Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495

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Atmospheric Environment
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/atmosenv

Review article

Air pollution trends over Indian megacities and their local-to-global

implications
B.R. Gurjar a, Khaiwal Ravindra b, *, Ajay Singh Nagpure c
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand 247667, India
b
School of Public Health, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh 160012, India
c
Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States

h i g h l i g h t s

Asian megacities produce 15% of the anthropogenic trace gas and aerosol emissions.

SO2 emissions are highest in Mumbai but all three megacities shows decreasing trends.

NOx may enhance atmospheric reactivity due to increasing trend in Indian megacities.

PM shows increasing trend for Delhi after 2005, found stable for Mumbai & Kolkata.

Need AQ monitoring networks/models to better predict air pollution & health outcome.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: More than half of the world’s population lives in urban areas. It is estimated that by 2030 there will be 41
Received 11 January 2016 megacities and most of them will be located in developing countries. The megacities in India (Delhi,
Received in revised form Mumbai, and Kolkata) collectively have >46 million inhabitants. Increasing population and prosperity
7 June 2016
results in rapid growth of the already large consumption of energy and other resources, which con-
Accepted 14 June 2016
tributes to air pollution, among other problems. Megacity pollution outflow plumes contain high levels
Available online 16 June 2016
of criteria pollutants (e.g. Particulate matter, SO2, NOx), greenhouse gases, ozone precursors and aerosols;
which can affect the atmosphere not only on a local scale but also on regional and global scales. In the
Keywords:
Methane
current study, emissions and concentration trends of criteria and other air pollutants (polycyclic aromatic
Carbon dioxide hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and greenhouse gases) were examined in the three Indian megacities.
PAHs Further, various policies and control strategies adopted by Indian Government are also discussed to
Odd-even scheme improve air quality. Decreasing trends of SO2 was observed in all three megacities due to decrease in the
Air quality management sulfur content in coal and diesel. However, increasing trend for NOx was found in these megacities due to
increase in number of vehicles registered and high flash point of CNG engines, which leads to higher NOx
emission. In terms of SPM and PM10, highest emissions have been found at Kolkata, whereas highest
ambient concentrations were recorded in Delhi. For Mumbai and Kolkata fluctuating trends of SPM
concentrations were observed between 1991 and 1998 and stable afterwards till 2005; whereas for Delhi,
fluctuating trend was observed for the entire study period. However, several steps have been taken to
control air pollution in India but there is a need to focus on control of non-exhaust emissions including
municipal solid waste and biomass burning in the megacities and surrounding areas.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction during the past few decades. While in the 1950s approximately 18%
of world’s population was living in urban areas, this figure had
The urban population of the world has been increasing rapidly reached to 50% by the year 2001. Further, world population is ex-
pected to increase from 7.0 billion to 9.3 billion from 2011 to 2050
and urban areas of the world are expected to absorb all the popu-
* Corresponding author. lation growth expected over this period (UN, 2012).The United
E-mail addresses: Khaiwal@yahoo.com, khaiwal.ravindra@pgimer.edu.in Nations defines a megacity as a metropolitan area with a total
(K. Ravindra).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.06.030
1352-2310/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
476 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495
population equal to or more than ten million people. World Ur-
banization Prospects (UN, 2012) estimates that in 2011, around 10%
was living in megacities and it is expected to be 14% in 2025,
whereas Sokhi and Kitwiroon (2008) proposed 30% increase by
2020. Due to the large population density, megacities face
tremendous pressure not only on basic urban infrastructure/civic
facilities but also on environment and human health (Wenzel et al.,
2007; Gurjar et al., 2010).In a study by Gurjar et al. (2008), a multi-
pollutant index (MPI) was developed which revealed that out of 18
megacities worldwide, only 5 were classified as having ‘fair’ air
quality whereas 13 had ‘poor’ air quality. Out of 18 megacities
considered, Delhi was ranked 7th in terms of air quality with MPI of
0.92 followed by (Kolkata 9th, MPI-0.59) and (Mumbai 11th, MPI-
0.39).Poor air quality of Delhi is mainly due to high particulate
matter concentrations (Gurjar et al., 2008). Recent Global Burden of
Diseases indicated that increasing air pollution in megacities and
other parts of the country is responsible for over 628,000 prema-
ture deaths every year in India, making it 5th leading cause of
premature mortality and there is six fold increase since 2000
(100,000 premature deaths). Further 31.4 million healthy life years
are lost due to poor health, disability or early death disability
adjusted life years, DALYs (Lancet, 2012; Ravindra et al., 2015).
The large consumption of energy in various forms (e.g. fossil
fuels and biofuels) contributes to high levels of air pollution in
megacities (Butler et al., 2008; Ravindra et al., 2015). Megacity
plumes contain large amounts of different pollutants including
greenhouse gases, ozone precursors and aerosols; therefore, they
affect atmospheric chemistry and act as an emission source (hot
spot) to the entire region (Molina and Molina et al., 2004, 2010;
Kanakidou et al., 2011). Since the lifetimes of air pollutants may
be prolonged due to the high concentrations in megacity plumes,
they can travel across and even between continents and contribute
to air pollution at a global scale, with potential associated socio-
economic and political impacts (Krass, 2007; Ravindra et al.,
2015). Hence, there is need to understand the sources, concentra-
tion trends, transformation and health risks of urban pollutants
including their role in global climate change.
Along with economical growth, the urban population of India
has also rapidly increased during the last century. The urban frac-
tion of the population in India has increased from 17% in 1951 to
31% in 2011. Interestingly out of 31%, about 13% of urban population
(48 million and around 4% of total population) lives in the three
megacities Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata. Fig. 1 depicts the
geographical locations of these three megacities, whereas Fig. 2
shows the decadal population growth trend in India and its
megacities.
Several studies have been carried out and published by different
researchers on emissions and air quality in megacities of India.
Number of such publications is increasing because of the increased
interest of scientific community in megacities air quality related
problems. There are several studies, which focus on targeted pol-
lutants and their sources in a particular area of a megacity but there
is a need to critically review and analyze the current state of un-
derstanding of air pollution problems in Indian megacities as a
whole.
To identify the research needs and data gap, the present study
appraises the sources, concentration trends and emissions over
Indian megacities. Further, the study also highlights the implication
of policies and strategies to reduce the air pollution such as intro-
duction of compressed natural gas (CNG), improvement in fuel
quality and vehicle technologies, shifting of industries. The
assessment is exercised using scientific data available in various
journal articles, reports and online sources. The review also aim to
aid researchers and policy makers to identify similarities and pe-
culiarities of Indian megacities in terms of causes and effects of air
pollution problem so that effective air quality strategies can be
planned and executed in other megacities throughout the world.
2. Brief details of Indian megacities
2.1. Delhi
Delhi is one of the largest megacities of South Asia and the
political capital of India. It is located between 28 240 1700 N to 28
530 0000 N latitude and 76 500 2400 E to 77 200 3700 E longitude at an
elevation of 216 m above mean sea level (MSL). Delhi lies almost
entirely in the Gangetic plains with Great Indian Desert (Thar
Desert) of Rajasthan state to the west, central hot plains to the
south and hilly regions to the north and east. The river Yamuna
forms the eastern boundary of the megacity. It has a semi-arid
climate, with long summers (early April to October), the monsoon
season in between and notorious winters (October and peaks in
January) with heavy fog (Mohan and Payra, 2009). The wind is
westerly towards the Bay of Bengal most of the year, except in the
monsoon months (JuneeSeptember) when the direction is
reversed.
According to census 2011, Delhi has a population of 16.31
million, with a population density of 11,320 km2 (Census of India,
2011). Major causes of air pollution in Delhi had been large number
of industries, power plants, and dense vehicular population. For
example, from 1971 to 2011, the road length in Delhi increased from
8380e31,969 km (3.8 times); whereas the number of registered
vehicles increased from 0.18 to 7.43 million (20 times) leading to
enhanced air pollution (Gurjar and Lelieveld, 2005; DSA, 2006,
2012, Nagpure et al., 2016).
According to a local survey, 30% of Delhi’s population was found
suffering from respiratory disorders due to air pollution and the
number of cases found were almost 12 times higher than the na-
tional average (Kandlikar and Ramachandran, 2000) and poor air
quality was held responsible for about 18,600 premature deaths per
year (TERI, 2001a). Similarly, a recent study by Nagpure et al. (2014)
suggested that air pollution related mortality increased twice be-
tween 1991 and 2010 in Delhi.
2.2. Mumbai
Mumbai (known as Bombay until 1996), is the sixth largest
metropolitan region in the world and financial capital of India. It is
located between 18 560 N latitude and 72 510 E longitude at the
Arabian Sea with an average elevation from 10 m to 15 m from the
MSL. The total area covered by the Mumbai Metropolitan Region
(MMR) is 4355 km2, including 468 km2 area of Greater Mumbai and
rest of Mumbai (3887 km2). The climate of Mumbai is tropical
moist, with temperature ranging between 16  C and 33  C. The
average annual precipitation is 2078 mm with maximum rainfall
during July. The pollution load, its atmospheric transport and
chemistry is considerably affected by the wind direction, which can
bring in cleaner marine air from the west or polluted air from the
eastern industrial belt. The post-monsoon and winter months have
a high frequency of calm periods with stagnant conditions leading
to air pollution build-up (Venkataraman et al., 2001).
Mumbai’s industrial and commercial growth has been accom-
panied by a rapid increase in population from 0.9 million in 1901 to
18.41 million in 2011. According to Census (2011), Mumbai had a
population density of 19,652 km2. Expansion of industries,
increased foundry production and a 103% increase in vehicles has
led to severe air pollution problem in Mumbai. According to recent
study by Lelieveld et al. (2015), air pollution results in about 10,200
premature deaths in year 2010. It is interesting to note that this
figure was 2800 in year 1995 (URBAIR, 1996).
 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495 477

Fig. 1. Map of India showing the geographic location of three megacities.

Delhi Mumbai Kolkata India June and September, supplying it with an annual rainfall of
1582 mm. Daily average wind speeds range from 0.5 to 10.0 kmh1.
Popula on of Megaci es(Millions)

20 1400
Kolkata has 14.11 million habitants with a population density of
18
Popula on of India (Millions)

1200 7480 km2 (Census, 2011). Rapid and unplanned urbanization,

16
1000 uncontrolled vehicular density, badly maintained roads, low turn-
14
over of old vehicles play a significant role in degrading the air
12 800 quality of Kolkata. The study conducted by Lelieveld et al. (2015)
10
600 estimated that air pollution is responsible for 13,500 deaths in
8
Kolkata in year 2010.
6 400
4
200 3. Quality control/quality assurance of data used in the study
2
0 0
1981 1991 2001 2011 Data used in the present study has been taken from published
Year articles and reports issued from various organizations like Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2009 and
Fig. 2. Decadal population growth in India and its megacities. 2014), National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
(NEERI), The Energy Research Institute (TERI), Asian Development
Bank, World Bank and World Health Organization (WHO). CPCB has
2.3. Kolkata
a QA/QC programme to ensure the quality of measured data which
includes calibration and maintenance of instruments, training
Kolkata is also known as ‘City of Joy’ though it is one of the most
programmes and guidelines for ambient air quality monitoring and
polluted megacities of the world. It is located between 22 320 N
evaluation of monitoring stations. The current study focuses only
latitude and 88 200 E longitude in north-eastern India in the
on three megacities in India as they have high population density
Ganges Delta near the Bay of Bengal, at an average elevation of
and considered to be severely polluted.
1.5 me9 m above MSL. Kolkata has a humid tropical climate with
hot and dry summers (February to April), the monsoon from May to
October and moderate winters (November to January). The mean 4. Emissions from Indian urban centers
monthly temperature ranges from 12.6  C in the winter to 35.6  C in
summer months (Karar and Gupta, 2006). Rains brought by the Bay 4.1. Emissions from major sources
of Bengal branch of South-West monsoon lash the city between
Air pollution is commonly perceived as an urban problem
478 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495
especially in megacities, which are associated with rapid industrial
and population growth. CPCB has identified 43 industrial areas to
be critically polluted based on Comprehensive Environment
Pollution Index (CEPI) (CPCB, 2000). Currently, in India, air pollu-
tion is widespread in urban areas where vehicles are the major
contributor followed by industries and thermal power plants (TERI,
2001b; Kaushik et al., 2006).Further, fossils fuel combustion in
various activities is also one of the major sources of air pollution.
Burning of biomass for residential energy and seasonal burning
crop residue significantly affect the urban air quality.
India has made rapid strides in industrialization, and is among
the ten most industrialized nations of the world. The Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has identified seventeen categories
of drastically polluting industries (large and medium scale) in India.
The list includes-integrated iron and steel, thermal power plants,
copper/zinc/aluminum smelters, cement, oil refineries, petro-
chemicals, pesticides and fertilizer units. Since 1950e51, the elec-
tricity generation capacity in India has multiplied 55 times from a
meager 1.7 thousand mega watt (MW) to 93.3 thousand MW
(MoEF, 2000). Thermal power plant constitutes about 74% of the
total installed power generation capacity in India. The Energy and
Resources Institute (TERI)has estimated that total estimated
pollution load of suspended particulate matter(SPM), SO2 and NOx
from thermal power sector has increased 50 times from 1947 to
1997 (i.e. 300 Tg to 15,000 Tg). In 1997, SPM claimed the largest
share (86%) of the total pollution load from thermal power sector. It
is also estimated that SPM emission from 7 critical industries (e.g.
iron and steel, cement, sugar, fertilizers, paper and paper board,
copper and aluminum) has increased from 200 Tg in 1947e3000 Tg
in 1997 (TERI, 2001b).
Thermal power plants are major users of coal in India, ac-
counting for more than 25% of total emissions from 1973 to 1997.
Similarly petroleum sector accounts for more than 40% of total
emission during 1973e1997 (Mukhopadhyay and Forssell, 2005).
Among all sources, coal combustion is the major source of SPM, CO2
and NOx emissions whereas oil combustions are responsible for SO2
emission. Industries like iron and steel smelting, and the produc-
tion of basic metals, metal products and machinery, fertilizer, other
metallic product and cement are the other important sources of SO2
and NOx in India.
The recent data shows that in India the number of motor vehi-
cles has increased from 0.3 million in 1951 to 159.5 million in 2012
(Government of India (2015)).Out of these, 32% are concentrated in
23 metropolitan cities. For instance, Delhi itself accounts for about
8% of the total registered vehicles and the number is more in
comparison to the other metro and megacities (e.g. Mumbai, Kol-
kata, and Chennai) taken together (TERI, 2001b). Pachauri and
Sridharan (1998) estimated that the total pollution load from the
transportation sector in India increased 68 times from 1947
(150 Tg) to 1997 (10,300 Tg). During this period, CO emissions made
up the largest share (43%) of total pollutants from the transport
sector, followed by NOx (30%), HC (20%), SPM (5%), and SO2 (2%).
According to CPCB (2000) twelve major metropolitan cities in India
annually produce 0.35 Gg of NOx, 1.91 Gg of CO and 0.67 Gg of VOC
from vehicles alone (TERI, 2001b). The amount of vehicular pol-
lutants emitted is highest in Delhi followed by Mumbai, Bangalore,
Kolkata and Ahmedabad.
The ambient concentration levels of CO, SO2 and NOx have been
observed far beyond the safe limits prescribed by WHO
(Mukhopadhyay and Forssell, 2005; Kaushik et al., 2006). Indoor
particulate matter on its own or in combination with SO2 causing at
least 400,000 to 550, 000 premature deaths and 4e5 million new
cases of chronic bronchitis each year in India (Smith, 2000) and this
number will rise significantly if the effects of outdoor air pollution
will also be considered. Increasing concentrations of SPM, SO2, NOx
and other pollutants adversely affect plant growth and cause
various diseases like chlorosis and necrosis (Shukla et al., 2008).
Furthermore, these pollutants also affect the built environment due
to their corrosive nature. As reported by Sindhwani and Goyal
(2014), the numbers of vehicles (4, 3 and 2- wheelers) in Delhi
and emissions of various air pollutants from transport sector are
presented in Fig. S1eS5 for the years 2000e2010.
4.2. Mitigation policies and strategies
The Indian government has formulated legislation, policies and
programmes for protecting the environment, for instance, Air
(Prevention and control of pollution) Act, 1981 and Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986 (TERI, 2001a).CPCB has adopted National
Air Quality Programme (NAMP) building a network of monitoring
air quality monitoring stations for measuring four criteria pollut-
ants: SO2, NOx, SPM and RSPM in 26 states and 4 union territories.
The number of monitoring stations has increased from just 7 in
1982 to 342 in 2012, and is still expanding. Government has
launched National Air Quality Index as a measurement index con-
sisting information of 8 pollutants into a single number for public
awareness of levels of air pollution parameters. Policies and mea-
sures taken for the various sectors are described below.
4.2.1. Industries
Industrial emissions are regulated under Environment
Protection Act, 1986 which involves installation of pollution con-
trol equipments to meet the emission guidelines. CPCB has iden-
tified 24 critically polluted areas and action plans have been
formulated to improve air quality of these areas. For coal power
plants located more than 1000 km from the pit head, ash content of
the coal used has to be below 34%. Environmental clearance from
Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) has been made
mandatory for establishment of development projects (29 cate-
gories) which involves conducting Environmental Impact Assess-
ment (EIA) study, public hearing and submitting environmental
statement. Moreover, other mitigation measures such as reduction
in the sulfur contents of the coal, relocation of industries (i.e.
displacement of industries from inner parts of city to outer areas),
use of clean fuel [e.g. use of less ash and sulfur content coal, liquid
petroleum gas (LPG) and application of air pollution control devices
have been taken. For reducing dust emissions from stone crushers,
use of enclosed structures and water spraying system have been
adopted.
4.2.2. Transport
Various measures have been taken by government to reduce
vehicular emissions such as introduction of cleaner fuels (e.g. un-
leaded gasoline, ultra-low sulfur diesel, CNG, LPG), improved en-
gine technologies, introduction of Bharat Norms (equivalent to Euro
norms), alternate public transport(Delhi metro rail) to trim down
the growing energy demand and emissions. A series of stricter
norms for vehicular emission reduction (Bharat Stage I-IV) have
been adopted by Ministry of Road Transport and Highways since
2000.Bharat Stage IV equivalent to EURO IV norms for all new ve-
hicles except two and three wheelers have been adopted from 2010
in 13 mega cities which includes Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata, and
proposed to be effective in entire country from 2017. For two and
three wheeled vehicles, Bharat Stage III norms were adopted in
2010. For two wheeled vehicles, Bharat stage IV was adopted in
April 2016. Further, the government has proposed to step up to
Bharat Stage V and VI by April 2020.
Leaded gasoline was phased out from entire country from early
1990s till 2000, and Benzene concentration in gasoline was regu-
lated to 3% in all India while there were no specifications before
 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495
1996. Regulation for Sulfur content in diesel was 0.50% in 1996 and
was reduced to 0.25% in 1998, 0.05% in 2005 and 0.005% in 2010. In
Kolkata, 3-wheelers fuel has been switched to LPG from May 2005
whereas in Delhi and Mumbai, CNG is made mandatory for 3-
wheelers and buses. Recently, Supreme Court has also doubled
the environment compensation charge on entrance of commercial
vehicles in National Capital Region (NCR) and also banned there
registration of new diesel vehicles having engine power above
2000 cc. Delhi government also launched odd-even scheme in
January 2016 by allowing private diesel and petrol driven cars to
run on alternate days based on license plate number.
4.2.3. Biomass burning
Biomass burning is a major contributor to particulate matter
concentrations. Nagpure et al. (2015) showed that open burning of
municipal solid waste (MSW) could amount to 2e3% of total
generated MSW in Delhi and similar observation has been made by
Ravindra et al. (2015) and Mor et al. (2016) in surrunding areas. To
reduce the emission of harmful pollutants and health impacts from
burning of wood, agriculture waste and animal residue, govern-
ment has put emphasis on improved cook stoves. Ministry of New
and Renewable Energy has launched National Biomass Cook stoves
Programme in 2009 for development and promotion of improved
cook stoves. Deployment of improved chulhas under pilot schemes
at government schools and communities showed significant
reduction in emissions and fuel consumption. Moreover, Rs 131
crores has been allotted in union budget 2015e2016 for promotion
of improved cookstoves and solar cookers (NBCP, MNRE).
Recently, MoEF has issued various directions to reduce air
pollution from biomass burning and non-exhaust sources such as
mechanized sweeping of roads to reduce resuspended road dust,
water sprinkling and covering of construction sites by municipal
corporations, strict action against burning of agriculture/municipal
waste in open environment and elimination of use of kerosene for
cooking (MoEF, 2015).
5. Trends and status of air pollutants over Indian megacities
Thermal power plants, transport, industries, agriculture and
solid waste disposal are some of the major emission sources in
Indian megacities. Several emission inventories exist for Delhi,
whereas only few studies are available for Mumbai and Kolkata; but
the existing inventories focus on a particular emission source
(especially transport) or a particular problem (e.g. criteria air pol-
lutants) and only for a particular year. Moreover, the emissions
factors of various sources in India have not been well developed,
which could severely affect the estimated emission inventories of
air pollutants. Various sources and emission load for SO2, NOx and
particulate matter are depicted in Table 1a, 1b, & 1c at different
sites.
5.1. Criteria pollutants
5.1.1. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
5.1.1.1. Delhi. Delhi was among the top five SO2 emitting megacities
in the early nineties and the transport sector was the prime source
(Garg et al., 2001). In the last decade, industries and power plants
emerged as major sources of SO2 (Auto Fuel Policy Report. 2002;
Gurjar et al., 2004). Gurjar et al. (2004) concluded that 68% of
emissions were from thermal power plants during 1990e2000,
whereas Goyal and Sidhartha (2002) estimated that thermal power
plants industries, and vehicles emitted 56.8%, 38.4%, 4.8% of SO2
respectively (Fig. S6). According to Auto Fuel Policy Report (2002)
industrial sector was the prime contributor (between 84 and 92%)
followed by transport (5e12%) and the domestic sector (0e4%)
479
from 1994 to 1998.The recent study by Guttikunda and Calori
(2013) suggested that for SO2 emissions the accountability of in-
dustrial sectors was highest (97%) among all other sectors, its
shows the impact of different policy interventions for SO2 re-
ductions in Delhi.
According to Guttikunda et al. (2003), during the time period of
1990e2000, Delhi was the second largest SO2 contributor among
the megacities in India (Fig. S7). Gurjar et al. (2004) have demar-
cated an inter-annual variability in the emission trend ranging
between 90 and 113 Gg during 1991e2000. The total SO2 emission
in Delhi was 45 Gg in 1990 and grew to 81 Gg by 1995 according to
estimations made by Bose (1996). Out of that, the transport sector
alone contributed 2.27 Gg during 1990 and diesel vehicles emerged
as the prime emitter among other vehicles (Bose, 1996). However,
Garg et al. (2001) also reported that the estimated emissions of SO2
(in terms of per Km2) decreased from 48 to 47 Mg between years
1990e1995. Similarly in 2010 Guttikunda et al. (2013) estimated
about 37.40 Gg of SO2 of emissions from all sectors in Delhi.
A declining trend was also noticed during 1996e1998, which
might be because of the introduction of low-sulfur diesel (1996)
and low plant load factors (1998). For example, the introduction of
low-sulfur diesel resulted in declining emissions (39 Gg in 1995 to
23 Gg in 1996) from the transport sector. Nevertheless, the
increasing number of vehicles in Delhi partly offset this measure
and emission from the transport sector had almost reached the
level of 1990 by the year 2000 (Gurjar et al., 2004).
A declining trend has been observed since 2000 after CNG
implementation took place between 2000 and 2003 in Delhi and
has largely influenced the declining SO2 emission from the trans-
port sector which can also be seen in trend analysis of SO2 ambient
concentration in Delhi prepared from the data reported by CPCB
annually (Fig. 3) as also endorsed by Goyal and Sidhartha (2003),
Ravindra et al. (2006), Reynolds and Kandlikar (2008), Kandlikar
(2007) and Nagpure et al. (2016). According to Ravindra et al.
(2003) around 50% reduction was observed in SO2 emissions be-
tween 1998 and 2003. CPCB data shows that the annual average
SO2concentration was 25 mgm3in 1995, which gradually decreased
to 4 mgm-3 by 2012 (CPCB, 2015).This reflects the influence of
various pollution reduction policies implemented by the govern-
ment such as relocation and shutting down of hazardous industries
resulted in significant reduction in pollution levels in the last de-
cades (Fig. 4).Goyal and Sidhartha (2002) have linked the variation
in seasonal concentration of SO2 with meteorological parameters
(e.g. wind direction, inversion layer etc.). Higher concentrations
observed were associated with the wind from WNWeNW. Further,
relatively low concentrations observed from June to September
were stated to be due to the washout of pollutants, which can be up
to 40% (Ravindra et al., 2003). The observed seasonal concentration
profile was highest in winter > post-monsoon > pre-
monsoon > monsoon. During the last decade, however, the
observed concentrations at all monitoring stations (CPCB, 2008)
were always below the standard limits of SO2prescribed by Indian
National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) and also by other
agencies e.g. WHO and USEPA (Table 2). The reduction in SO2 levels
can also be attributed to scavenging by atmospheric dust due to its
alkaline nature (Kulshrestha and Sharma, 2014; Kulshrestha et al.,
2003; Kulshrestha and Sharma, 2015).
5.1.1.2. Mumbai. Mumbai was found as the foremost emitter of SO2
among all the megacities studied by Guttikunda et al. (2003), while
Bhanarkar et al. (2005) concluded the same in terms of emission
per unit area. Industries stood as the prime contributor source in
Mumbai (URBAIR, 1997; Auto Fuel Policy Report, 2002; Bhanarkar
et al., 2005). As per Auto Fuel Policy Report (2002), 82e98% of
emissions were from industrial sources during 1992e1995
480 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495

Table 1a
Various sources and emission load for SO2 pollutant at different sites.

Site Pollutant Sources Emission load Year Reference

Delhi SO2 Thermal power plants 68% 1990e2000 Gurjar et al.,2004

56.8% 1990e2000 Goyal and Sidhartha, 2002
Vehicles 4.8% Auto Fuel Policy Report, 2002
Industries 38.4%,
84e92% 2000
Transport 90e113 Gg 1990e1995 Gurjar et al., 2004
45e81 Gg 1990e1995 Bose, 1996
39e23 Gg 1995e1996 Gurjar et al., 2004
Mumbai Industrial 82e98% 1992e1995 Auto Fuel Policy Report, 2002,
55 Gg 2001e2002 Guttikunda et al., 2001
39 Gg 1992e1993 URBAIR
55 Gg 2010 Bhanarkar et al., 2005
Kolkata Industrial 25 Gg 1980e2000 NEERI, 2005
Power Plant 10 Gg 2003 ADB, 2005
e 20.6 Gg 1975 Guttikunda et al., 2003
e 24.4 Gg 1980
e 64.6 Gg 2000

Table 1b
Various sources and emission load for NOx pollutant at different sites.

Site Pollutant Sources Emission load Year Reference

Delhi NOx Transport 66e74% 2002 Auto Fuel Policy Report, 2002
Industrial 13e29%
Domestic & others 1e2%
Transport 94e161 Gg 2000 Gurjar et al.,2004
Gasoline 3.5e4.5 Gg 1990e1996 Sharma et al., 2002a
Diesel 8e12.8 Gg 1990e1996
Transport (all fuel) 0.74 tons/day 2004e2005 Kansal et al., 2011
Transport (all fuel) 5.87 tons/day 2008e2009 Goyal et al., 2013
Mumbai Transport 60% Auto Fuel Policy Report, 2002
Industrial 40% TERI, 2002.
All sources 53 Gg 2000e01
Kolkata Industrial 11 Gg 1980 NEERI, 1991
Transport 1.82e25.5 Gg 1970e1990
Gasoline 0.3e0.4 Gg 1990e1996 Sharma et al., 2002b
Mobile 98.85 Gg 2003
Power Plant 32.23 Gg
All sources 131e171 Gg 2014 (KAPPER)

followed by 2e4% from transport and 0e16% from other sources.
Guttikunda et al. (2001) estimated that industrial sources were
responsible for 70% of SO2 emission in Mumbai. Details of sectoral
contributions to annual emissions of SO2 and also NOx and SPM are
given in Fig. 5 for the period 1992e93 (URBAIR (1997).
During the year 2000 Mumbai had significantly enhancedSO2
emissions in comparison to other South and Southeast Asian
megacities with exceeding annual emissions of 200 Gg (Guttikunda
et al., 2001). It was estimated that from 2001 to 2002, total esti-
mated SO2 emissions from all industrial sources including power
plant were 55 Gg. Previous estimates of SO2 emissions from in-
dustrial sources in Mumbai was 0.38 Gg for 1987 (Arndt et al.,
1997), 131 Gg for 1990 (Guttikunda et al., 2001), 66 Gg for 1992
(URBAIR, 1997) and 57.50 Gg as reported in the study conducted
under Metropolitan Environment Improvement Programme (MEIP)
in 1993. During 1992e1993, URBAIR estimated that industries were
the major source of SO2 (39 Gg) in Mumbai followed by power
plants (26 Gg), marine dock (9.5 Gg) and transport sector (3.55 Gg).
In 2010 the SO2 emissions from all sectors became 56.48 Gg (Fig. 3),
however industrial sources remained the major source of SO2
(CPCB, 2010).
It has been estimated for megacity Mumbai that annual SO2
emissions from all sources are 55 Gg during the year 2010
(Bhanarkar et al., 2005). Based on the Guttikunda et al. (2003) study
we have plotted emission from all sources for the period 1990 to
2000 for all three Indian megacities (Fig. S7).It shows that during
1990e2000, megacity Mumbai was the largest SO2 emitter with
annual emissions almost three to four times more in comparison to
Delhi and Kolkata.
On the basis of CPCB data we have observed that highest con-
centration of SO2 was in 1994 (34 mgm-3) whereas the least was in
year 2012 (4 mgm-3). Fig. 3 shows the gradually declining concen-
tration trend of SO2. However, between 1992 and 1994, the con-
centration has increased because of growing emissions from power
plants and the transport sector From 1995, SO2 concentration has
declined gradually from over 30 mgm-3 to 4 mgm-3 in 2012 which
might be due to the implementation of various norms and mea-
sures elike the use of coal with reduced sulfur content, stricter
emission norms for various industries and implementation of clean
fuel (e.g. low sulfur diesel and CNG) in the transport sector of
Mumbai. Since the last decade, the ambient concentration of SO2
did not surpass the standard limit set by NAAQS, India.
5.1.1.3. Kolkata. Very few studies are available about the SO2
emissions from Kolkata. A study conducted by NEERI during
1977e1980 projected that the main sources of SO2 Kolkata are in-
dustries and power plants. During 1977-78, the annual emission
from industrial sector was 16 Gg and thermal power plants alone
accounted for 34% of this emission. According to NEERI, the annual
emissions were stable from 1980 to 2000 (25 Gg). The bus and truck
 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495 481

Table 1c
Various sources and emission load for PM10 pollutant at different sites.

Site Pollutant Sources Emission load Year Reference

Delhi PM10 Industrial 80% 2002 Gurjar et al., 2004

Automobile 15%
Transport 131e150 Gg 2000 Auto Fuel Policy Report, 2002
Industrial 16%e74%
Transport 3%e22%
Domestic 2%e4%
Mumbai All sources 16 Gg 1992e1993 World Development Report, 1992; Larssen et al., 1997
Vehicular exhaust 39%
Non-combustion 26%
industrial
Industrial oil-burning 18%
Domestic/commercial 14%
All sources 3.7 Gg 1992e1993 World Bank, 1997
Suspension from roads 10 Gg
Power plants 2.6 Gg
Industrial 6 Gg
All sources 16.6 Gg 2001 NEERI, 2004
Industries 9.96 Gg
Vehicles 1.83 Gg
Area sources 4 Gg
Construction dust 0.33 Gg
Power Plants 1.5 Gg 1992 URBAIR, 1997
Industries 1.81
Stone 6
Industrial 0 to 16%
Transport 34 to 96%
Domestic 53 to 56% Auto fuel policy report, 2002
Thermal power plants 19% 2001 Bhanarkar et al., 2005
All sources 9.8 Gg 2002 Kumar and Joseph, 2006
Kolkata All sources 76 Gg 2003 ADB, 2005
Transport 50% Chakraborty and Bhattacharya, 2004
Industries 48%
Gasoline 0.08e0.6 Gg 1990e1995 Sharma et al., 2000b
Diesel 0.6e0.7 Gg 2003 ADB, 2005
Vehicle 46.61 Gg
Industry 16.37 Gg
Power plants 6.55 Gg
Other sources 6.79 Gg

population increased by 78% between 1980 and 1989, which could
be linked to the emissions from diesel vehicles (ESS/NEERI).In the
year 2003, 10 Gg of SO2 was emitted from four coal based power
plants located within Kolkata (ADB, 2005). According to Nagpure
et al. (2010) in 2010 transport sector is responsible for about
20 Gg of SO2 emissions, Fig. 6 shows the contributions of different
categories of vehicle in Kolkata.
Garg et al. (2001) estimated that SO2 emissions were 0.2 Gg and
0.17 Gg/km2, respectively for 1990 and 1995.The annual SO2
emission in Kolkata from all sources were 20.6 Gg (1975), 24.4 Gg
(1980), 39.1 (1990) and 64.6 Gg in 2000 as reported by Guttikunda
et al. (2003). Furthermore, the study estimated that in 2010 the
annual emission of SO2 will become 200.7 Gg followed by 310.6 Gg
in 2020. Per meter square deposition of sulfur in Kolkata was 0.2,
0.3, and 0.6 g in 1975, 1980 and 1990 respectively; however, it was
twofold (1.1 g) in 2000.
Fig. 3 illustrates that there are large variations in ambient SO2
concentration before 1999 (with two peaks during 1994 and 1999
and sharp dip in 1996) in Kolkata. This could reflect the unavail-
ability of appropriate monitoring data and use of high sulfur diesel
as fuel, older vehicles, and unavailability of clean coal. However,
there is a declining trend since 1999, sharply in the first year (2000)
to below 20 mgm-3 and then gradually to 4 mgm-3 in 2012 which
demonstrates the effects of various policies and measures imple-
mented to enhance air quality in megacity Kolkata. Highest con-
centrations of SO2 (49 mgm-3) were observed in 1994 and the lowest
(7 mgm-3) in 2006. Since 2006, concentration has gone slowly up to
11e12 mgm-3 in 2012. As the available concentration data from CPCB
is only for three monitoring stations in Kolkata, annual average
concentrations may not be representing Kolkata as a whole.
5.1.2. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
5.1.2.1. Delhi. The Auto Fuel Policy Report (2002) states that the
total NOx emission from various sources ranges from 66 to 74%
(transport sector), 13e29% (industrial sector), and 1e2% (domestic
and other sources). According to Gurjar et al. (2004), NOx emission
trend showed a steep rise from 94 Gg in 1990 to 161 Gg in 2000;
with highest emission contribution from the transport sector. CPCB
(1995) also shows that almost 50% of NOx emissions are from
vehicular activity, followed by domestic activities, industries, and
power plants. Per day emission of 0.11 Gg was estimated by Auto
Fuel Policy (2002) for Delhi. Annual NOx emissions from gasoline
consumption have increased from 3.5 Gg to 4.5 Gg during 1990e91
to 1995e96, whereas from diesel they grew from 8 Gg in 1990e91
to12.8 Gg in 1995e96 (Sharma et al., 2002a). The study also esti-
mated that per capita NOx emission in Delhi has also increased from
1.3 Kg (1990) to 1.56 Kg (1995) with 18.5% growth. Interestingly, per
capita emission of NOx at national level was quite a bit less in
comparison to Delhi (e.g., 0.32 Kg in 1990 and 0.43 Kg in 1995).
According to Xie and Shah (2002), diesel driven buses/trucks and
light duty gasoline vehicles (LDGV) were the major source of NOx in
Delhi during 1999e2001 whereas the smallest contribution was
from two and three wheelers. This scenario have been changed in
recent year (2012) according to Nagpure et al., 2016 (Fig. 6) Bus
population emerged as highest contributor (41%) for NOx emissions
followed by LCVs (19%), HCVs (17%) and car (13%) out of total 105 Gg
482 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495

Delhi Mumbai Kolkata annual increase in total number of vehicles and with higher flash-
50 point (ignition) of CNG (540  C) as compared to that of diesel
45 (232e282  C). At such a high temperature, more nitrogen from the
40 air compresses and reacts with oxygen in the combustion chamber
35 of CNG driven vehicles and thus produces more NOx (Ravindra
SO2 (μg/m3)

30 et al., 2006). Increasing use of Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) in the

25
domestic sector is another important factor responsible for NOx
20
15 emissions in Delhi (Kadian et al., 2007). Inefficient burning of LPG
10 emits more NOx in comparison to the traditional (e.g. wood, cow
5 dung etc.) fuels (Mohan et al., 2007). Fig. 3 shows that in Delhi, the
0 concentration of NOx gradually increased by 164%, i.e., from
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
22 mgm-3 in 1991 to 58 mgm-3 in 2012. Kandlikar (2007) suggested
that the switch to CNG was responsible for the increase; however
Delhi Mumbai Kolkata Ravindra et al. (2006) also relates it with the increasing number of
90 vehicles and their poor maintenance.
80 After 2001 the concentration trend shows significant increases
70 and the levels reached to the NAAQS standard limits for residential
60 areas. However, after 2003, NOx annual average concentration
NOx (μg/m3)

50 surpassed the standard limit given by WHO and NAAQS (annual

40 average concentration ¼ 40 mgm-3) and reached the highest level
30 (58 mgm-3) in 2012. This causes alarm in relation to the health ef-
20
fects and also raises the need to understand the reactivity of NOx
10
and VOCs species which are responsible to produce ozone in the
0
presence of sunlight (Sillman, 1999). It is possible to identify two
2012
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011

regimes with different ozone-NOx-VOC sensitivity. In the NOx-

sensitive regime (with relatively low NOx and high VOC), ozone
Delhi Mumbai Kolkata
increases with increasing NOx and changes little in response to
increasing VOC. In the NOx-saturated or VOC-sensitive regime
500 ozone decreases with increasing NOx and increases with increasing
VOC (Singh et al., 2014; Genga et al., 2008).
400
SPM (μg/m3)

300 5.1.2.2. Mumbai. The World Bank estimated that during 1992e93,
the annual NOx emission was 37 Gg and transport sector was
200 identified as the major contributor, accounting 52% of the emission
in Mumbai (URBAIR, 1997). However, Auto Fuel Policy Report
100
(2002) estimates that 60% of NOx emission comes from the trans-
0 port sector, whereas remaining 40% is contributed by industrial
sector. In 1973, thermal power plants were the main industrial
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012

source, followed by chemical plants (NEERI, 1991). A detailed

Fig. 3. Annual average concentration of SO2, NOx and SPM in Delhi, Mumbai and vehicle emission inventory by NEERI (1991) indicates that the
Kolkata from 1991 to 2012. predominant source was diesel vehicles (mainly trucks).
Based on the TERI (2002) and CPCB (2008) reports, the present
study estimates emissions from the transportation sector according
No. of Industries SO2 to the vehicle population and ambient air concentration from 1996
4000 30
to 2005 as shown in Fig. 7. Also, Fig. 3 shows the trend of NOx
3500 concentration from 1991 to 2012 based on CPCB data. The total
25
3000 annual NOx emission from all sources was 53 Gg in 2000e01 as
No. of Industries

20 estimated by TERI (2002). The transport sector accounted

2500
SO2 (μgm-3)

for16.33 Gg in 1993, which increased to 27.72 Gg in 2005. Further, it

2000 15
is projected that by 2010 it will be around 30 Gg. With 79 Gg of
1500 emissions in 2007 about 32% of growth has been observed in NOx
10
1000 emission from 2000 to 01 when comparing TERI results with CPCB
5 (2010) study (Fig. 5). Fig. 7 also shows that the ambient concen-
500
tration declined in the last decade, which might be partly due to an
0 0
insufficient number of monitoring stations not representing the
1995

1998

2006

2009
1996
1997

1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

2007
2008

2010
2011

complete Mumbai region. It is discernible from Fig. 7 that the NOx

concentration trend was overall declining from 1999 to 2002; and
Fig. 4. SO2 concentration trend in industrial area and number of industries in Delhi.
was highest in 1996 (34 mgm-3) and lowest in 2002 (17 mgm-3).
However, Fig. 3 shows a gradual rise in concentration between 1991
transport emissions. and 1996 and then drop after 2002. The reason behind the
Several studies have observed an increasing trend in ambient air decreasing trend may be implementation of various pollution
concentration of NOx in Delhi (Ravindra et al., 2006; Kandlikar, norms (phase out of old vehicles, adopting EURO norms etc).
2007; Reynolds and Kandlikar, 2008). The explanation for However, since 2002 the trend shows slight increment till 2005
increasing NOx concentrations in Delhi seems to be related with the which can be accounted for by the CNG implementation. However,
a sharp increase was observed from 20 mgm-3 in 2005 to 40 mgm-3
 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495 483

Table 2
Ambient concentration limits (mgm3) of various pollutants according to the NAAQS, WHO and USEPA guidelines (Source: ADB, 2006; WHO, 2006; USEPA, 2006; CPCB, 2008.

Air pollutant Time-weighted average NAAQS (mgm3)a,b WHOc (mgm3) US EPA 1997 (mgm3)

Industrial Residential Sensitive

NO2 Annual 80 60 15 40 100

24 h 120 80 30 e e
SO2 Annual 80 60 15 50 80
24 h 120 80 30 20 365
CO 8h 5000 2000 1000 10,000 (d) 10,000
1h 10,000 4000 2000 30,000 (d) 40,000
PM10 Annual 120 60 50 20
24 h 150 100 75 50 150
SPM Annual 360 140 70 e e
24 h 500 200 100 e e

Where,
a
Annual average of minimum of 104 measurements in a year, taken twice a week, 24-hourly uniform intervals.
b
4-hourly/8-hourly values should be met 98% of the time in a year, it could exceed 2% of the time but not on 2 consecutive days.
c
WHO 2006.
e not available.

Area Source Industrial Source Line Source of Delhi.

60
5.1.2.3. Kolkata. Kolkata is one of the largest NOx emitting urban
50 center in India and major sources includes vehicles, emissions from
local industries(including power generating plants) and the
Emissions (Gg)

40 burning of fossil fuels (Mondal et al., 2000). Estimates show that in

1970 industry was the major source of NOx (69%). NOx emissions
30 from industrial plants had increased to over 11 Gg/yr by 1980
(NEERI, 1991).From 1970 to 1990 the estimated annual NOx emis-
20
sion has increased from 1.82 Gg to 25.55 Gg from transport sector.
10 Further it shows a stable trend and it was projected that there will
be no significant increase before 2000. However, in the recent year
0 transport has become the predominant source of NOx and the main
SO2 NOx PM CO vehicular sources of NOx are diesel-driven trucks and buses.
Interestingly, diesel vehicles account only for10% of the total motor
Fig. 5. Total annual emissions of selected air pollutants (Gg) in Mumbai during year
vehicle population but they are responsible for almost 90% of NOx
2007 (CPCB, 2010).
emissions. A report by ADB (2005) also suggests that within the
vehicle fleet the principal source (~54%) of NOx was the buses used
in 2009, and a fluctuating trend from 2009 to 2012 as can be seen in for public transport. Recently Nagpure et al. (2010) suggested that
Fig. 3. The increasing trend could be attributed to rise in the transport sector is responsible for about 79 Gg in year 2010 where
number of vehicles (Ravindra et al., 2006). The NOx levels are lower HCVs are responsible for most of the NOx emissions (50%) followed
in Mumbai than Delhi as the public is more dependent on mass by bus (23%) and LCVs (15%).
transport (local trains, buses etc.) than personal vehicles as in case There was only a slight increase (from 113 to 115 Gg/km2) in NOx
emission from 1990 to 1995 (Garg et al., 2001); whereas the per

2-Wheeler Car 3-Wheeler Taxi Bus LCV HCV 2-Wheeler Car 3-Wheeler Taxi Bus LCV HCV
100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
70% 70%
Emissions (%)
Emissions (%)

60% 60%
50% 50%
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%

10% 10%

a 0% 0%
CO2 NOx PM CO b CO2 NOx PM CO SO2

Fig. 6. Contribution of Vehicle category in CO2 NOx, PM and CO emission in (a) Delhi (2012) and (b) Kolkata (2010) (LCV: Light Commercial Vehicle; HCV: Heavy Commercial
Vehicles).
(Source: Nagpure et al., 2010, 2016).
484 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495

Vehicle Population NOx Emission NOx Concentration should be converted to cleaner fuels such as LPG and CNG, as
happened in Delhi and Mumbai during 2001e2003.
1.40 40
No. of Vehicle (Millions)

Emission (Gg) & Conc. (μgm-3)

1.20 35 5.1.3. Particulate matter
30 5.1.3.1. Delhi. In terms of SPM, Delhi appears to be the most
1.00 polluted city in the world. The ambient concentrations of SPM and
25
0.80 PM10 in Delhi are found to exceed the NAAQS since last decade. The
20 main sources of SPM and PM10 are small scale industries, domestic
0.60 coal burning, thermal power plants, transportation, and biomass
15
0.40 burning (cowdung, crop residue), construction sites and natural
10 sources such as resuspended soil dust and road dust. Some studies
0.20 5 estimated that 80% of Delhi’s PM10 emissions result from industrial
sources (including power plants) and only about 15% are from
0.00 0
automotive traffic (Gurjar et al., 2004; Reddy and Venkataraman,
1998

1999

2000

2001
1996

1997

2002

2003

2004

2005
2002).Among all the industries, power plants were the largest
Year contributors to SPM emissions and increased from 131 Gg in 1990
to 150 Gg in 2000. Transport contributed about 19% to SPM emis-
Fig. 7. Comparison of vehicle population growth, emission and ambient concentration
of NOx in Mumbai during 1996e2005. sion in the year 2000 and its emission doubled from 15 Gg in 1990
(Source: Based on TERI, 2002, clean airnet.org and CPCB, 2008 data). to 28 Gg in 2000 (Gurjar et al., 2004). As demonstrate in Fig. 6,
diesel driven vehicles contribute the major fraction of PM among all
vehicle categories (Nagpure et al., 2016). Out of total 5.39 Gg PM
capita emission rose from 0.25 Kg in 1990 to 0.27 Kg in 1995 emissions from transport sectors diesel driven heavy commercial
(Sharma et al., 2002a). Percentage increase in NOx in terms of per vehicles account 44% in Delhi during 2012 (Nagpure and Gurjar,
capita emission is less compared to the national per capita emission 2012). The total emission of SPM in 1995 was 149 Gg (Goyal and
trend. Sharma et al. (2002b) estimated the NOx emissions from Sidhartha, 2002) and may increase by 16% by the year 2021
mobile sources on the basis of fuel consumption by using the IPCC- (Kadian et al., 2007). The Auto Fuel Policy Report (2002) suggests
96 methodologies. The emissions from gasoline consuming vehi- that PM emissions range between 16% and 74% from industrial
cles were 0.3 Gg in 1990e91 and increased to 0.4 Gg in 1995e96, sector, 3%e22% from transport sector and 2%e4% domestic sector,
while the emissions from diesel were 2.6 Gg and 3.2 Ggover the respectively (Table 3).The recent study conducted by Guttikunda
same period. Another study carried out by ADB (2005) estimated et al. (2011) indicated that among all anthropogenic sources road
that in 2003 the total annual emission of NOx from mobile source dust, power plants, transport and municipal solid waste (MSW)
was 93.85 Gg; whereas from power plants it was 32.23 Gg. Further, burning share highest percentage 59% (35 Gg), 12% (7.33 Gg), 8%
a model based study [using Kolkata Air Pollution Potential Re- (4.99 Gg) and 8% (4.90 Gg) respectively in year 2010.
ductions Model (KAPPER)] has estimated that the annual emission It is interesting to note that open burning of MSW emerge one of
of NOx from all sources was 131 Gg in 2003 and increased to 173 Gg the major contributors of PM2.5 and PM10 emissions especially in
in 2008. The model predicted that the annual emission will rise to cities of developing countries (Guttikunda et al., 2014; Wiedinmyer
241 Gg in the year 2014. As per the ADB (2005) the mobile NOx et al., 2014.). CPCB in a study on emission inventory of Indian
emission contributed about 96 Gg in 2003 and 113 Gg in 2007; megacities found that open MSW burning may be the source of up
which is expected to be 174 Gg in 2014. to 5%e11% of all direct PM emissions (CPCB, 2010). A recent study
The average ambient NOx concentration data of Kolkata suggests on spatial and temporal pattern of open MSW-burning by Nagpure
a quite different scenario in comparison to other megacities (Fig. 3). et al., 2015 found that Delhi burns about 190e246 Tons of garbage
As illustrated in Fig. 3 the ambient concentration of NOx was fairly every day. Despites these anthropogenic sources natural source like
constant from 1992 to 2000 followed by an increase till 2002 and a dust from Thar Desert of neighboring Rajasthan state (Ravindra
decline between 2002 and 2005. Similar to Mumbai, a steep rise in et al., 2003) contributes significant amount of particulate matter
concentration has been observed from 40 mgm-3 in 2005 to 70 mgm- to Delhi’s local air. According to Ravindra et al. (2006), strong winds
3
in 2009 followed by a gradual increasing trend till 2012 which from the WeNW carry particulates i.e. Andhi from the Thar Desert
might be due to increasing number of vehicles (Fig. 3). The highest of Rajasthan to Delhi and lead to increased SPM concentrations.
concentration of NOx (82 mgm-3) was observed in 2002 and the Delhi’s annual average concentration of PM10 is highest among
lowest (28 mgm-3) in 1992. Possible causes for the declining trend major Asian cities (HEI, 2004). However, no definite trend was
between 2002 and 2005 might be the phasing out of older vehicles. observed since last decade for SPM (Ravindra et al., 2006; CPCB,
But uncertainty in the above data cannot be neglected due to the 2007). Fig. 8 illustrates that SPM and PM10 concentrations in
small number of air quality monitoring stations in Kolkata. Mondal Delhi were always about three to four times higher than the Indian
et al. (2000) monitored ground-level concentrations of NOx at 19 standard for residential areas. The government of Delhi and the
important traffic intersections within Kolkata and noticed a sea- Supreme Court of India has introduced various policy measures to
sonal variation pattern. They observed a maximum average con- reduce PM emissions (e.g. implementation of CNG, less ash content
centration (222 mgm-3) during winter and a minimum (55 mgm-3) coal in power plants etc.). To reduce SO2 and PM emissions the
during peak monsoon. The annual average concentration of NOx at Delhi government launched the CNG implementation program in
traffic intersections in Kolkata was 152 mgm-3 which is close to the 2001. From 2000 to 2003 a 3% reduction was noticed, whereas PM10
permissible level (150 mgm-3) recommended by WHO. During levels were 7% lower during the same period (Ravindra et al., 2006).
festival periods the concentration of NOx at traffic intersections was However, an increasing trend in SPM concentrations is observed
found less than during other days (118mgm-3) because of reduced after 2005 (Fig. 8) as a continuous increase in total vehicular pop-
vehicles. In general, the pollutant concentration was highest during ulation overshadows the positive impact of CNG. Thus, it can be
winter (January) and lowest during the peak monsoon period, i.e. inferred that CNG conversion has had no significant impact on
later-half of August. In 2005, West Bengal Pollution Control Board particulate pollutants in Delhi (Ravindra et al., 2006; Kandlikar,
recommended that three and four wheel vehicles including buses 2007). Fig. 3 depicts the trend of annual average SPM
 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495 485

Table 3
Contribution (%) of various pollutants from different sources in Mumbai and Delhi according to UNEP/WHO study for year 1992.

Source Delhi Mumbai

CO (%) NOx (%) SO2 (%) PM (%) CO (%) NOx (%) SO2 (%) PM (%)

Transport 90 72 8 4 92 60 2 4
Industrial 13 92 96 8 40 98 96
Domestic 10 1 e e e e e e

Source: Auto Fuel Policy Report, 2002.

No of CNG Vehicles SPM PM 10 emissions estimated for 2001 was 16.6 Gg (NEERI, 2004). Out of the
total annual particulate emissions, industries account for 9.96 Gg
500000 600
(60%), vehicles- 1.83 Gg (11%), area sources- 4 Gg (24%), building
450000
500 construction (3%) and construction dust- 0.33 Gg (2%) respectively
400000
(NEERI, 2004; Bhanarkar et al., 2005) (Fig. 8). In another similar
No of CNG Vehicles

SPM/PM 10 (μg/m3)
350000
400 study, the highest PM emission was estimated from industries
300000
(54%) followed by area source 31%, vehicles 10%, and construction
250000 300 5%, during 2002 (Kumar and Joseph, 2006). Further, MEIP (1993)
200000 reported that industrial processes account for 66%, fuel burning-
200
150000 27% and power plants- 7% of the total industrial PM emissions. In
100000 1992, the contribution of power plant to the industrial PM emis-
100
50000 sions was 45% (excluding stone crushers); whereas in 2001 it
0 0 reduced to 30% (Bhanarkar et al., 2005). According to earlier studies
2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

carried out in 1990, PM emissions from power plants, industries

and stone crushers were 1.50, 1.81 and 6 Gg, respectively (URBAIR,
Fig. 8. CNG vehicle population and SPM/PM10 concentration (mgm3) trends in Delhi. 1997). World Bank (1997) suggests that motor vehicles accounts for
approximately 35% of particulate emissions in Greater Mumbai. On
the other hand, Auto fuel policy report (2002) concluded that PM
concentrations from 1991 to 2012. Extremely high concentration of emission contribution from transport sector was 0e16%, from in-
over 400 mgm-3 have been observed during 1993e1996 which dustrial sector 34e96% and from domestic and other sources
might be due to high particulate emissions from power plants, 53e56%. Amongst the industries, thermal power plants were a
vehicles and small scale industries. Concentration remained fairly major source of emissions in the region contributing 19% to PM in
constant from 1998 to 2001 which can be attributed to various 2001 (Bhanarkar et al., 2005). In 2002, despite strong traffic and
factors such as phasing out of old vehicles, conversion of diesel other sources in Mumbai; PM emissions were dominated by the
engines to CNG and introduction of EURO norms. However, since industrial sector (Kumar and Joseph, 2006). Further, it was also
2005 a steep rise has been observed with concentration increasing estimated that out of total annual emission (9.8 Gg), chemicals and
from ~325 mgm-3 to ~525 mgm-3 in 2012 which may be due to in- petrochemicals accounted: 32.7%, food: 0.6%, textiles:4.9%, phar-
crease in vehicular population in Delhi. maceuticals:0.4%, stone crushers: 36.9%, power plant: 18.9% and
The impact of recent odd-even scheme of Delhi government is others: 5.6%. Similar to Delhi, the recent study done by CPCB (2010)
available for 15 day trial and as per government there is reduction suggests that road dust suspension due to vehicular activities (8 Gg,
of maximum PM2.5 concentration from 600 mg m3 (observed in 30%), power plants (6 Gg, 21%), solid waste burning (4 Gg, 14%) and
previous month) to 400 mg m3(observed during the imple- construction activities (2 Gg, 9%) are the biggest contributors for
mentation period). However, Council on Energy Environment and most of the PM emissions in Mumbai (Fig. 5).
Water (CEEW) suggested that there was not enough evidence to The ambient concentration of SPM in developed countries is
conclude the improvement in air quality. Hence, there is a need to generally less than or about 100 mgm-3 (Mage et al., 1996; Harrison
evaluate the impact of odd-even scheme on Delhi air quality during et al., 2008), whereas in India it prevails with an annual average of
various seasons. 200e500 mgm-3 for an urban environment like Mumbai (URBAIR,
1994). SPM concentration data for two residential sites (Bandra
5.1.3.2. Mumbai. During the last decade Mumbai was amongst the and Kalbadevi) and one industrial site (Parel) in Mumbai were
three cities in the world having the highest level of SPM (World taken from CPCB for the time period of 1991e2005. The average
Development Report, 1992). In 1992e1993 it was estimated that concentration trend of SPM was almost constant between 1998 and
annual SPM and PM10 emissions in Mumbai were about 32 and 2005; however a spike was observed during 1993 and 1997 (Fig. 3).
16 Gg respectively (URBAIR, 1996). In case of PM10, major contri- From 1991 to 2005 the maximum ambient air concentration of SPM
butions originate from vehicular exhaust plus re-suspension from was observed in 1993 (313 mgm-3) and the minimum in 1996
roads (39%), non-combustion industrial sources such as stone (213 mgm-3). According to the NEERI study, SPM concentrations in
crushing, construction, refuse-burning (26%), industrial oil-burning Mumbai during early 1970s were 380 mgm3and remain almost
(18%) and domestic/commercial fuel burning e.g., wood, kerosene, constant until 1987 (385 mgm-3) as reported by NEERI, 1991.
liquefied petroleum gas (14%) (Larssen et al., 1997). According to the Although industries contribute a significant fraction of PM emis-
World Bank (1997), the estimated total annual emissions PM10 from sions road dust and vehicular emissions were identified as the main
vehicle exhaust in Greater Mumbai for the year 1992 and 1993 were sources for SPM concentrations (Kumar et al., 2001). Based on the
3.7 Gg/year. Other contributions by various sources (Fig. 5) for the 24 h average SPM concentration, it was estimated that out of the
same year were the suspension of road dust (10 Gg), power plants total fraction 41% is contributed by road dust, 15% from vehicular
(2.6 Gg) and industrial processes (6 Gg). This study suggest that emissions, 15% from marine aerosols, 6% from coal combustion, 6%
transportation, especially motor vehicles, account for approxi- from metal industries and 17% remains as unexplained
mately 35% of particulate emissions in Greater Mumbai. Total PM
486 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495
contributions (Kumar et al., 2004a,b).
Kumar and Joseph (2006) observed that the PM2.5 concentration
in Mumbai during 2001e2002 was highest in winter (89 mgm-3),
followed by autumn (64 mgm-3), spring (36 mgm-3) and summer
(21 mgm-3). During winter, PM2.5 levels exceeded the prescribed
USEPA standard of 65 mgm-3 (24 hourly).The average ratio of PM2.5
to PM10 was 0.68 and 0.70 in the atmosphere of Mumbai. The mean
PM10 ambient concentration during the monsoon season was 80%
lower than the non-monsoon season (Kumar and Joseph, 2006).
Furthermore, it was also observed that the monsoon season is
significantly associated with decreased PM10 and lead (Pb) levels in
the atmosphere. In general, monthly mean SPM concentrations in
Mumbai are also considerably reduced during the monsoon (June
to October) period.
Vehicular traffic contributes about 24% to PM10 emissions in
Greater Mumbai. In a separate study by MUTP, 2002, the annual
average PM10concentrations were found varying from 221 to
520 mg m3 at traffic intersections. The highest PM10 value
(533 mgm-3) was recorded in March, at Andheri west and lowest in
August 2000 at Mahim (116 mgm-3). These values are well above the
PM10 standards for residential and industrial areas. PM10 levels are
predicted to decrease in the Island City and increase in Eastern and
Western Suburbs of Mumbai till year 2011. All predicted PM10 levels
are estimated to exceed the NAAQS, as improved fuel and other
measures may not affect PM10 emissions substantially.
In terms of annual average SPM concentrations, large variations
have been observed between 1991 and 1998 with maximum con-
centration of ~300 mgm-3 in 1993 and minimum of~200 mgm-3 in
1996. Mild variations were observed between 1998 and 2005
whereas a gradual increasing trend has been found from 2005 to
2012.
5.1.3.3. Kolkata. Due to the high SPM and PM10levels, Kolkata is
placed one of among the most polluted cities of the world
(Chakraborty and Bhattacharya, 2004). The Asian Development
Bank (ADB, 2005) study found that the total annual PM10emission
in Kolkata was 76 Gg during 2003 with major contributions by road
dust (61%) followed by vehicles (21%), industries and power plants
(9%) and other sources 9% (such as biomass burning, railway, do-
mestic cooking light distillate oil burning, coal fuel kilns in brick
industry).Whereas a study by Chakraborty and Bhattacharya
(2004) reports that 50% of the total SPM comes from the trans-
port sector and 48% from industries in Kolkata. Per capita emission
of PM in Kolkata in 1990 was 0.28 kg and increased to 0.33 kg in
1995, resulting in 19% growth (Sharma et al., 2002a).
Industrial sources were the major SPM contributor in 1990. The
high level of coal use by Kolkata industry, particularly in thermal
power plants, results in higher PM emissions and ambient con-
centrations. There are four coal-fired power generating plants in
Kolkata which are the largest industrial point sources within the
urban area. It was estimated that in 2003 the coal fired power
plants emitted 4.1 Gg SPM, 0.94 GgPM10 and 0.24 Gg PM2.5 (ADB,
2005). Sharma et al. (2000b) estimated that the particulate mat-
ter emission from gasoline consumption was 0.06 Gg in 1990e91
and increased to 0.08 Gg in 1995e96; while emission from diesel
consumption were 0.6 and 0.7 Gg for 1990e91 and 1995e96.
In 2003, the PM10 emission from dust sources was 46.61 Gg,
vehicle: 16.37 Gg, industry and power plants: 6.55 Gg; and other
area sources: 6.79 Gg respectively (ADB, 2005). Among all vehicle
categories, diesel driven vehicles contributed most (88%). Other
area sources like biomass burning, railway, domestic cooking, light
distillate oil burning, coal fuel kilns in brick industry emitted
4.45 Gg, 164 Gg, 1.23 Gg, 0.82 Gg, 1.19 GgPM10 during 2003.Ac-
cording to model based predictions carried out in ADB (2005),
vehicularPM10 annual emissions are expected to grow from 16.4 to
30.4 Gg per year (80% increase) over the period of 2004e2014.
Collectively, PM10 emissions from vehicles, road dust, other area
sources and industry may increase from an estimated 76.3e139 Gg
per year at the projected growth rates if significant efforts have not
been made to reduce emissions and improve air quality. By
assuming a proportional increase in PM10 by 2003 air quality was
expected to degrade from an estimated 7 mgm-3 to 107 mgm-3
annual averages (ADB, 2005). The study done by Nagpure et al.,
2010, suggested that transport sector is responsible for about
8 Gg of PM emissions in year 2010, and similar to Delhi heavy
commercial vehicles are biggest source (29%) of PM emissions in
Kolkata, followed by two-wheeler and three-wheeler (Fig. 6).
Annual SPM emission data from 1992 to 2012 for Kolkata was
obtained from CPCB website for two residential (Lal-Bazar and
Mandevitle Garden) and one industrial site (Cossipore). For the
period between 1992 and 2012, the average highest concentration
of SPM was 498 mgm-3 in 1996; whereas least was 225 mgm-3 in
2008. SPM concentration in Kolkata showed no clear trend from
1992 to 1996, but declined in 1997, followed by an almost stable
concentration up to 2005. However, concentration dropped from
~260 mgm-3 in 2005 to 220 mgm-3 in 2006 and remained stable till
2011 (Fig. 3). In Kolkata, despite the decreasing SPM concentration
trend, both WHO guidelines and NAAQS were greatly exceeded for
years between 1992 and 2012. Karar and Gupta (2006) found that
vehicular traffic and cluster of industries are mainly responsible for
the high concentration of SPM in Kolkata. They also observed sea-
sonal variations in SPM concentration during 2003e2004; for
instance, particulate matter was highest in winter, followed by
summer, and least in monsoon season due to rain washout.
In 2002, Ghose et al. (2004) observed that at various traffic in-
tersections in Kolkata the mean SPM concentration ranged be-
tween 739.3 mgm-3 ±20% and PM10 concentration varied from
286.5 mgm3 to 421.4 mgm-3. Das et al. (2006) found that the
average 24 h concentration of PM10 in Kolkata was 304 mg/m3,
which is 3 times more than the Indian NAAQS. It appears that the
higher PM10 concentration was due to fine fraction (PM2.5) released
in greater quantity by vehicular exhaust. Field observations verify
that PM2.5 constituted more than 59% of PM10 and whereas PM10-
PM2.5 fractions constituted 41% of PM10 in Kolkata. Also, the cor-
relation between PM10 and PM2.5 was found higher as PM2.5
comprised major proportion of PM10 fractions contributed by
vehicular emissions (Das et al., 2006).
The meteorological parameters such as ambient temperature,
relative humidity; wind speed and rainfall influenced the seasonal
variation of pollutants concentration. Higher levels of pollutants in
winter could be attributed to stable atmospheric conditions.
Several studies reported the large regional scale air pollutants in
megacities were influenced by meteorological conditions which
determined the formation mechanisms and seasonal variations of
ozone (O3) and PM (Jiang et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2007, 2010; Song
et al., 2008; Tang et al., 2004; Tie et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2011;
Xing et al., 2011). The observed values for PM2.5, and PM10 re-
ported in other megacities are comparable including the emission
loads of pollutants of Indian megacities as depicted in Table 4.
The trend of the high concentration of pollutants were observed
during the winter season due to high burning of fossil fuel and
agricultural waste materials, whereas the low concentration was
observed during the monsoon season due to the wet scrubbing and
absence of combustion (wood burning) sources in megacities
(Awasthi et al., 2011; Srimuruganandam and Nagendra, 2011).
Kumar et al. (2014) reported the higher PM levels in winter are
expected and can be attributed to more stable atmospheric con-
ditions (leading to poor dispersion of pollutants) and lower rainfall
(resulting in less washing out of particles). Winter season was also
characterized by scarce rainfall, low humidity, arid soil conditions
 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495 487

Table 4 resuspension of dust. In 1996, Government of Delhi has relocated

Comparative studies of PM10 and PM2.5 of different megacities across world (WHO, the industrial units in residential areas to industrial/conforming
2014).
areas in the vicinity of Delhi (DSIIDC, Govt. of NCT of Delhi). Also, In
Megacities Country Population PM10 PM2.5 Year Kolkata, tanneries were directed to relocate 15 km away from the
Delhi India 25,703,000a 268 253 2010 city by Supreme Court of India in 1996 (Supreme Court of India,
Mumbai India 20,741,000a 136 45 2010 1996), and 433 out of 550 tanneries have been relocated in 2007.
Kolkata India 14,766,000a 97 43 2009e10 According to a report by CSE, 26 cities have been identified as most
Beijing China 21,650,000 121 56 2010
critically polluted which includes Ghaziabad (located on the border
Jakarta Indonesia 30,326,103b 48 21 2010
Seoul South Korea 26,100,000 49 22 2010 of Delhi) and Delhi having RSPM levels over three times the stan-
Shanghai China 25,400,000 79 36 2010 dard limits (CSE, 2013a,b). In a study by Ravindra et al. (2015), high
Karachi Pakistan 24,000,000c 273 117 2010 PM10 concentrations ranging from 125 to 150 mg/m3 in areas sur-
New York North America 23,632,722 23 14 e
rounding Mumbai and 75e100 mg/m3 in areas surrounding Kolkata
London United Kingdom 14,031,830d 13 8 2010
Paris France 12,005,077 24 17 2011
during the pre-monsoon season during 2012. This suggests that
Cairo Egypt 18,810,000 135 73 2011 emissions from megacities may be increasing the total air pollution
a emissions in the adjacent areas.
Population Division Data Query (2014)”.http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/. United
Nations. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
b
Jakarta Population 2014. World Population Review. Retrieved January 13, 2015. 5.2. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
c
Brinkhoff, Thomas. citypopulation.de “The Principal Agglomerations of the
World”. City Population. Retrieved8 April 2015.
d
PAHs are a group of 100 different chemical compounds con-
Eurostat - Data Explorer. Eurostat. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
sisting of two to seven fused aromatic rings.It accounts for carci-
nogenic and pro-mutagenic effects on animal and human (Ravindra
and inversion conditions (Tiwari et al., 2013). These conditions et al., 2001). Some of PAHs are semi-volatile in nature and can exist
were favorable for the buildup of fine aerosols from local anthro- only in vapour phase while the rest exist mostly in particle phase. In
pogenic sources which lead to higher concentrations of pollutants the present study only particulate phase PAHs mainly 16 priority
especially for particulate matter (PM10& PM2.5) during winter PAHs as per United States Environmental Protection Agency are
season. On the other hand, the monsoon season was characterized included. Industries, transport, power plants, refineries are the
by high relative humidity and rainfall, which cause wash out of major sources of PAHs in most of the urban areas of developed
particulate matter (Tiwari et al., 2011). Hence, low concentrations countries (Ravindra et al., 2006b, 2008). However, in India, com-
were observed during the monsoon season. bustion of cooking fuel (e.g., wood, coal, dung, kerosene) could also
contribute as a major source of PAH (Ravindra et al., 2008).
In a recent review, Singh et al. (2010) summarized that emis-
5.1.3.4. Trends of SO2, NOx and PM10 in other Indian cities. sions of particulate bound PAHs from major Indian cities varies
According to CPCB, SO2 levels were below the NAAQS standard at all from 23 to 190 ng/m3 for gasoline, 369e1067 ng/m3 for diesel,
the monitoring stations under NAMP programme during 2005. NO2 20.8e100.8 ng/m3 from petroleum refinery, and 12.7e206.4 mg/m3
levels exceeded NAAQS at five monitoring stations among which from biomass burning. However, these specific emissions may
one was located in Delhi and two at Howrah, West Bengal. On the differ depending on anthropogenic activities associated to that
other hand, RSPM levels exceeded the NAAQS standard at 39 particular city or location. A comparative analysis of PAH concen-
monitoring stations in industrial areas and 107 stations in resi- tration in Indian urban areas shows 10 to 50 time higher levels than
dential areas (CPCB, 2006e07). In 2010, air quality level of 35 reported internationally and specially in Europe (Ravindra et al.,
metropolitan cities were analyzed with data collected from 144 2001, 2008). Table 5 summaries the available studies on PAHs
monitoring stations and it was estimated that based on annual concentration in Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata.
average concentration, no city exceeded the NAAQS limit for SO2, 5
cities for NO2 whereas 32 cities for PM10. In 2012, same analyses 5.2.1. Delhi
was performed for 46 cities having population more than one According to Shankar (1990), concentration of eight PAHs
million with data collected from 182 monitoring stations in resi- compounds in megacity Delhi ranged between 150 and 1800 ngm-3
dential, industrial, rural and commercial areas covering 14 states during 1990 with a mean value of 406 ngm-3. CPCB (2003) reported
and 1 union territory. It was estimated that in terms of annual total annual average PAHs (particulate phase) concentrations of
average concentration, only 1 city exceeded the NAAQS for SO2, 6 38.2 ngm-3 for 1997 and 22.3 ngm-3 for 2000 in Delhi. In
cities for NO2 whereas 34 cities exceeded the NAAQS limit for PM10 2001e2002, Sharma et al. (2003) found average concentration for
concentrations. seven PAHs between 35.82 and 162.76 ngm-3. Ravindra et al.
According to CPCB 2012 report, average annual mean concen- (2006a) observed that during 2003, PAH concentration at resi-
tration of SO2from measurements at 372 stations across the dential and traffic site were 4.5 ± 2.0 ngm-3 and 11.5 ± 3.3 ngm-3
country under National Ambient Monitoring Programme, has respectively. Sharma et al. (2007) have observed total PAHs con-
decreased from 15 mg/m3 in 2001 to 10 mg/m3 in 2012, which is centration 668 ± 399 ngm3to 672 ± 388 ngm-3 for the years 2002
much below the national ambient standard of 50 mg/m3. This is due and 2003 respectively.
to the use of low sulfur content coal in thermal power plants and Seasonal average concentrations of PAH were found to be
gasoline in vehicles. In case of NO2, concentration has fluctuated maximum in winter and minimum during the monsoon in Delhi
between 25 and 28 mg/m3 from 2000 to 2009, and a declining (Ravindra et al., 2006a; Sharma et al., 2007). According to Ravindra
pattern was during 2009e2012. This may be due to implementa- et al. (2006a) PAH concentration decreased around 50% after the
tion of stricter norms for vehicle technology since 2000. On the implementation of CNG. Further they suggest that diesel and gas-
other hand, RSPM concentration has fluctuated between 100 and oline driven vehicles are principal sources in all seasons with coal
120 mg/m3 during 2000e2012 with declining trend observed be- and wood combustion in winter. Interestingly, the PAH concen-
tween 2004 and 2007 and increasing trend from 2007 to 2012. High tration were reported relatively high during nights and found to be
RSPM concentrations upto 2 times the national standard may be associated with the movement of heavy diesel vehicles (trucks,
due to increase in the number of vehicles, biomass burning and trolley etc.) during night time (Ravindra et al., 2006a). These
488 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495

Table 5
Summary of reported PAH levels over Indian megacities.

Year Mean (ngm3) Comments Reference

S PAHs

Delhi
1997 38.2 S 10 PAHs Ravindra et al., 2006
1998 24.6
1999 14.5
2000 22.3
2003 8.01
2003 4.5 ± 2.0R
2003 11.5 ± 3.3T
1998 66.4 ± 35.7e202 ± 114 S 11 PAHs Khillare et al., 2008
2004 75 ± 38.2e21.1 ± 9.6
1989e91 S 10 PAHs Tyagi, 1993
1990 150e1800a S 8 PAHs Shankar, 1990
2001e2002 35.82 to 162.76 S 7 PAHs Sharma et al., 2003
2002 668 ± 399 S PAHs Sharma et al., 2007
2003 672 ± 388 S PAHs Sharma et al., 2007
1997 38.2 S 10 PAHs CPCB, 2003
1998 24.6 S 10 PAHs CPCB, 2003
1999 14.5 S 10 PAHs CPCB, 2003
2000 22.3 S 10 PAHs CPCB, 2003
581.1 S 10 PAHs Rao et al., 2008
2007e08 33.1 ± 32.4e81.5 ± 18.9 S 16 PAHs Singh et al., 2011
2012 4.61e52.96 S 16 PAHs Sharma et al., 2014
Kolkata
1993e94 77.40 ± 27.16 S 12 PAHs Chattopadhyay et al., 1998
969.25 S PAHs Rao et al., 2008
2003e2004 96.7 S 5 PAHs Karar and Gupta, 2006
Mumbai
1996e97 38.8I, 24.5R S 7 PAHs Kulkarni and Venkataraman (2000)
2001 4.05e34.42a S 10 PAHs Sahu, 2004
18.3e66.6 a S 13 PAHs Sahu et al., 2008
850.2 S PAHs Rao et al., 2008
20e95a,125e190a S 12 PAHs Pandit et al., 1996

Where, T ¼ Traffic; I ¼ industrial site; R: residential site; a:Range.

vehicles are not allowed to enter in Delhi during most of the day
time.
5.2.2. Mumbai
It was observed by Kulkarni and Venkataraman (2000) that
during 1996 (winter season) total PAH concentrations in industrial
and residential areas were 38.8 and 24.5 ngm-3 respectively; with
individual PAH species concentrations ranging from 1 ngm3 to
13 ngm-3. In 2001, total PAHs concentration varied from 4.1 ngm3
to 34.4 ngm-3 (Sahu et al., 2004) and recently Puranik (2008)
observed PAH levels between 18.3 and 66.6 ngm-3. These concen-
trations are at the lower end of range of reported PAH concentra-
tions to other Indian cities as shown in Table 5 or compared to
Singh et al. (2010). Kulkarni and Venkataraman (2000) quoted that
automobile emissions are the likely primary contributors followed
by some additional local sources i.e. cooking fuel combustion or
industrial oil burning.
5.2.3. Kolkata
According to Chattopadhyay et al. (1998) the average PAH con-
centration during 1993 and 1994 was 77 ngm-3. Recently Rao et al.
(2008) suggested that average concentration of PAH in megacity
Kolkata was 969 ngm-3 which was quite higher in comparison to
Delhi and Mumbai. Further, maximum PAH concentration was
observed in winter season while minimum in monsoon. Karar and
Gupta (2006) found major PAH compound in the particulate frac-
tion, Fluoranthene (B[b]F) with 0.03 mgm-3 at the residential site
and 0.02 mgm-3 at the industrial site.
5.3. City specific studies of selected pollutants
5.3.1. Carbonmonoxide (CO)
CO is one of the significant sources of motor vehicle exhausts in
megacities of the developing countries (Kumar et al., 2008; Mayer,
1999). Traffic sources are one of the major source of CO e
mission
(Ravindra et al., 2006) and estimated 86% in Delhi during
1990e2000 (Gurjar et al., 2004). According to CPCB (2010) study
megacity Mumbai is responsible for about 72.5 Gg of CO from all
sectors in year 2007, as per their estimation area sources shares
largest accountability for CO emissions in Mumbai followed by
transport and industrial sectors (Fig. 5). Similar to Mumbai, another
study indicate that Delhi all sectors are responsible for about 574 Gg
of CO emissions, where transport is the biggest contributor, sharing
about 73% of total emissions. As shown in Fig. 6, Nagpure et al.
(2016) indicated that cars and two wheelers are the largest
source of CO emissions in Delhi. There are few studies are available
for CO emission in Kolkata for all sectors. Study done by Nagpure
et al. (2010) suggests that transport sector is responsible for
about 111 Gg of CO emission in Kolkata, where two wheelers and
cars sharing highest accountability (Fig. 6). India, one of the fast
developing countries of the world, has registered a sharp increase
in vehicular pollution, particularly, in the urban area (CPCB, 1999).
Kumar et al. (2008) reported that the CO levels were the least at
Palode (0.026 ppm), followed by Thiruvananthapuram (winter
0.352 ppm, summer 0.108 ppm and wet months 0.032 ppm), New
Delhi (1.38 ppm) and Jaduguda (0.462 ppm).A declining trend was
observed for CO ambient concentrations between 2000 and 2012
(Fig. 9). From 1996 to 2000, the concentration of CO in Delhi at-
mosphere varied for different years. No particular trend in CO
concentration was observed in the above period and it was in its
 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495
CO
6000
5000
Concentra on (μg/m3)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0 are also important sources to local air pollution.
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year
3
Fig. 9. Annual average concentration (mgm
highest level. Whereas, a sharp decrease of 33% in annual concen-
tration was observed from 2542 mgm-3 in 2009 to 1704 in 2012
(Fig. 9). The ambient CO concentration in Delhi shows higher values
than the NAAQM standard for residential area (2000 mgm3).
Available data of CO is from hot-spot air quality monitoring station
(i.e. ITO intersection) in Delhi, which is a high traffic area.
Decreasing CO trends show that the CO levels are decreasing
gradually in Delhi. As discussed before since 1998 to 2002, Delhi
launched a major initiative to improve air quality, which included,
phasing out of old vehicles, less lead in gasoline, EURO II norms and
switching all public transport and private taxi and three-wheeler
services from diesel to CNG along with other policies. Thus, the
observed recent trends in CO likely relate to the changes in Delhi’s
vehicular traffic emissions influenced by implementation of various
policy measures. The comparison of annual average concentration
before and after the implementation of CNG i.e. from 1998 to 2003,
shows ~50% reduction in CO concentration (Ravindra et al., 2006).
5.3.2. Greenhouse gases
India figures among the top 10 contributors to greenhouse gas
emissions, although the current gross emissions per capita in India
are only one-sixth of the world average (ADB, 1994).The increasing
interest in quantification of greenhouse gas emissions comes as a
result of growing public awareness of global warming. Many global
metropolitan cities and organizations are estimating their green-
house gas emissions and developing strategies to reduce their
emissions. As per Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6) are the major greenhouse gases. Among the
GHG’s, carbon dioxide is the most dominant gas causing global
warming which accounts for nearly 77% of global total CO2 equiv-
alent greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (IPCC, 2007).India is third
biggest greenhouse gas emitter contributing about 5.3% of the total
global emissions. Major cities in India are witnessing rapid urban-
ization (Sridevi et al., 2014). In the major cities transportation
sector is one of the major anthropogenic contributors of green-
house gases (Mitra et al., 2004). Emission of CO2 has been increased
by 46% during 2001e2009, while an earlier study showed a growth
of 65% during the 1990e91 to 1999e2000 (Sharma and Pundir,
2008). During the 2001e2009 from the transports sector in Delhi
was the major responsible to emission of CO2 (Singh et al., 2011;
Singh and Sharma, 2011).The national emissions of GHGs have
been estimated two times by Indian Network of Climate Change
Assessment (INCCA) in 1994 and 2007, and the results were also
communicated to UNFCC. In 1994, net GHG emissions in India were
1228.54 million tons of CO2 equivalents which increased to 1727.71
489
million tons in 2007. The major contributors were energy, agri-
culture and waste sources. The per capita emissions in 1994 were
1.5 tons which increased to 1.5 tons in 2007. Also, significant annual
growth in terms of total GHG emissions was observed in electricity
generation (5.6%), cement (6%) and waste (7.3%).CO2 emissions in
India have increased from 794 million tons of CO2 equivalent in
1994 to 1221.76 million tons in 2007 (INCCA, 2010).
In the developing megacities, such as Delhi, Mumbai and Kol-
kata, the sources of air pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHGs) are
dominated by the vehicle emissions, whereas in the developing
megacities, biomass burning from agriculture waste and forest fires
5.3.2.1. Nitrous oxide (N2O). N2O is also one of the important pol-
lutants in megacity Delhi. Agricultural sector contributes approxi-
) of CO in Delhi.
mately 50% of N2O emissions (Gurjar et al., 2004). Gurjar et al.
(2004) also estimated that emissions of N2O varied between
1.4 Gg and 1.7 Gg in the megacity during 1991e2000. Manure
management, agricultural soils, fertilizers and transport are some
of the main N2O contributing sources. N2O emissions decreased
since 1996, which is related to the reduced animal sludge appli-
cation as fertilizer, followed by a slight increase in emissions from
1998 due to increasing animals and associated manure manage-
ment. In 1994, N2O emissions in India were 0.178 million tons of
CO2 equivalent which was 4.4% of total GHG emissions, whereas in
2007 emissions increased to 0.24 million tons with contribution to
total emissions decreasing to 3.9% (INCCA, 2010).
5.3.2.2. Methane (CH4). The estimated emission of CH4 from
anthropogenic sources in India was 13 Tgy1(Varshney and Padhy,
1999). In Delhi, per capita emission in 1990 was 23 Kg, which was
1.8 Kg less than the national per capita emission level of 21.2 Kg
(Sharma et al., 2002b). The average ambient CH4 concentration in
Delhi was 4121 ppbv, varying between 1703 and 9492 ppbv during
1994 and 1995 (Padhy and Varshney, 2000). Solid waste disposal
was one of the main sources of CH4 emission (about 80%) during
1991e2000 (Gurjar et al., 2004). Delhi produces huge quantity of
solid waste, about 6 Gg per day and about 880 Gg of biodegradable
waste per annum (Padhy and Varshney, 2000). It is reported that
1016 Kg of waste in a landfill emits approximately 25 ± 30 m3 of
CH4 (Vanni and Esposito, 1982). Delhi having six landfill sites may
emit about 8.76 Gg CH4. Sewage treatment plants, wetlands, paddy
fields, livestock, burning of garbage, vehicle (e.g. exhaust, lockage),
coal, oil and gas combustion, are additional possible sources of CH4
in Delhi, which respectively emits 2.97 Gg, 2.93 Gg, 2.32 Gg, 2.18 Gg,
9 Gg, and 0.07 Gg of CH4 annually as shown in Fig. 10 (Padhy and
Varshney, 2000). Gurjar et al. (2004) found that CH4 emissions
0.18
Sewage treatment
7.57 7.50
plants
23.08 wetlands
5.94
paddy fields
livestock
55.74
burning of garbage
Fig. 10. Contribution (%) of various sources in CH4 emission in Delhi.
(Source: Padhy and Varshney, 2000).
490 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495
over Delhi have increased by about 40% i.e. from 133 Gg in 1990 to
192 Gg in 2000.Mor et al. (2006) reported that landfill CH4 emission
constitute major fraction of it and contributed up to 50 Gg in
2001.According to INCCA report in 2010, total CH4 emissions in
India were 18 million tons of CO2equivalent which increased to
20.56 million tons in 2007 (INCCA, 2010).
6. Health effect of air pollution
WHO reported that in 2012 around 7 million people died pre-
maturely due to exposure to indoor and outdoor air pollution and
this account for one in eight of total global premature deaths. This
confirms that air pollution is now the world’s largest single envi-
ronmental health risk (WHO, 2014; Ravindra et al., 2015). Global
Burden of Disease (GBD, 2013) reported that India accounts for 19%
of the world’s premature deaths in 2013 and also reported that
about 628,000 premature deaths occur in India from air pollution-
related diseases each year. This is up from 100,000 in 2000da six-
fold increase (Naghavi et al., 2015). According to WHO report,
(WHO, 2009) in India, 488,200 people dies prematurely every year
as result of indoor air pollution, whereas 119,900 dies prematurely
every year as result of outdoor air pollution. Earlier studied re-
ported about 40,000 Indians are dying early every year because of
air pollution, which include; 7500 in Delhi, 5700 in Mumbai and
4500 in Kolkata (Brandon and Homman, 1995).
Incidence of respiratory diseases in Delhi is 12 times the na-
tional average, and 30% of Delhi’s population suffers from respira-
tory disorders. The largest impact of particulates on daily deaths in
Delhi occurs in the age group of 15e44 years (Cropper et al., 1997),
an age group that may spend most time outdoors. A recent World
Bank study shows that a 10% reduction in PM10 in Delhi might
result in 1000 fewer deaths each year (World Bank, 2003). Pandey
et al. (2005) also reported that children were at more risk due to air
pollution in Delhi.
The study conducted by WHO in 1985 on ’human exposure to
respirable particles’ indicates that ambient concentration and
exposure to PM10 in Mumbai in 1982 were much higher than the
WHO air quality guidelines (MUTP, 2002). Almost 97% of the
Mumbai population lives in areas where WHO AQG for PM10 is
exceeded (http://www.aespl.co.in/URBAIR.pdf). Also, according to
World Bank (1997), ambient air concentrations of SPM have crossed
the allowable limits creating health problems to the Mumbai. After
1987, the annual average SPM reduced to 242 mgm-3 in 1991; and
remained almost constant after 2005.
It has been reported that more than 10,000 premature deaths
occurred in Kolkata in 1995 due to SPM (Kazimuddin and Banerjee,
2000). During 1970’s and 80’s, annual mean and 98 percentile
concentrations at all monitoring stations in Kolkata greatly exceed
both WHO guidelines and Indian Ambient Air Quality Standards.
For example, the overall average concentration in 1987 was
557 mgm-3, over six times the maximum WHO annual guideline
(60e90 mgm-3). The annual 98 percentile concentration of the
Cossipore industrial monitoring site reached 1680 mgm-3 in 1987, 14
times the WHO daily guideline and the second highest ever in
Kolkata, indicating that episodes of short duration also constitute a
problem.
Gurjar and Nagpure (2015) found that excess number of total
premature mortality, respiratory mortality, cardiovascular mortal-
ity and hospital admission due to COPD in Delhi, Mumbai and
Kolkata increased twice between 1991 and 2008 (Fig. 11). As per
their study air pollution is responsible for about 7913 incidents/
year, 6421 incidents/year and 6950 incidents/year premature
mortalities in Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata respectively in year in
1991. These numbers went up to 16,290 incidents/year, 9802 in-
cidents/year and 6479 incidents/year in year 2008 for all three
cities. Similar kinds of growth have been observed for respiratory
mortality, cardiovascular mortality and hospital admission due to
COPD in all three cities between 1991 and 2008. In addition to
health risk associated with air pollution exposure, Khaiwal et al.
(2016) highlighted that there is a need to study that how noise
pollution synergistically add to the effect of air pollution.
7. Inferences of current study and world megacities
7.1. Concentration trends and status
SO2 emission in Mumbai has been found highest followed by
Delhi and Kolkata. It has been observed that during the last decade
industries and power plants were the prime SO2 sources in all three
megacities and contribute. Interestingly, emissions from transport
sector have reduced 4 to 5 times after the implementation of
various policy norms and are well below the NAAQM standard
except at few locations.
Transport sector is the predominating source of NOx in all the
megacities contributing approximately 50e70% of total emissions.
Among all vehicles, diesel driven motor vehicles seem to be the
prime contributor. Following the transport sector, industries
ranked as the second largest source (10e30%) of NOx. The trends
from three megacities shows that NOx emission has increased,
which seems to be related with the increasing vehicle number and
high flash-point (540  C) in CNG engine. Concentration trend of
NOx shows that ambient concentration in megacity Delhi increased
after 2001. The trend of NOx level in Mumbai shows declining trend
from 1999 to 2002 and an increasing trend since 2000. But con-
centration trend for Kolkata showed sharp increase during
2000e2002, followed by significant decreasing trend afterwards.
In terms of SPM and PM10 emissions, Kolkata is the highest
emitter followed by Mumbai and Delhi. However, ambient SPM
concentration in megacity Delhi was highest followed by Kolkata
and Mumbai respectively due to peculiar topography of Delhi
where windblown dust contributes significantly in SPM. SPM
concentrations have showed a similar trend in all the megacities
since 1997. Among anthropogenic sources, industries and power
plants account for significant portion of SPM and PM10 emissions
(i.e. 20e80%) in all three megacities. Recent studies have found that
even road dust and particle re-suspension are important sources of
above mentioned emissions. Gupta (2016) observed the declining
trend of PM10 concentration in these metro cities. They also relate
this decrease associated with changes in fuel quality, better vehicle
technologies, improved industrial fuel mix, shifting of industries
outside the city limits.
It is difficult to conclude about the comparative concentration
trends of PAH due to inconsistencies in the availability of data.
However, it could be concluded that the implementation of CNG
have decreased the PAH concentration up to 50% in Delhi (Ravindra
et al., 2006). Further it has been noticed that PAH concentration
could also increase as CNG is mainly introduced in megacities but
not in the surrounding region/cities or states. As there seems to be
significant differences in the concentration levels reported by in-
dividual studies, there is a need to carry out proper emission in-
ventory and setup for regular monitoring of PAH and other toxic
organics.
Details about concentration and trends of CO and green house
gases (N2O, CH4, CO2) were mainly available for Delhi. Agriculture
(50%) and solid waste (80%) sector emerged as predominant source
for N2O and CH4 respectively. Transport sector was prime culprit for
CO emission (86%) in megacity Delhi. A declining trend was
observed for CO ambient concentrations between 2000 and 2006.
It could be observed that megacities differ in pollution load of
various pollutants such as SPM concentration tends to be very high
 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495 491

(a) Delhi Mumbai Kolkata (b) Delhi Mumbai Kolkata

20000 2500

Excess Number of Cases

Excess Number of Cases

15000 2000

1500
10000
1000
5000
500
0
0
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

1991

2000
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
(c) Delhi Mumbai Kolkata (d) Delhi Mumbai Kolkata
6000 25000
Excess Number of Cases

Excess Number of Cases

5000
20000
4000
15000
3000
2000 10000

1000 5000
0
0
1998
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997

1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Fig. 11. Excess number of cases of (a) total mortality (b) respiratory mortality (c) cardiovascular mortality (d)hospital admission COPD in the mega-cities Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata.
(Source: Gurjar and Nagpure, 2015).

in the large cities of Asia (Laakso et al., 2006; Hopke et al., 2008),
while European and American megacities could suffer from the
product of secondary aerosols (Molina and Molina, 2004; Gros
et al., 2007; Butler et al., 2008; Kanakidou et al., 2011). There is a
need to study how increasing NOx levels over Indian megacities
could enhance the atmospheric reactivity (e.g. with ozone and
other pollutants), which could form more toxic products. Further
particular industry (such as thermal power plant in Delhi) in a
megacity also contributes to poor air quality.
7.2. Megacities as emission source in the region
The buildup of anthropogenic pollutants in a megacity and
resultant chemistry promote them to act as hot spot in the region.
Both horizontal and vertical transport contribute to pollutant
export and the overall degree of export is strongly governed by the
lifetimes of pollutants (Lawrence et al., 2007, Dey et al., 2012).This
could also influence the air quality of cities or region near by a
megacity. Guttikunda et al. (2005) reports that Asian megacities
have less than 2% of the land cover but provide habitat for more
than 30% of population. Asian megacities produce on an average of
15% of the anthropogenic trace gas and aerosol emissions affecting
all or portion of the region surrounding them.
Lawrence et al. (2007) have reported that long-range near sur-
face pollutant export is generally strongest in the middle and high
latitudes, especially for source locations in Eurasia, for which
17e34% of a tracer with a 10-day lifetime is exported beyond
1000 km and still remains below 1 km altitude. Further, the study
highlight that pollutant export to the upper troposphere is greatest
in the tropics, due to transport by deep convection, and for six
source locations, more than 50% of the total mass of the 10-day
lifetime tracer is found above 5 km altitude.
7.3. Global implications of megacity emissions
Degrading air quality in megacities due to rapid population
growth and industrialization not only causes local problems such as
health effects and visibility reduction but also has global effects
such as global warming, effecting earth’s radiation budget and
cloud properties. Recent studies have shown that air pollution is
transported across continents resulting in the formation Atmo-
spheric Brown Clouds (ABCs) constituting of fine particles
(Chandrappa and Kulshrestha, 2016). ABCs absorbs as well as re-
flects sunlight leading to surface dimming, and also effects cloud
precipitation. ABCs are concentrated over megacities and it shown
that surface cooling may have masked 47% of warming by GHGs
(Ramanathan and Feng, 2009). SO2 and NO2 in the atmosphere have
been shown to form acid rain (Stern et al., 1984). Oxidation of NOx
in the atmosphere results in the formation of Ozone by photo-
chemical reaction (Finlayson Pitts and Pitts, 1977). Finlayson et al.
(1983) has also shown that NO2 reacts with NaCl sea salt result-
ing in the formation of Cl and OH radicals which initiate photo-
chemical reactions in the atmosphere. Ramanathan and
Carmichael, 2008 have reported Black Carbon (BC), a major con-
stituent of PM as the second largest contributor in global warming.
BC may also be transported over long range distances and
contribute in the formation of ABCs. SO2 results in the formation of
sulphate aerosol through atmospheric oxidation which scatters
sunlight and effects earth’s radiation budget.
492 B.R. Gurjar et al. / Atmospheric Environment 142 (2016) 475e495
7.4. Megacities and their role in climate change
As discussed above megacities act as sources of aerosols and
trace gases, which can be important in determining the radiative
balance of the atmosphere on urban, regional, and global scales
(Gaffney et al., 2004). In a recent review Gaffney and Marley (2009)
studied the emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels and
biofuels and their impacts on air quality and climate. Primary
aerosols emission from megacities includes carbonaceous com-
pounds or soot [which primarily consists of elemental carbon (EC)
and various organic compounds], wind-blown dust and soils, and
sea-salt particles. Bencs et al. (2008) have shown how various
particle and gaseous species can react to form secondary aerosols
such as the oxidation of sulfur dioxide to form sulfuric acid aerosol,
subsequent reactions of sulfuric acid aerosol with ammonia to form
ammonium sulfates, and the reaction of ammonia with nitric acid
to form particulate ammonium nitrate. Gaffney and Marley (2009)
also show the examples of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes re-
action with ozone and other oxidants to form secondary organic
aerosols.
7.5. Air quality management in megacities
Throughout the world, several cities have implemented the air
quality improvement and management plan but with increasing in
population and vehicular number build consistent pressure to
manage air quality. However, effect of various policy norms and
measures could well be seen in the concentration trend of various
pollutants over Indian megacities but some abruptness in the trend
has also been observed specifically in case of Kolkata. However, this
abrupt behavior could be related to local meteorology and other
environmental factors. The current study urges to have more air
quality measuring networks and regular monitoring to have better
understanding of concentration trends, emissions and for source
apportionment. Further pollutant specific norms need to be
implemented and sector specific detailed study is required to be
carried out in order to bridge the gaps in the understanding of
emissions and air quality status in megacities in India.
However, several studies indicate that it could be difficult to
meet required air quality standard at traffic intersections and near
major road networks. There is lack of effective data specially in
developing world. This requires developing an effective air quality
monitoring networks and common models to predict air pollution
levels. Jain and Khare (2008) also emphasized for an effective and
efficient air quality management plan including the major key
player and stakeholders. Gurjar et al. (2008) also developed a MPI
having combined level of SPM, SO2, and NO2 in view of the WHO
guidelines for air quality. These approaches are useful to evaluate
atmospheric emissions and urban air quality in megacities. Further
developing air quality index can also help monitor air quality
changes over time, and relate these to other indices that provide
information about the often rapidly changing state of megacities
(Ravindra et al., 2015).
There are evidences that non-exhaust emissions including
municipal solid waste and biomass burning are emerging as
dominate source of air pollution sources than the exhaust emis-
sions (Lawrence et al., 2013, 2016) and hence, they should also be
studies in detail over Indian megacities. Hence, more emphasis and
initiatives are needed for the control of these emission sources as
they also constitutes major portion of fine particulate matter and
other hazardous air pollutants. Further, stricter implementation of
existing policies is needed for mitigation of waste and biomass
burning in the megacities and surrounding areas. Development and
implementation of the use of electric driven vehicles and bio-fuels
such as Ethanol and Biodiesel for vehicles can significantly reduce
NOx and SPM levels in the megacities. Extension of Bus Rapid
Transit System (which already exist in Delhi since 2008) in other
mega and metro cities for the segregation of traffic in different
lanes could result in smoother traffic. Further, Government should
allocate more funds for research and development of cleaner fuels
for public transport including air quality, policy intervention and
health studies.
Acknowledgements:
Authors would like to thank the Dr. T.M. Butler, Dr. M.G. Law-
rence from Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies e.V., Ber-
liner Strasse 130, D-14467 Potsdam, Germany and Dr. J. Lelieveld
from Atmospheric Chemistry Division, Max Planck Institute for
Chemistry, P.O. Box 3060, D-55020 Mainz, Germany for their sci-
entific discussion and useful suggestions.
Support for this study was provided by the Max Planck Society,
Germany, and Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Germany,
through the Max Planck Partner Group for Megacities & Global
Change, IITRoorkee,India. This study is also linked to FP7 European
projects MEAGAPOLI (http://megapoli.dmi.dk/) and TRANSPHORM
(http://www.transphorm.eu/).
RK also would like to thank Department of Health Research
(DHR), Indian Council of Medical Research, Ministry of Health and
Family Welfare, for providing the Fellowship Training Programme
in Environmental Health under Human Resource Development
Health Research Scheme. He would like to thank Natural Environ-
ment Research Council and the Medical Research Council from UK
and the Earth System Science Organization, Ministry of Earth Sci-
ences (ESSO-MoES) and Department for Biotechnology (DBT) from
India for providing financial support for Delhi-AIRQUALNET
project.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.06.030.
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