LIPID METABOLISM

Digestion and Absorption of Lipids

o Dietary Lipids: Fats and Oils (98% _____)
o Salivary enzymes in the mouth have _____________ on lipids
o In stomach: Most of TAGs change physically to small globules or droplets
called ________ which floats above other materials.
o Lipid digestion starts in the ______________:
▪ Gastric __________ hydrolyzes ester bonds to produce 2 fatty acids
and one monoacylglycerol (about 10% of TAGs are hydrolyzed
▪ High fat foods stay in stomach for longer time.
o ________ enters into small intestine and is emulsified with bile salts.
o _____________________ hydrolyzes ester bonds of fatty acids and glycerol.
o Fatty acids, monoacylglycerols and bile salts make small droplets called
___________________.
o ______________ are small enough to be absorbed through the intestinal
cells.
o In the intestinal cells, monoacylglycerols and free fatty acids are
repackaged to form TAGs.
o These new TAGs combine with membrane lipids and lipoproteins to form
________________.
o ________________ transport TAGs from intestinal cells to the
bloodstream—accomplished through the ___________________.
o In the bloodstream, TAGs are completely hydrolyzed by lipase enzymes.
o Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by the cell and are either broken
down to the acetyl-CoA for energy or repacked to store as lipids.

Triacylglycerol Storage and Mobilization

o Most cells have limited capability of TAGs storage.
o TAGs stored in specialized cells called ______________ found in
__________________:
▪ Largest cells in the body—cytoplasm converted to TAGs droplets.
▪ Located primarily beneath the skin especially in abdominal region
and vital organs.
▪ __________________ also serves as a protection against heat loss and
mechanical shock.
o Triacylglycerol energy reserves are the human body’s major source of
stored energy.
▪ Energy reserves associated with protein, glycogen, and glucose are
very small when compared to fat reserves.
 o Several hormones trigger the hydrolysis of TAGs via activation of cAMP
(HSL or ___________________) and release of glycerol and fatty acids into
the bloodstream—called _______________________________.

Glycerol Metabolism
o Taken to the ___________ or _________ by blood and is converted to
glycolysis intermediate (DHAP) in two steps:
▪ __________________ of primary hydroxyl group of the glycerol.
▪ Secondary alcohol group of glycerol is oxidized to ketone.

Oxidation of Fatty Acid

o There are three parts to the process by which fatty acids are broken
down to obtain energy.
▪ Fatty Acid Activation
▪ Fatty Acid Transport
▪ Beta-Oxidation
Fatty Acid Activation
o Takes place in ______________________________.
o FA reacts with coenzyme A in the presence of ATP to produce high energy
acyl CoA.
o ATP is converted to AMP.
o Product of Fatty acid activation is __________, ______, and _______.
Fatty Acid Transport
o If the activated fatty acid has less than
12 carbon atoms, FA is transported to
the mitochondrial matrix without carrier
protein.
o If more than 12 carbon atoms, it is
transported via ___________________.

Beta Oxidation Pathway

o Is a process of breaking down long fatty acid chains that have been
converted to acyl-CoA.
o Four reactions repeatedly cleave two-carbon units from carboxyl end of
saturated fatty acids.
o This process removes two carbon units and converts to ___________ with
_________ and _________ being produced.
FOUR STEPS OF THE BETA-OXIDATION PATHWAY
STEP 1: Oxidation (Dehydrogenation)
o Hydrogen atoms are removed from the and β carbons, creating a
double bond between these two carbons.
o Dehydrogenation of Fatty acyl-CoA results in the formation of trans
double bond between and β carbons
o FAD is the oxidizing agent, and a FADH2 molecule is a product.
o Enzyme: _____________________
o Product: ____________________
STEP 2: Hydration
o A molecule of water is added across the trans double bond, producing a
secondary alcohol at the β carbon position.
o Enzyme: _______________________.
 o Product: _______________________
STEP 3: Oxidation (Dehydrogenation)
o The β-hydroxy group is oxidized to a ketone functional group with
________ serving as the oxidizing agent.
o Enzyme: __________________________
o Product: ______________________
STEP 4: Chain Cleavage
o The fatty acid chain is broken between the and β carbons by reaction
with a coenzyme A molecule.
o Enzyme: __________________________
o The result is an acetyl CoA molecule and a new acyl CoA molecule that is
shorter by ______ carbon atoms than its predecessor.
FATTY ACID vs. GLUCOSE OXIDATION: A Comparison
o Spiral fatty acid oxidation produces net _____ ATP molecules by oxidation
of 18 carbon atom fatty acid (stearic acid)
o Total of _____ ATPs are produced in the process, but 2 ATPs are needed
for activation of fatty acids.
o 1 Glucose molecule (6 carbon atoms) produce ___ ATP molecules.
o Three molecules of Glucose (18 carbon atoms) produce ___ ATP.
o 1 stearic acid molecule (18 carbon atoms) produces ____ molecules of
ATP.

Ketone Bodies
o Acetyl CoA formed from fatty acid oxidation is further processed by
Kreb’s Cycle.
o Under low supply of oxaloacetate, the acetyl CoA will be in excess.
o As a consequence, the excess acetyl CoA is converted to ketone bodies.
Ketogenesis
o Synthesis of ketone bodies from acetyl CoA primarily occurs in the ______
mitochondria.
STEP 1: First Condensation of two acetyl CoA molecules to produce
___________________.
STEP 2: Second Condensation: ________________ then reacts with the third
acetyl CoA and water to produce ____________________________ (HMG-CoA) and
CoA-SH
STEP 3: Chain Cleavage: HMG-CoA is cleaved to ___________ and ____________.
STEP 4: Conversion to ________________ or ___________.

FATTY ACID BIOSYNTHESIS

Lipogenesis vs. Fatty Acid Degradation
LIPOGENESIS
Takes place in cell _________.
A multi-enzyme complex called fatty
acid synthase catalyzes reactions
Intermediates bonded to acyl carrier
protein (ACP)
Depends upon reducing agent
NADPH
LIPOLYSIS
Takes place in ______________________
Enzymes are not complexed, and the
steps are independent
The carrier for fatty acid spiral is CoA
Dependent upon FAD+ and NAD+
Unsaturated Fatty Acid Biosynthesis
o To produce a double bond, oxygen is needed, and water is removed.
o In humans and animals, enzymes can only introduce double bond
between ___ and ___, and between ___ and ___.
o Important essential fatty acids linoleic acid (18 carbons with C9 and C12
double bonds) and linolenic acid (18 carbons with C9, C12, and C15
double bonds) can’t be synthesized.

Cholesterol Synthesis
o Component of cell membrane
o Precursor for bile salts, sex hormones, and adrenal hormones
o Synthesis of cholesterol occur in the liver.
o Synthesis requires at least ___ acetyl CoA and involves ____ enzymatic
steps.

_______________ is the starting material for the biosynthesis of fatty acids,

cholesterol, and ketone bodies.
_______________ is the product of glucose, glycerol, and fatty acid
catabolism.

FOUR POSSIBLE FATES OF Acetyl CoA

1. Oxidation in the citric acid cycle
2. Ketone Body Formation
3. Fatty acid Biosynthesis
4. Cholesterol Biosynthesis