation obey simple harmonic motion (SHM) equation where the
displacement (y) is given by;
y = A sin (t – kx)
where
 is the angular frequency
t is the time
k is the wavenumber
x is the distance
6.2. Reflection and refraction

There are two types of reflection depending on the surface of the material
1. Specular (regular).
2. Diffuse (irregular).
Figure (6.2) specular and diffuse reflection
Laws of reflection
1- Incident ray, reflected ray, and normal to surface all lie in the same plane
2- Incident angle = reflection angle
Laws of refraction
1- Incident ray, refracted ray and normal to surface all lie in the same plane
2- n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2 (Snell's Law)
- 45 -
where n1, n2 are the refractive indices of the medium, 1, 2 are the incidence
and reflection angles.
Figure (6.3) Reflection and refraction of light
In a vacuum, the speed of light is c = 3.00 × 108 m/s. In a medium, the speed of
propagation v is always less than c.
Refractive index n, of a transparent medium given by;
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑐

𝑛= =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑣
Consider a light waves incident on the boundary between two mediums 1 and
2, the frequency of the wave does not change but the speed of the wave will
change.
- 46 -
Figure (6.4) light at boundary of two medium
𝑣1 = 𝑓 𝜆1 and 𝑣2 = 𝑓 𝜆2
𝑣1 𝑓 𝜆1 𝑐/𝑛1 𝑛2
= = =
𝑣2 𝑓 𝜆2 𝑐/𝑛2 𝑛1
Or in other words
𝜆1 𝑛1 = 𝜆2 𝑛2
6.3. Total internal reflection

When a ray of light is transferred from a more dense medium to a less dense
medium, the angle of refraction increases and after a certain critical value it will
be internally reflected.
- 47 -
Figure (6.5) refraction, critical angle, and total internal reflection
An angle of incidence (θc) in a more dense medium faces an angle of refraction

= 90, called the critical angle.
Applying Snell's law
n1sin θ c = n2sin90 , sin90= 1
sin θ c = n2 / n1
- 48 -
6.4. Optical fiber

Optical fiber is a device used to transfer a large amount of information as a result
of the effective and fast transfer. Optical fiber is an application of total internal
reflection where light enters the fiber from one ends, multi-reflections occur until
its exit from the other side.
Optical fibers usually consist of a transparent core of high refractive index
surrounded by a cladding (skin) with a lower index of reflection and such
combination may be surrounded by a plastic jacket to prevent mechanical damage.
Figure (6.6) Optical fiber and total internal reflection
 Optical fibers are usually made of glass and most often are an oxide glass-
based silica (SiO2 ). A rod of glass is heated to soften, and then the fiber is
drawn from the hot glass.
 Optical fibers that are based on some mixture of SiO2, B2O3, and Na2O transmit
well in the visible and near-infrared regions of optical spectra. (0.4 to 0.7) m.
 For transmission of UV region, one could use quartz as core and clear plastic
as a cladding layer.
1- Quartz is also used for the transmission of laser power while none oxide glass
is used for the transmission of infrared.
- 49 -
6.5. Fiber optic endoscopes

 It is inserted into the body through a natural opening or through a small
incision in the skin to examine body organs.
 Non-coherent bundles of fibers are used for illumination where numerous clad
fibers of a certain length are bundled together but not ordered.
Flexible fiberscope
 Flexible fiberscope can be built up to 4 m in length and 1 cm in cross-section
and contain 50 000 individual fibers.
 Some fibers are used to conduction light into the object to be examined and
others to carry the image back to the observer
 This is used in the direct inspection of living cells and tissue.
 Light from a lamp or laser is focused onto the input end of a flexible light
guide
 Light transmitted through this incoherent (nonaligned) bundle and illuminated
and object.
 An objective lens forms an image of the object on the distal end face of a
coherent bundle.
 The image is by coherent bundle to be viewed by eyepiece.
 A photographic camera or video camera could be connected.
 Fiberscope may be rigid or flexible.
Figure (6.7) Optical Flexible fiberscope
- 50 -
Sheet 6
A- Check if the following statements are true or false (T or F)

1. The absolute refractive index is a physical constant
2. A light wave is a transverse wave
3. The critical angle defined as the angle of incidence in a more dense medium
faces an angle of reflection = 90°.
4. In the Longitudinal wave, the direction of vibration is in the same direction
of propagation.
5. Optical fiber is usually 4 m long
B- Find the critical angle of Water against the glass (nWater = 1.33,
nglass = 1.5)
C- Describe the working of the flexible fiberscope
- 51 -
Chapter 7
Laser
7.1. Emission and Absorption of photons
Consider an atom containing two different energy states, an upper state E2, and a
lower state E1. If the atom is in the upper state (Figure 7.1) makes a transition to
the lower state, energy can be emitted in the form of radiation of frequency ν given
by:
E = E2 – E1 = h
Where h is the Plank’s constant.
Figure (7.1) absorption and emission
On the other hand, if the atom is initially in the lower state E1 and makes a
transition to the higher state E2, radiation of the same frequency must be absorbed.
- 52 -
7.2. Types of Emission

1. Spontaneous emission
Emitted photon randomly emitted when electron transferred from upper to lower
energy states
2. Stimulated emission
Photon (having energy equal to the energy difference between the two levels)
interacts with the atom in the upper state and causing it to change to the lower
state with the creation of a second photon.
Figure (7.2) Types of emission
The photon produced by stimulated emission has the energy to that which caused
stimulated emission and hence the light waves associated with them must be of
nearly the same frequency.
The light waves associated with the two photons are in phase – they are said to
be coherent. In the case of spontaneous emission, the random creation of photons
results in waves of random phase, and the light is said to be incoherent.
Population Inversion
Consider two-level energy systems representing an atom in an upper and lower
state. Suppose a photon of energy equal to the energy difference between the two
levels approaches the two atoms,
Einstein showed that, under normal conditions, absorption or stimulated emission
both processes are equally probable.
- 53 -
Boltzmann distribution
Under the condition of thermal equilibrium, the population of a number of energy
levels obeys what is known as a Boltzmann distribution, which means that for any
two levels of energy E1 and E2 and population N1and N2 then:
N2/N1 = exp [-(E2-E1)/kT)
Where k is Boltzmann’s constant, T is the absolute temperature and it is
assumed that E2 > E1 . At room temperature, the population of the excited state
will be almost negligible. Consequently, any photons of visible light are very
much more likely to be absorbed rather than to cause a stimulated emission.
Figure (7.3) Population inversion
Laser is defined as an abbreviation for Light Amplification by Stimulated

Emission of Radiation (LASER)
- 54 -
7.3. The Ruby Laser

A convenient method of describing laser action is to refer to an energy level
diagram of the electronic states involved in light absorption and emission.
There are three sets of levels, the ground state E1, the metastable state E2 , near
the middle, and the top wideband energy level E3.
Ruby is a crystal lattice of aluminum and oxygen atom, Al 2O3, with a small
number of chromium ions as an impurity Cr2O3,
When white light enters a crystal, strong absorption by the chromium ions (in its
ground state)
Figure (7.4) Construction of ruby laser
1. Electrons from the ground state (E1) move to (E3).

2. But it is a short lifetime so electrons return to E2 which is long life or
Metastable.
3. The excited atoms then drop back from the band of the upper states to a
middle state (metastable state) without emitting a photon, but by the
transfer of energy to the surrounding crystal lattice (non-radiative process).
- 55 -
4. The electrons remain there for several milliseconds (i.e a population

inversion is achieved) and randomly jump back to the ground state, emitting
visible red light (spontaneously).
5. The spontaneous emission from the metastable state may bounce back and
forth many times between the highly reflective ends and will stimulate
other metastable states to emit coherent light parallel to itself and to the
axis.
6. Laser contains coherent photons with very intense light.
7. Two mirrors are used, one of those reflecting surfaces was partially
silvered, and an intense pulse of red laser light emerges from that end of
the ruby rod.
7.4. Laser Safety

Good safely practice in the presence of high–powered lasers involves the use of
1. Filtering glasses
2. Shield
3. Awareness that a laser beam incident upon reflecting surface can redirect
the beam undiminished in intensity.
7.5. The Use of Laser in Medicine

When a laser beam incident on biological tissue, its energy is in the tissue due to
scattering and absorption. In the absorption process, the energy is transformed to
another form of energy (often to heat).
The attenuation due to absorption depends on; the tissue thickness L and the
absorption coefficient . The thickness of tissue in which 99% of the incident
energy is absorbed is called the extinction length (l)
- 56 -
I  I 0  e   L
In the visible or the infrared, the absorbed laser energy is converted into heat so;
for low laser intensity (energy per unit area), this gives rise to coagulation of
blood. For high intensity, the tissue vaporizes (in most cases it is water that boils
away). The common medical lasers are bulky and heavy. The output laser beam
is often delivered to the desired spot via an articulating arm.
7.6. Dental curing light

1- Tungsten halogen curing light
The Tungsten halogen curing light, also known as simply “halogen curing
light” is the most frequent polymerization source used in dental offices. For
the light to be produced, an electric current flows through a thin tungsten
filament, which functions as a resistor. This resistor is then “heated to
temperatures of about 3,000 Kelvin, it becomes incandescent and emits
infrared and electromagnetic radiation in the form of visible light”. It provides
a blue light of about 400 and 500 nm, with an intensity of 400- 600 mW cm2.
This curing light however has a downfall. First of which is the high
temperatures that the filament generates. This requires for the curing light to
have a ventilating fan installed to “force airflow through slots in the casing”.
This results in the curing light being bigger, to house the fan. The fan generates
a sound that can be found to be noisy and the light requires a great input of
power; thus, must be plugged into a power source. This results in this curing
light not being cordless. Furthermore, this light requires frequent monitoring
and replacing of the actual curing light bulb because of the high temperatures
that are reached. Also, the time needed to fully cure the material is much more
than the LED curing light.
- 57 -
2- Light-emitting diodes curing light

Also known as LED-curing light, it uses light-emitting diodes that produce
blue light that cures the dental material. This light uses a gallium nitride as a
semiconductor that is the basis for the blue emission. “In LED’s, a voltage is
applied across the junctions of two doped semiconductors (n-doped and p-
doped), resulting in the generation and emission of light in a specific
wavelength range. By controlling the chemical composition of the
semiconductor combination, one can control the wavelength range. The dental
LED curing lights to use LED’s that produce a narrow spectrum of blue light
in the 400- to 500-nm range (with a peak wavelength of about 460nm), which
is the useful energy range for activating the CPQ molecule most commonly
used to initiate the photopolymerization of dental monomers. These curing
lights are much different than the Halogen curing lights. They are more
lightweight, portable, and effective. The heat generated from LED curing
lights is much less which means it does not require a fan to cool it. Now that
the fan is not needed, a more lightweight and smaller light could be designed.
The portability of it comes from the low consumption of power. The LED can
now use rechargeable batteries, making it much more comfortable and easier
to use.
- 58 -
3. High powered light-emitting diodes cure light

The latest LED curing light is the HP (high-powered LED light). This newest
light is an updated LED curing light and can cure material much faster than
the Halogen and the previous LED curing lights. It uses a single high-intensity
blue LED that uses a larger semiconductor crystal. This increased the light
intensity and the area that is illuminated with an output of 1,000 mW/cm2. In
order for this light to emit such a high-intensity light, it uses a highly reflective
mirror film that “consists of multilayer polymer film technology.
- 59 -
Sheet 7
Chose the most correct answer
Types of Emission are …………
A Spontaneous emission B Stimulated emission
C Stimulated absorption D (a)and (b)
Answer
In Stimulated emission Photon having energy ……….the energy difference between

the two levels
A More than B Less than
C Equal to D None of the above
Answer
LASER is a short form of………..

A Light Amplification by Spontaneous B Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation. Emission of Radiation.
C Light Absorption by Stimulated D Light Absorption by Spontaneous
Emission of Radiation. Emission of Radiation.
Answer
In the population inversion………….

A The number of electrons in higher B The number of electrons in lower
energy state is more than ground energy state is more than higher
state. energy state.
C The number of electrons in lower D None of the above.
energy state and higher energy state
are same.
Answer
Laser beam is made of…………

A Electrons. B Highly coherent photon.
C Elastic particles. D Excited atoms.
Answer
In ruby Laser which ions give rise to laser action………..

A Al2O3 B O-
C Cr 3+ D Al3+
Answer
- 60 -
The frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation is related to difference in

energy E between the higher energy state E2 and the lower energy state E1. State
what h stands for in the given equation? E =E2 – E1 = hʋ
A Gravitation constant. B Planck’s constant.
C Permittivity. D Attenuation constant.
Answer
Good safety practice in lasers involves the use of………..

A Filtering glasses. B Shields.
C Awareness that a laser beam incident D All of the above.
upon reflecting surface can redirect
the beam undiminished in intensity.
Answer
Classes of LASER Used in Physical Therapy………

A Cold Laser LLLT (low-level laser B HPLT for (high-power laser
therapy). therapy).
C Medium-level laser therapy. D (a) and (b).
Answer
The life time of metastable state when compared to excited state is…………
A Smaller. B Greater.
C Equal. D All the above.
Answer
The population inversion process is due to the existence of…………..

A Metastable state. B Excited state.
C Ground state. D Underground state.
Answer
In Laser, stimulated emission depends on……………..

A Number of atoms present in meta B The intensity of incident light.
stable state.
C Both are correct. D Both are wrong.
Answer
- 61 -
Chapter 8
Electricity
8.1. Properties of Electric Charges

1. There are two types of charge positive and negative, negative charge
possessed by electron and positive charge possessed by protons.
2. Like charges repel one another and opposite sign charges attract one
another.
3. Electric charge is conserved in an isolated system.
4. Electric charge is quantized (Q =  N e).
N: integer number
e: charge of electron 1.6 x10-19 C
- is an electron, + is the proton
8.2. Material classification

Materials can be classified in terms of the ability of electrons to move through the
material.
1. Conductors
Electrical conductors are materials in which some of the electrons are free.
 Free electrons are not bound to the atoms.
 These electrons can move relatively freely through the material.
Examples copper, aluminum, and silver.
When a good conductor is charged in a small region, the charge readily distributes
itself over the entire surface of the material.
- 62 -
2. Insulators
Electrical insulators are materials in which all of the electrons are bound to atoms.
These electrons cannot move relatively freely through the material.
Examples Glass, rubber, and wood.
When a good insulator is charged in a small region, the charge is unable to move
to other regions of the material.
3. Semiconductors
The electrical properties of semiconductors are somewhere between those of
insulators and conductors.
Examples of semiconductor materials include silicon and germanium.
Semiconductors made from these materials are commonly used in making
electronic chips. The electrical properties of semiconductors can be changed by
the addition of controlled amounts of certain atoms to the material.
8.3. Electric force and electric field

Coulomb’s law: Empirical formula describes the force between two
stationary charges and is given by
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
Where
r is the distance between the two charges and
k coulomb constant = 8.98×109 N.m2/C2.
- 63 -
Example: Three-point charges lie on the

x‐axis as shown in Fig.5. If you know that
q1= 15 µC at a distance x=2 m from q2 =
6 µC and q3 is a negative charge. At what
distance should be the negative charge
placed to make the sum of the forces on it
is zero 𝐹23 = 𝐹13
𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞1 𝑞3
𝑘 = 𝑘
𝑥2 (2 − 𝑥)2
𝑞2 𝑞1
=
𝑥2 (2 − 𝑥)2
6 15
=
𝑥2 (2 − 𝑥)2
An electric field defined as the force per unit charge E = F/q

𝑞
𝐸=𝑘
𝑟2
Properties of electric field lines
1. Lines must begin on positive charge and terminate on negative charges
2. The number of lines having +ve charges to the number of lines having –ve
charges is proportional to the magnitude of the charge
3. No two field lines can cross
- 64 -
Figure (8.1) Electric field line +ve, -ve charge, attraction and repulsion
- 65 -
Chapter 9
The spectrum of the Hydrogen atom
9.1. The Bohr Model of the Atom

Niels Bohr proposed a model for the hydrogen atom that explained the
spectrum of the hydrogen atom. The Bohr model was based on the following
assumptions.
 The electron in a hydrogen atom travels around the nucleus in a circular
orbit.
 The energy of the electron in an orbit is proportional to its distance from
the nucleus. The further the electron is from the nucleus, the more energy
it has.
 Only a limited number of orbits with certain energies are allowed. In other
words, the orbits are quantized.
 The only orbits that are allowed are those for which the angular momentum
of the electron is an integral multiple of Planck's constant divided by 2p.
 Light is absorbed when an electron jumps to a higher energy orbit and
emitted when an electron falls into a lower energy orbit.
 The energy of the light emitted or absorbed is exactly equal to the difference
between the energies of the orbits.
Some of the key elements of this hypothesis are illustrated in the figure below.
- 66 -
Figure (9.1) energy level of an atom
Three points deserve particular attention. First, Bohr recognized that his first
assumption violates the principles of classical mechanics. But he knew that it was
impossible to explain the spectrum of the hydrogen atom within the limits of
classical physics. He was therefore willing to assume that one or more of the
principles from classical physics might not be valid on the atomic scale.
Second, he assumed there are only a limited number of orbits in which the
electron can reside. He based this assumption on the fact that there are only a
limited number of lines in the spectrum of the hydrogen atom and his belief that
these lines were the result of light being emitted or absorbed as an electron moved
from one orbit to another in the atom.
Finally, Bohr restricted the number of orbits on the hydrogen atom by limiting
the allowed values of the angular momentum of the electron. Any object moving
along a straight line has a momentum equal to the product of its mass (m) times
the velocity (v) with which it moves. An object moving in a circular orbit has an
angular momentum equal to its mass (m) times the velocity (v) times the radius of
the orbit (r). Bohr assumed that the angular momentum of the electron can take
on only certain values, equal to an integer times Planck's constant divided by 2p.
- 67 -
Bohr then used classical physics to show that the energy of an electron in any one
of these orbits is inversely proportional to the square of the integer n.
The difference between the energies of any two orbits is therefore given by the
following equation.
In this equation, n1 and n2 are both integers and RH is the proportionality constant
known as the Rydberg constant.
Planck's equation states that the energy of a photon is proportional to its

frequency.
E = hv
Substituting the relationship between the frequency, wavelength, and speed of

light into this equation suggests that the energy of a photon is inversely
proportional to its wavelength. The inverse of the wavelength of electromagnetic
radiation is therefore directly proportional to the energy of this radiation.
By properly defining the units of the constant, RH, Bohr was able to show that the
wavelengths of the light given off or absorbed by a hydrogen atom should be
given by the following equation.
- 68 -
Thus, once he introduced his basic assumptions, Bohr was able to derive an
equation that matched the relationship obtained from the analysis of the spectrum
of the hydrogen atom.
- 69 -
References
 Fundamentals of Physics. Halliday, Resnik and Walker. John. Wiley

and Sons Inc., 2007.
 Principle of Physics, Thomson Learning Academic Resource Center,
4th edition, Raymond A. Serway, John W. Jewett, Jr., 2006.
- 70 -

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By:

Prof. Amr Mohamed Abdelghany

Basic Science Department

Basic Science Department

Horus university′s main Goal is to be a Prominent Figure in the Educational

Vision of the Faculty of Dentistry - Horus University

Excellence and leadership in the field of dentistry locally, regionally and

‫جامعة حورس‬-‫رسالة كلية طب األسنان‬

Mission of the Faculty of Dentistry - Horus University

Preparing qualified graduates with theoretical knowledge, practical skills and

‫عميد الكليه‬ ‫مديروحدة ضمان الجوده‬

‫ محمد حامد غازي‬/‫د‬.‫ا‬ ‫ ريهام محمد عبد للا‬/‫د‬.‫ا‬

Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO's)

1.3. Dimensions of basic and derived quantities

1.4. Some prefixes of the power of ten

1.5. Dimensional Analysis

1- To check the correctness of mathematical equations that describe a

Example 1.1 check the correctness of the equation;

Dimensions of R.H.S. vo t + 1/2 at2 = LT-1.T + LT-2 . T = L + L = L

Equation may be correct

2- To check units of certain constants in the equations

G = g-1 cm3 S-2

3. To find an expression describing physical experiments

Velocity depends on (mass m) (acceleration due to gravity g) (high h)

Velocity = const (m)x (g)y (h)z (1)

LT-1 = const (M)x (LT-2)y (L)z

LT-1 = const (M)x (L) y (T) -2y (L)z

LT-1 = const (M)x (L) y+z (T) -2y

From power of M in both sides  x = zero

From power of T in both sides  -2y = -1  y = 0.5

From power of L in both sides  y+z = 1  z = 0.5

Using above results in equation (1)

Velocity = constant (gh)1/2

A- Check if the following statements is correct (T) or not (F)

B - Chose the correct answers

2.1. Classification of Fluids

2.2. Viscosity and viscosity coefficient

Viscosity is a quantitative measure of a fluid's resistance to flow and is

From viscosity measurements, we can obtain much useful information for

Isaac Newton defined viscosity considering liquid as layers of the same

Figure (2.4) Newton representation of viscosity

Where  is the viscosity coefficient

Share stress () =  rate change of strain ()

2.3. Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids

between viscosity and shear stress.

Examples: Water, Mineral oil, Gasoline, Alcohol.

A non-Newtonian fluids are the opposite of Newtonian fluids. When shear is

2.4. Measurement of shear viscosity

The most popular viscometers used to measure share viscosity are

1. Capillary flow viscometer

Figure (2.5) Measurement principle of viscometer

1. Capillary 2. Sample 3. Coaxial Cylinder

2.5. Ostwald Viscometer

Where B is the a constant and  is the fluid density

Such viscometers can be classified as direct flow or reverse flow. Reverse

2.6. Falling sphere viscometers

Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects would not exchange

Zeroth law of thermodynamics (the law of equilibrium): If objects A and B are

3.2. Temperature scales

3.3. Temperature scale conversion

Celsius Scale Kelvin Scale Fahrenheit Scale

Higher calibration Steam point Steam point Steam point

Lower calibration Ice point Ice point Ice point

Conversion TC = TK - 273.15 TK = TC +273 TF =(9/5) TC + 32 oF