AG:GCPF/ETH/039/ITA

AG:GCPF/ETH/049/ITA
Terminal Report

FAO/GOVERNMENT COOPERATIVE PROGRAMME

NATIONAL FERTILIZER AND INPUTS UNIT

ETHIOPIA

PROJECT FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

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Report prepared for

the Government of Ethiopia
by
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, 1997
 The Food and Agriculture Organization is greatly indebted to all those who assisted
the implementation of the project by providing information, advice and facilities.
 V

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Project background 1

1.2 Outline of official arrangements 2
1.3 Objectives of the project 6

1.3.1 Development objectives 6

1.3.2 Immediate objectives 6

2. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS 8

2.1 Fertilizer recommendations for majorcereal crops 8

2.1.1 An estimate of fertilizer-use risk 8

2.1.2 Conclusions 9

2.2 Field trial sites network 9

2.2.1 Phosphate source trials (PST) 9

2.2.2 Soil ameliorant trials 9
2.2.3 Comparative fertilizer trials 10
2.2.4 Comparison of different nitrogen fertilizer sources (CDNFS) 10
2.2.5 Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizertrials 11

2.3 On-farm integrated plant nutritionactivities 11

2.3.1 On-farm fertilizer trials (OFFTs) 11

2.3.2 On-farm integrated plant nutrition tests 12
2.3.3 Conclusions 15

2.4 Modelling 16

2.4.1 Pathway analysis for teff 16

2.5 Agro-socio-economic survey 17

2.5.1 The 1993 survey 17

2.5.2 The 1994 survey 18
2.5.3 Conclusions 18
 VI

Page

2.6 PRA exercises 18

2.6.1 The NFIU experience 19

2.6.2 Conclusions 19

2.7 Training and workshops 20

2.7.1 Training 20
2.7.2 Workshops 20
2.7.3 Fellowships 20
2.7.4 Field days and specialfield days 21
2.7.5 Conclusions 21

2.8 Extension service 21

2.9 Fertilizer subsidy, credit,marketing and distribution 22

2.9.1 Subsidy and credit 22

2.9.2 Marketing and distribution 23
2.9.3 Conclusions 24

2.10 Databank 24

2.10.1 Conclusions 24

2.11 Summary 24

3.RECOMMENDATIONS 26

3.1 The natural resource capital 26

3.2 Improved seed 27
3.3 Research 28
3.4 Fertilizers 29
3.5 Training and workshops 32
3.6 Extension service 32

Appendix 1PROJECT STAFF 35

Appendix 2 FELLOWSHIPS 36
Appendix 3 MAJOR ITEMS OF EQUIPMENT PROVIDED 37
Appendix 4 LIST OF PROJECT PUBLICATIONS 38
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADD - Agricultural Development Department

AISCO - Agricultural Inputs Supply Corporation
CDNFS - Comparison of different nitrogen fertilizer sources
CP - Coffee pulp
CTA - Chief Technical Adviser
DA - Development agent
DAP - Diammonium phosphate
DSFT - Dispersed simple fertilizer trial
EOR - Economic optimum rate
FTS - Field trial site
FYM - Farmyard manure
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
HA - Home agent
IAR - Institute of Agricultural Research
IPNS - Integrated Plant Nutrition System
MOA - Ministry of Agriculture
NFIU - National Fertilizer and Inputs Unit
NGO - Non-governmental Organization
NPFT - Nitrogen phosphorus fertilizer trial
OFFT - On-farm fertilizer trial
OFIPNT - On-farm integrated plant nutrition test
PA - Peasant Association
PRA - Participatory Rural Appraisal
PST - Phosphorus source trials
TGE - Transitional Government of Ethiopia
VCR - Value cost ratio
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 PROJECT BACKGROUND

The National Fertilizer and Inputs Unit (NFIU), assisted by the project
GCPF/ETH/039/ITA, began its activities in Ethiopia in 1985 with the financial support of the
Government of Italy and the technical assistance of FAO. The project had two phases and
one bridging period. The first phase lasted from April 1985 to December 1990.
FAO/TCP assistance with a contribution of $US 355 000 covered the period from July
1989 to August 1990, giving continuity to the activities. Savings ($US 130 000) from the
original donor contribution ($US 2 300 000) made it possible to extend the project until
December 1990.
In September 1990, FAO submitted to the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) the interim
report giving an account of the first phase results, conclusions and recommendations. The
mandate received by the project was to conduct specific fertilizer investigations in those areas
of the country considered as high potential (the highlands). A network of trials under farm
conditions were carried out in the Gojam, Shewa, Arsi and North Bale areas, on the basis of
a simplification of the five agro-climatological areas, the different soils and for the five main
cereal crops (teff, wheat, barley, maize and sorghum).
0

The Government’s purpose was to show the farmers, through the NFIU and further
extension activities, that the introduction of fertilizers into their agricultural practices, the
adoption of the economic optimum rate (EOR) of nutrients, and correct use and improved
balance between nitrogen and phosphorus, could produce a rapid increase in crop yield and
help cope with the problem of food shortage.
As a consequence of the project achievements, new fertilizer rates and improved use
were recommended to the farmers in the different areas of Ethiopia.
In fact, following the workshop held in Addis in December 1990 and the further
Research and Extension Liaison Committee endorsement (January 1991), the MOA could
replace the previous "blanket recommendations", suggested by different fertilizer projects
operating in Ethiopia before the NFIU, with more accurate, refined and effective ones.
A prominent component of the project during the period was the support given to
national institutions and international organizations regarding fertilizer procurement, shipping,
 2

logistics and marketing (consultancies, national workshops, meetings, training and study tours
for MOA and Agricultural Inputs Supply Corporation (AISCO) officials and retailers).
Nevertheless, agriculture in Ethiopia is only rainfed, and rainfall varies in intensity and
timing. Recurring drought periods have a significant effect on output. By 1990, the balance
between food production and population growth had worsened and food shortage had caused
a permanent state of emergency. The calorie intake per day per caput had decreased
dramatically from around 1 740 in 1983 to 1 520-1 580 in subsequent years.
Considering the cereal contribution to the national diet (around 80%), it was estimated
that, to meet the population’s food requirement in the nineties and to avoid importing around
one million tonnes of grain every year to alleviate famine in the more fragile areas, an
additional gross production of five million tonnes was needed.
Given the immediate and positive crop response to the application of fertilizers, they
were regarded as the most effective input for increasing cereal production in a short time.
Consequently, increased use of fertilizers by farmers was considered important by the
Government and a second phase of the NFIU project was requested.
More specific fertilizer investigations had to be developed and more refined
recommendations extended to the farmers. Moreover, support and assistance were needed to
improve fertilizer procurement, distribution and marketing.
A Tripartite Evaluation Mission (1988) had already recommended a second phase of the
project. In 1990, the Italian Government agreed to contribute to the second phase in
agreement with FAO (the executing agency).

1.2 OUTLINE OF OFFICIAL ARRANGEMENTS

The Project Document for the second phase (GCPF/ETH/049/ITA) was ready by the
end of 1990 and signed in August 1991. The planned duration was two years and the donor
and government contributions were, respectively, $US 1 200 000 and $US 700 000
(1 400 000 birr at the exchange rate of $US 1:2 birr). Local funds, generated by the sale of
fertilizers donated by FAO, were also utilized by the project (local purchases, training,
workshops, etc.).
As in the first phase, the project counterpart was the Development Department of MOA
and the national coordinator was the Head of Department. The assistance for the execution
of the trial activities in the field was provided by eight part-time regional agronomists,
 3

150 part-time awraja (district) agronomists, 600 part-time development agents (DAs) and
35 full-time site managers, who had the responsibility of dealing with the 2.5-ha fenced "field
trial sites" (FTS), which are managed directly by the MOA through the Agricultural
Development Department (ADD) in the more representative agro-climatic zones.
The project was to support the implementation of the Ten-Year Development Plan
(1984-94) and, in particular, increase food production through the optimization of fertilizer
application on major cereal crops.
In July 1991, the Government was replaced by a Transitional Government (TGE). In
November 1991, the TGE drew up a document on "Economic Policy during the Transitional
Period'*. Particular attention was given to the agricultural sector because of its dominant role
in the country. It accounted for about 47% of the Gross Domestic Product and 90% of total
exports (of which over 50% were coffee), with over 80% of the total population dependent
on it. Giving attention to the decline of agriculture in the periods 1987-88. and 1990-91 (a
reduction of 2.7% in per caput production) that seriously affected the GDP (a reduction of
5.6%), the document indicated the strategy and the priorities for overcoming the difficult
economic situation.
The NFIU project was in line with the new policy. However, the delicate social
situation in 1991 and 1992 affected both activities in the field and the integrity of the national
and international staff. The planned number of expatriate experts (1 project manager,
1 senior agronomist, 1 agronomist) was never reached. The first Chief Technical Adviser
(CTA) left Ethiopia in April 1991 and the senior agronomist was the only expatriate from
May 1991 to October 1992 when the new CTA arrived. Since February 1993, the expatriate
staff have comprised the CTA and one agronomist. The latter replaced the senior agronomist
who left Ethiopia in early January 1993.
Additional constraints in terms of work organization and national staff continuity
affected the NFIU from May 1993 to May 1994. In fact, due to the deep restructuring of the
MOA, many technicians in the field and the two ADD agronomists at headquarters (full-time
in the project) were transferred.
The project was to end in 1993. Savings and the more favourable rate of exchange
($US 1:5 birr) made possible an extension until February 1994.
The project succeeded in carrying out the main activities and extended to 1993 its trial
programme in those areas (Tigray, Welo, Gonder, Welega, Illubabor, Sidamo and Hararghe)
where natural, agronomic and socio-economic information was limited or not available.
 4

The collection of data regarding the main factors affecting crop productivity was
considered a necessary knowledge phase prior to the development of further activities. In June
1993, a workshop was held in Addis, and ADD/NFIU presented a summary of the 1991-92
field trial results, suggested new fertilizer recommendations and showed the trend during the
period 1988-1992. The Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR), ministries and
representatives of international agencies and institutions attended the meeting.
The project achievements received general agreement, and at the end of 1993, the MOA
requested an extension and a new phase of the NFIU.
In January 1994, the Italian Government, in agreement with FAO and the MOA, agreed
to contribute to a project-bridging phase. The period was to be used to analyse thoroughly
the main components and limiting factors of Ethiopian agriculture and to finalize a new
project proposal.
In line with TGE strategy, FAO involved a team of national and international
consultants to conduct an in-depth review and formulation missions. The experts worked in
Ethiopia during the periods March-May and June-August 1994.
The draft of the main guidelines of the new project was presented, by the formulation
mission, in the workshop held in Addis in May 1994. The Minister of Agriculture, the
Ambassador of Italy to Ethiopia, the FAO Representative and all the main officials concerned
from Ethiopian ministries and institutions attended the event. The project proposal was
accepted in principle.
During the preparation of the new project plan, the necessity to strengthen the
component of the rural populations’ direct involvement was considered relevant. An FAO
mission (October-November 1994), comprising a rural sociologist, a communication specialist
and an agricultural economist, tested and conducted a first socio-economic and production
system diagnostic study, using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques in one Peasant
Association (PA) in Arsi zone.
At that time, there were no national institutions ready to undertake the exercise and a
Non-governmental Organization (NGO) was selected. The project staff, the regional and
zonal agronomists, the development agents (DAs) and one home agent (HA) (Women’s
Department of the MOA) were trained in PRA.
In March 1995, the final draft of the new project was officially sent to the Ethiopian
Minister of Agriculture for comment, discussion and final approval.
 5

Taking account of the Agricultural Ecological Sub-Zone (18 zones, 62 sub-zones), the
different farming systems, the different categories of farmers, and the locally available
organic nutrient resources, the project aimed to contribute to an increase in food crop
production through on-farm tests/demonstrations of a menu of proven, sustainable and low-
risk technological options in contrasting areas of the country. The introduction of integrated
plant nutrition systems (IPNS) and soil/water management were prominent components of the
project activities, with rural population involvement through PR A techniques being one of the
most significant activities. PR As are the first step of participatory planning for technological
change, as designed in the project strategy. In fact, the rural communities are involved, not
only in the initial phase of assessment of the constraints, but also in the design of technology
testing.
The new project was consistent with the "National Fertilizer Policy" document (TGE,
October 1993) and with the agriculture strategies presented by the TGE to the consultative
group of donors during the meeting held in Paris in March 1994.
The bridging phase was supported by the donor through a contribution of $US 450 000
(March 1994 - March 1995).
During this period and with the intention of preparing the project’s new approach to
Ethiopian agriculture, a network of tests was introduced in those areas where some agro-
socio-economic information and some proven inputs, implements and practices were ready
to be tested and where the project had developed its activities over many years.
Chemical and organic crop nutrients, improved ploughs, weeding and improved seeds,
were combined in different ratios to take the first step in the direction of more sustainable
ways of increasing crop production and the farmers’ living conditions, according to their
different financial resources.
To adequately support the network, two surveys were conducted in 1993 and 1994
among the rural populations, with the intention of investigating their agro-social problems and
cash availability. Moreover, since November 1994, six PR A exercises have been carried out
in contrasting areas of the country and the report distributed.
Meetings and a forum covering all the concerns have been promoted at national and
regional level. A training programme for the regional, woreda. (the administrative hierarchy
within the zone) and zonal technicians, and the DAs, has been conducted every year in
different areas.
 6

The data on climate (those available), soil characteristics, crop response to nutrients,
rural populations’ socio-economic conditions, farm balance sheets and PRAs, are stored in
the project databank, which represents a steady source of information for institutions,
ministries and technicians. The different databank files were reorganized completely in 1993
to make it possible to correlate all the factors collected.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

1.3.1 Development objectives

The project’s development objectives were to:
- increase, with fertilizer use, agricultural production in general and food crop
production in particular, through improved extension recommendations for efficient
and environmentally sound fertilizer use, in order to attain the food production targets
set by the Government;
- increase farmers’ production in order to raise income and standard of living; and
- assist the MOA, through the NFIU, in long-term planning, specifically with regard
to fertilizer-use development, related input extension, crop production
recommendations and the formulation of coherent policies on all aspects related to
efficient and environmentally sound fertilizer use and plant nutrition.

1.3.2 Immediate objectives

The project’s immediate objectives were to:
- improve extension recommendations for efficient and environmentally sound fertilizer
use on major food crops introduced in major potential agricultural regions of the
country (Shewa, Gojam, Arsi, Bale);
- increase the capability of the national staff dealing with fertilizer trials, applied
research and agronomy;
- increase adoption by the farmers of efficient and environmentally sound fertilizers
and related inputs recommendations, together with improved agricultural practices,
through specific extension and distribution activities, including block demonstrations;
 7

- activate the working group on fertilizer policy to synchronize the project’s plans with
the development programmes of the MOA and other national institutions dealing with
fertilizer and input policies;
- increase the capability of the national staff for those organizations involved in the
farm-input supply chain, in particular AISCO and service cooperatives; and
- mobilize international fertilizer donations to strengthen Ethiopia’s food production
effort.
To attain these objectives, the project had three target groups:
- at policy level, the planners and decision makers in the government institutions;
- at executive level, the technical officers of the MOA and the ministries or institutions
concerned, with special emphasis on counterpart staff; and
- at production level, the small farmers, members of PAs and cooperatives.
Finally, it was necessary that the role of women in agriculture at executive and
production levels continued to receive adequate attention.
 8

2. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

2.1 FERTILIZER RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MAJOR CEREAL CROPS

The National Fertilizer and Inputs Unit, in cooperation with the Agricultural
Development Department, conducted nitrogen phosphorus fertilizer trials (NPFT) on the
major cereal crops in various parts of the country. Results of the fertilizer trials were
collected and processed, and recommendations were established for the test crops in various
study periods, of which the 1990 and 1992 reports are the major ones.
In some drought-prone areas, such as Tigray, the NPFT results were very promising.
The data available indicated that yields of dryland crops could be increased substantially
through balanced fertilizer application. Similarly, specific NP recommendations for zones
which were not addressed during phases I and II (such as Gonder, Guraghe, Welo, etc.) were
developed.

2.1.1 An estimate of fertilizer-use risk

Fertilizer-use risk is based on the frequency distribution of the value cost ratio (VCR);
in other words, it is the VCR calculated test by test, using the EOR of the zone. For
example, in 1993, risk I for teff was equal to 8.1%, which means 8.1% of farmers applying
the EOR on teff would lose money, while 14.1 % of farmers (risk II) would neither lose nor
gain money; the global risk, 22.2%, is the sum of risks I and II. On the contrary, the
remaining 77.8% of farmers would make profitable use of fertilizer. This frequency
distribution analysis underlines a great disparity among crops, e.g., wheat and sorghum:
while the average VCR is very similar for both crops (around 3.5), the net loss risk is almost
nil for wheat and equal to 21% for sorghum (one farmer out of four will lose money in
applying fertilizer); consequently, the wheat population is quite homogenous, while the
sorghum one is not.
The global risks are unacceptably high for resource-poor farmers; however, the risks
attributed to fertilizer input use can be considerably reduced when soil moisture conservation
practices are adopted in conjunction with fertilizer applications. The low VCRs also reflect
 9

poor seed quality, poor land preparation and inadequate weeding and cannot be attributed to
fertilizer use alone.

2.1.2 Conclusions
All efforts made by this project have laid a solid basis for raising the awareness of
government officials, experts and farmers on the economic use of fertilizers, while the
nationally established and documented fertilizer database is believed to adequately serve the
purpose of quick reference for interested groups. Apparently, the findings of the project
could contribute towards breaking the technical deadlock concerning fertilizer use in the
country, and it is strongly believed to be a great breakthrough in the area of fertilizer
development and promotion.
In general, the NFIU has carried out all that has been possible in order to meet its
objectives and the project is recognized as the premier fertilizer development centre,
specifically for the MOA, and in general for the nation.

2.2 FIELD TRIAL SITES NETWORK

2.2.1 Phosphate source trials (PSTt

A large number of trials were conducted to measure the short- and long-term effects of
slowly soluble phosphorus sources on crop responses to quickly soluble phosphorus fertilizer.
Slowly soluble P had an effect on the yield of the cereal crops. The residual effects of
rock phosphate and bonemeal on crop response to PST were not significant. The cumulative
effect of basal dressing of bonemeal was higher than that of rock phosphate during the whole
trial period (5-6 years). The coarse nature of the rock phosphate used by the project might
have contributed to its low performance.

2.2.2 Soil ameliorant trials

Farmyard manure (FYM) or coffee pulp (CP) were used, separately and in mixture with
NP fertilizer, in order to observe the impact on crop yields and soil properties. This trial was
designed to explore the effect of the locally available soil ameliorants on the productivity
status of soils. Six treatment combinations were used.
 10

The results of 87 trials conducted in the FTS from 1987 to 1991 indicate that moderate
to good response to FYM was obtained, while the effect of CP was low, except on maize in
one soil type. FYM has the potential to improve soil fertility and to supplement NP fertilizer
to the crop. Farmers should therefore be encouraged to use it for crop production.

2.2.3 Comparative fertilizer trials

To compare the difference in response to diammonium phosphate (DAP), DAP + urea
and 23-23-0 of crops, various trials were conducted, both in the fenced FTS and on farmers’
fields, using teff, wheat, maize and sorghum. Complex fertilizer 23-23-0 was the most
efficient in increasing production of teff, wheat and maize, followed by DAP + urea and,
finally, DAP alone.
The present unbalanced use of NP from using DAP alone on teff in the Shewa region
could safely be replaced by 23-23-0; farmers could still greatly benefit, as the price of
23-23-0 is less than 90% of that of DAP.

2.2.4 Comparison of different nitrogen fertilizer sources fCDNFS)

In Ethiopia, most of the previous research, development and extension activities
concerning nitrogen fertilizer were entirely based on urea. Hence, most of the N
recommendations for various crops and soils developed by various firms at different times
are linked only to this product. As a result, information and data, in relation to the impact
of other N fertilizer products, are limited at all levels.
The CDNFS research aimed to:
- test the effect of different N fertilizers on the yield of various test crops;
- carry out economic analysis on the use of different N fertilizer products; and
- monitor the impact of the different N fertilizer sources on the protein content of test
crops and on soil properties.
Different test crops, mainly teff, wheat and maize, were selected for the trial. All the
required management practices were employed. Following the harvest, the grain and straw
yield were determined. In fact, according to the plan, grain tests for protein content were
supposed to be completed just after harvest. However, due to reasons beyond the control of
the project, neither grain nor soil tests were performed. The yield results of teff, wheat and
maize were then reviewed, organized and analysed.
 11

2.2.5 Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer trials

Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer trials were launched in the 2.5-ha trial sites with the
mandate of observing the fertilizer response of locally important test crops. Hence, test crops
which were not included in the previous fertilizer programmes were identified by the
respective regions/zones and used in the trial. The trials were to continue for three
consecutive years to arrive at a firm conclusion.
NPFTs were carried out on finger millet, sesame, red pepper, haricot bean, Irish potato
and mung with positive results; however, further trials are needed to strengthen the initial
findings.

2.3 ON-FARM INTEGRATED PLANT NUTRITION ACTIVITIES

In 1994, the NFIU implemented new activities in line with the Integrated Plant Nutrition
System (IPNS) approach. Two main networks of basic trials were set up: on-farm integrated
plant nutrition test (OFIPNT) and on-farm fertilizer trial (OFFT); the former aimed to
consolidate the knowledge of production factors, such as land preparation, weeding, organic
matter, etc., where a strong background already existed for mineral fertilizer use, while the
latter was set up in agro-ecological zones where no data or few data were available on plant
nutrition and crop response to the main nutrients. In the meantime, six PRAs were carried
out in different agro-ecological zones throughout the country. A socio-economic survey
questionnaire was filled out by the participating farmers in the basic trial network.

2.3.1 On-farm fertilizer trials fOFFTs")

OFFTs were launched by the project during 1994 in regions and zones where dispersed
simple fertilizer trials (DSFT) had not been conducted in the past. The trials were designed
in such a way that the impact of other production-limiting factors, such as variety,
management, etc., could be assessed in association with the core experiment.
The objectives of OFFT were to:
- develop fertilizer recommendations for new regions and crops;
- estimate the interaction between fertilizers and other inputs, such as varieties, tillage,
etc.; and
- develop a network of reference farms within a village for subsequent evaluations.
 12

One-year OFFT results in Hararghe on maize and in Tigray on teff and wheat were
collected and analysed. Of the reference farmers, some used local variety and others
improved variety; likewise, either traditional tillage or improved tillage were adopted. Four
combinations were thus used: local variety/traditional tillage, local variety/improved tillage,
improved variety/traditional tillage and improved variety/improved tillage.
For maize, regarding fertilizer-use risk under the various factor combinations,
traditional tillage/improved variety shows the lowest VCR (3.7), whereas the remaining three
groups indicate a very good level of VCR, all between 6.0 and 9.
For wheat, the calculation of VCR indicates that at the point of EOR the risk is very
high (VCR < 2) under traditional tillage/local variety conditions, as compared to the
remaining treatment.
For teff, calculated VCRs for the four treatment groups at the point of EOR were found
at acceptable levels (all above 2). Improved tillage/local variety gave the highest VCR (6.5)
where the rate of fertilizer application was 36 kg/ha, as compared to the lowest VCR (2.7)
by improved tillage/improved variety with an EOR of 67 kg/ha fertilizer application. This
revealed the tendency: the more the EOR, the higher the risk under the prevailing dryland
farming conditions.

2.3.2 On-farm integrated plant nutrition tests

The following factors were evaluated:
- Improved land preparation: a light mouldboard plough and a broad bed maker were
adapted for wheat and teff, respectively.
- Improved cultivar: ET 13 from IAR for wheat and DZ-01-354 (improved land race)
from IAR for teff.
- Fertilizer recommendations: EOR as calculated by NFIU.
- Organic matter: 5 or 10 tonnes of locally produced farmyard manure.
- Improved weeding: two timely hand weedings, instead of the local practice, which
is usually one hand weeding.
 13

2.3.2.1 Regional
For teff, there is a significant positive effect of improved land preparation with the
plough and fertilizer. Improved variety brings some yield increment, but the other factors,
such as improved weeding and farmyard manure, do not significantly improve the yield.
There is no positive interaction between the factors.
For wheat, there is a significant positive effect of the improved land preparation,
fertilizer application and improved variety; there is also a slight effect of FYM application.
No clear interaction was found between the different factors. The non-significant effect of
weeding is probably an experimental artefact, as many farmers were reluctant to weed twice.
It should be noticed that farmers do not have the appropriate weeding tools and weeding is
a very tiring and time-consuming operation. How to ease the weeding operation is one of the
possible tasks of the project. The poor effect of organic matter application could be explained
by its poor quality. Organic matter analysis has not yet been received, but visual observation
showed a high content of straw and little dung, leading most probably to a very high C/N
ratio. Before drawing a final conclusion, it is advisable to await the impact of the residual
effect of the application in 1995.

2.3.2.2 Village
Three factors have a consequent impact on the yield: fertilizer, improved land
preparation with a mouldboard plough, and improved variety; there is an effect of FYM
application, but without any clear interaction with other factors tested. The remarks made
above about weeding (2.3.2.1) are still valid.
Despite many improvements, the local mouldboard is still found to be too heavy for
many farmers. Farmers are also strongly reluctant to apply organic matter in these fields.

2.3.2.3 Apparent balance sheet of main plant nutrients

i) Regional
A nutrient balance sheet was calculated for the arable land of the sub-region, taking into
account data gathered from different sources, mainly: AISCO, the Central Statistical
Authority and NFIU. The model developed jointly by the Winand Staring Centre for
Integrated Land, Soil and Water Research and the Agriculture University of Wageningen (the
Netherlands) was followed in this study.
 14

The Ethiopian Highlands are considered to be the area with the highest potential for
agriculture in Ethiopia and are the main contributor to cereal production in the country. The
rainfall ranges from 1 400 to 2 200 mm per year, and the moisture pattern ranges from moist
sub-humid to humid. The population pressure is high, with an average 200 inhabitants
per km2.
The main crops are teff, wheat, barley, maize, pulses and others (oil crops, tuber crops,
etc.).
Based on survey data, the average application of FYM, taking into account quantity and
frequency, is 1 t/ha. With 132 030 tonnes of DAP and 14 070 tonnes of urea, the Ethiopian
Highlands are the biggest consumer of fertilizer in Ethiopia (about 50% of total consumption).
The recycling rate is generally low: 50-80% of dung is used for fuel and 70-90% of crop
residues are used for building or as animal feed.
Erosion is considered rather high. Erosion by run-off (splash erosion, gully formation,
ravines) is the main source of topsoil loss. Reviewing literature, it was found that there was
a soil-loss range of between 20 and 90 t/ha per year, with an average of 42 tonnes for the
sub-region under study.
Some parameters, such as volatilization, nitrification, free nitrogen fixation and
enrichment factor from soil to eroded soil, were estimated using similar data available in the
literature.
The tentative nutrient balance sheet for the most potential and productive agricultural
area of Ethiopia shows a negative to strongly negative trend.
At the present yield level, more nutrients are removed from the soil than added; if
continued, this trend would lead to a diminishing yield, as the deficit is made up of the
accumulated organic matter and miner reserve. There is need for a more integrated soil
fertility management, where all inputs and outputs are manipulated in a more discerning way.
The amount of fertilizer needed to reverse the trend is not realistic; a favourable scenario
could be:
- application of a better NP ratio in the nutrients derived from fertilizers;
- an attempt to reduce losses by all available means; and
- improvement of the management of the organic pool of nutrients.
 15

ii) Village (the Lemu Chemerri Peasant Association case)

In addition to the previous source of information, the PRA done in the PA was used as
a main source of data. Lemu Chemerri is located in the Arsi mountains, southeast of
Ethiopia, and is considered to be a very fertile agricultural area. It is one of the first
producers of wheat in the country.
The area of the PA is 1 235 ha. The dominant soil type is luvisols, with pockets of
vertisols. The slope varies, with a mode of around 10% for arable land. The average yearly
rainfall is 2 200 mm, with a potential evapo-transpiration of 1 700 mm. The moisture regime
is cool-moist and allows two cropping seasons a year. The total population is
2 400 inhabitants in 320 households. The settlement in this area is almost new, as the first
inhabitants settled around 1930.
The main crops are barley, wheat, rye, pulses and potato. Cattle, horses and sheep
produce altogether 3 595 tonnes of dung a year and remove 2 395 tonnes of biomass from
the PA, the balance being imported from neighbouring PAs. The PA buys only 66.6 tonnes
of DAP a year.
Erosion is considered to be high, due to the slope and the disappearance of natural
forest.
In spite of the relatively recent settlement and important livestock, farmers are already
mining the soil resources. Once more, the competition between agriculture and energy for
the use of dung and crop residues is responsible for the negative balance sheet. Fertilizer use
only balances the phosphorus export. Improved erosion control could not solve the issue on
its own. Improving crop and livestock management and trying to increase the recycling
process is undoubtedly part of the solution. It probably implies some dramatic changes in
terms of crop rotation and livestock feeding habits.

2.3.3 Conclusions
The above are the initial results from the field after implementing the IPNS approach
for one year. There is evidence of continuous depletion of the soil. To reverse this trend,
mineral fertilizers have to be used, but they cannot solve the problem alone. Some other
technologies have to be implemented, together with mineral fertilizers, such as: the promising
mouldboard plough, improved seed, better organic matter and crop residue management.
This implies drastic changes in the farming system in order to achieve the desired target of
more sustainable agriculture.
 16

The different on-farm networks implemented in 1994 were continued in 1995 to confirm
the results and to observe the residual effects of the organic matter applied. PRA exercises
are also under way to extend the coverage of different farming systems and to better
understand what could be feasible for farmers.
Based on these different data, it would be possible to gradually find different technical
pathways, affordable and productive enough to cope with the challenge of food security.

2.4 MODELLING
Pathway analysis can be used to identify the respective contribution of the different
environmental factors to the yield. The control plot yield (Y ^) is anindicator of soil fertility
as well as a reference point for soil potential to respond to fertilization techniques.
A tentative pathway analysis has been developed for the main cereal crops based on all
the 1992 available data (DSFT and FTS).

2.4.1 Pathway analysis for teff

Nine major soil parameters were included in the model:
- altitude, clay content and sand content;
- organic matter content, cation exchange capacity, pH; and
- soil total nitrogen content, available phosphorus (olsen), potassium content.
Together they form what may be called a "simplified environment”. Once more,
rainfall data are missing, though partly reflected by the altitude.
Standardized partial regression and correlation coefficient describes the respective
influence and direction of each path. The yield of the fertilized plots (Yfert) can be explained
by the level of the control plot yield (Y()00) to a dramatic extent. Organic matter is an
important contributor to total nitrogen and, altogether, altitude, organic matter and total
nitrogen are the main contributors to yield of the control plot.
The strong link between K and the control yield (Y()00) may suggest an intense K uptake
by teff, which can explain both the ability of teff to grow in waterlogged conditions and its
relative water-stress resistance, and thus its adaptation to vertisol areas where the two issues
occur repeatedly: It should be noticed that the soil-nutrient uptake by teff and the critical soil
level of these nutrients are not yet very well known.
 17

The poor link between P olsen and Y ^ point to the laborious issue of the estimation
of the phosphorus available in the soil.
This model stresses the need for better land management, leading to an acceptable
"control yield" level, which reflects low pressure of all yield-limiting factors, gateway for an
optimum efficiency of agro-inputs use. It also emphasizes the prominent role of organic
matter in soil-fertility maintenance. Hence, the traditional use of cow dung as fuel - the main
source of energy in Ethiopia - is a questionable issue for the future.
Such a model could be one of the diagnosis tools to be implemented; it has been
developed on an experimental basis for teff, wheat, maize and barley (see "Interpretation of
Crop Response Data, Ethiopia", FAO, AGLN, Rome, Italy, September 1994).

2.5 AGRO-SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY

In 1993, the project launched a "socio-economic survey" in the project area to create
the necessary database, in order to:
- obtain good knowledge of the socio-economic condition of farmers participating in
the project field trial network and their access to cash;
- understand the socio-economic status of other farmers at large;
- identify various social and economic factors having a direct and indirect impact on
the use of agro-input by small-scale farmers; and
- categorize the farming community on the basis of the prominent social and economic
context to appropriately address their specific technological requirements.
In this context, surveys were conducted in 1993 in the DSFT sites and in 1994 at OFFT
and OFIPNT sites. Quite a large number of farmers was involved in the surveys during both
years. Fixed types of formats were used to serve the purpose of data collection.

2.5.1 The 1993 survey

Different parameters were dealt with during the survey, which collected data from
8 administrative zones on 111 samples (mainly in the Ethiopian Highlands). A general
overview of the socio-economic status of the farmers concerned was obtained and a
preliminary database was established by the project. The findings could be used to refine and
adjust technological packages and to prioritize future research development and policy.
 18

2.5.2 The 1994 survey

Some 400 farmers from 19 different areas (not only the highlands) were involved in the
\

1994 survey. Particular attention was dedicated to the farm cereal balance sheet and to
farmers’ cash availability. Taking into account the current expenditures for growing 1 ha of
cereals and the cereal prices on the market, the survey gives the possibility of estimating the
farmers’ profit and cash.
In Ethiopia, cereal production is used mainly for food. Only some 25-30% is sold on
the market. The farmers’ cash comes only from the production that is sold and the amount
is some $US 21-26 per year per family member. The cash has to be enough for the family’s
needs for the whole year and to anticipate the current costs of the next growing season.
Moreover, part of it is put aside to buy food, just in case the weather goes bad, affecting the
following year’s production.

2.5.3 Conclusions
The surveys conducted by the NFIU have had the purpose of introducing to the project
activities the knowledge phase of the farmers’ conditions. They have been useful for showing
the technicians in the field that, without knowledge of the main factors affecting the farmers’
choices, the trial and test programme has a low impact and does not produce the expected
results. The surveys have been the first step before the introduction of further PRA
exercises.

2.6 PRA EXERCISES

PRAs and traditional surveys are complementary, but PRA is the most rapid and the
cheapest way to inform the policy-makers of the impact of food policies. Moreover, PRA
places the rural population’s concerns and interests at the heart of the exercise, giving
attention to its role and to the sharing of information rather than to its extraction (survey).
PRA also identifies the most vulnerable groups for targeting programmes and projects
and includes gender analysis. Women’s contribution to agriculture and to the family’s needs
and constraints is voiced. It is an essential element of investment in information and
communication. The investment has to be considered part of the cost of the food policy.
Knowledge of social factors, objectives, production techniques, work availability, the
sources of income of the different categories of farmers and how they allocate responsibilities
 19

and resources, is the priority for starting each agronomic test. In fact, when the agronomists
introduce an input into the farmer practices, they aim to reach the economic optimum. The
farmers try, on the other hand, to reach their optimum by minimizing risks, because their
first concern is to ensure a regular food supply to their family.

2.6.1 The NFIU experience

Six exercises were conducted in six PAs in contrasting areas of the country. The
analysis conducted by two teams of an NGO in collaboration with the project staff and the
regional, zonal and local technicians has been the object of six reports (North Gonder, South
Gonder, North Welo, Southern Tigray, Arsi and Kembata areas).
The PRAs voiced the rural population’s constraints, needs, priorities and their
suggestions for improving production and living standards. The collaboration received by the
HAs was vital for the involvement of women, to whom every PRA dedicated particular
attention.
Every PRA suggests, through the consensus and participation of the rural population,
the production factors that can be introduced, taking into account the natural resources, the
socio-economic conditions of the different strata of farmers and the local infrastructures.
Each PRA is peculiar to the area and the PA involved, but the six exercises highlight the
common situations and constraints.

2.6.2 Conclusions
PRAs are the diagnostic phase useful for understanding, through the rural population’s
involvement, the different constraints which can hinder the adoption of input and practices
by farmers. PRAs suggest that research, development and extension are the factors that
should be analysed, prior to introducing some improvement into the different farming
systems. PRAs are the first knowledge phase for reducing the risk of proposing to the
farmers technologies that they cannot adopt.

2.7 TRAINING AND WORKSHOPS

During the period from 1991 to 1995, the project organized training sessions and
workshops for the staff of the MOA at various levels. Quite a large number of participants
 20

had the opportunity to improve their skills and awareness in efficient fertilizer use, concepts
of fertilizer trials management and related topics.

2.7.1 Training
Extended training programmes were organized by the project for MOA staff at regional
and zonal levels. Five sessions of training involving around 200 regional, zonal and woreda
technicians and DAs were organized every year, with fruitful results, although the attendance
of women was found to be quite low.

2.7.2 Workshops
The project organized various workshops at national and regional level. During the
regional workshops, fertilizer trial results from the various networks were presented to the
participants on a yearly basis. Around 1 500 participants from woreda, zonal and regional
agricultural offices attended the workshops, together with FTS managers and DAs. Both joint
and group discussions were held and successful output was obtained through active
participation.
At national level, the project organized different workshops where the 1988-92 fertilizer
trial results and the new project formulation documents were presented. During these
workshops, 195 participants from the MOA, Alemaya University of Agriculture, the National
Soil Laboratory, the Ministry of External Economic Cooperation, FAO, the Italian Embassy,
NGOs, the Ministry of Natural Resources Development and Environmental Protection, the
World Bank, the European Union, etc., were involved. Accordingly, both the trial results
and the new project formulation document were thoroughly discussed and accepted by the
participants, who recommended further implementation.

2.7.3 Fellowships
During the period 1991-95, several fellowships were arranged by the project for MOA
staff. Topics relating to computer management and trial data analysis, the utilization of
organic matter as a supplementary and alternative source of plant nutrient, and concepts of
IPNS were covered during the various sessions. Moreover, frequent and regular
opportunities were given to the MOA staff to participate in international fertilizer
consultations and conferences.
 21

2.7.4 Field days and special field days

Quite a large number of farmers in various administrative regions had the opportunity
to observe project achievements. The regularly organized field days had created the chance
to have appropriate and open discussions among project staff.
Special field days were organized by the project in 1993 and 1994. They were found
to be quite successful events for a large number of women and young farmers. Four special
field days (two in each year) were organized and over 1 100 farmers participated in the
colourful events (requiring little investment), accompanied by local dances, entertainment and
technical advice. The rural populations had a better chance to voice their problems and the
constraints faced.

2.7.5 Conclusions
Training and workshops were found to be an essential forum for the smooth transfer
of knowledge. In many instances, they were also found to be unique opportunities for the
regional technicians at grassroots level to improve their knowledge.
The overall results of special field days, in terms of both technological transfer and the
development of smooth linkages between the farming community and the technicians, are
undoubtedly solid grounds for achieving sustainable outputs from the development efforts.

2.8 EXTENSION SERVICE

The NFIU project was asked to organize fertilizer trials under farm conditions,
involving some 900 new farmers every year. The activity was considered to be the first
important step towards showing the farmers that the correct rate and use of fertilizers could
significantly increase cereal yields.
The further extension service demonstration programme, involving a larger number of
farmers, should have contributed to the increase in fertilizer consumption and the consequent
increase in cereal production over larger areas.
The farmers’ first concern in Ethiopia is to secure food for their families. Since they
suffer from cash shortage, they are not the owners of their farms (there is still usufruct) and
they know that the weather is unpredictable, they do not feel confident and try to minimize
risks by putting aside some cash to buy food, just in case the season goes badly.
 22

The extension service approach to the farmers in Ethiopia was "training and visit" until
1994. This approach leaves little room for farmers’ participation and for the flow of
information from farmers to researchers and to policy-makers. If farmers do not accept a
new agro-input or some improved practice, nobody voices their reasons.
In January 1995, a new extension approach to the rural populations was introduced:
"participatory, demonstration, training". There is some evidence that "participatory" does
not mean the involvement of farmers in the assessment of constraints and in the consequent
design of technology testing. It means, rather, that groups of farmers have to participate in
the demonstration activity, but that somebody else decides which agro-input, and in what
ratio, is to be introduced and demonstrated.
The main constraints that the extension service has to face are: the high number of
small farmers (the householders are some 6 million), the poor road network, the lack of
farmer unions and the shortage of vehicles, equipment and financial resources. In this
situation, it is quite hard to give assistance and enhance agricultural development. Every
extensionist should deal with some 1 500 farmers in the areas in which he works. Probably,
only the upper stratum of farmers (5-10%, depending on the different areas) can get some
benefit from the current extension activities.

2.9 FERTILIZER SUBSIDY, CREDIT, MARKETING AND DISTRIBUTION

2.9.1 Subsidy and credit

The NFIU has always been involved in this area. During the first phase, the project
commitment was significant. During the second phase, the project was a member of the
Fertilizer Donor Committee under the chairmanship of the FAO Representative. Moreover,
collaboration, support, training programmes and documents have been directly ensured to the
counterpart department, the MOA, AISCO, Standard Authority and private companies
involved in the fertilizer sub-sector.
Fertilizers are considered the most readily available and reliable agro-input for quickly
increasing the crop yield and coping with the problem of food shortage. The Government
gave priority to the increase in fertilizer consumption.
However, the poor efficiency of the port facilities, the lack of logistics and of a decent
road network, the high cost of transport (only by truck), the growing rate of exchange
 Ethiopia Agricultural Research
t O rganization c e n tral
S 23BRARY 1
| fl.-t* <t a ?\ <h <“I __1
between the dollar and the local cuirency and the fact that the majority of fertilizers are still
imported in bags, make the farmers’ gate price one of the highest in the world.
To deal with the problem, the Government is obliged to subsidize the sub-sector and
to fix panterritorial prices. The Government is planning to start phasing out the fertilizer
subsidy as from the 1997 season. Subsidy is not a correct tool in the medium term, but it
is necessary when the farm-gate price hampers the development of consumption.
If subsidy has to be phased out, immediate investments are indispensable in: research
to increase use-efficiency; logistics, roads and distribution to cut costs; extension and credit;
and tillage, drainage, soil conservation and water management to improve fertilizer
effectiveness.
The Government encourages fertilizer consumption by giving the associated farmers the
chance to buy on credit (interest 14%). Fertilizers is the only sub-sector which receives
credit and subsidy in Ethiopian agriculture. Probably, some additional credit scheme which
can enhance other agricultural activities (oxen, tools and implements, irrigation, cash crops,
grass, etc.) is hampered by the fact that farmers do not own their farms and have no security
to give to the banks.
Small farmers form the majority in Ethiopia and cereals provide 80% of the total
population’s diet. If we consider the poor cash availability coming from cereals, the
remarkable importance of credit schemes for Ethiopian agriculture is quite evident.

2.9.2 Marketing and distribution

Despite several international missions to Ethiopia over recent years, nobody has drawn
up a comprehensive marketing plan for fertilizers. There is analysis on some logistic factors,
demand at local level, transport and the distribution network, and studies have been done on
national fertilizer demand. There is some evidence that the models used to forecast the
farmers’ demand have not worked.
The impression is that nobody has considered carefully the socio-economic and financial
aspects of the problem from the farmer’s point of view. In addition, there is currently no
comprehensive study of all the aspects related to the fertilizer sub-sector which can give the
Government a clear-cut idea about the total costs (port, roads, logistics, distribution,
transport, research, credit, subsidy) of the development of fertilizer consumption.
 24

2.9.3 Conclusions
Ethiopia and the donor community are investing remarkable resources in the
development of fertilizer consumption. There is some evidence that there lacks an exhaustive
analysis of the sub-sector.
Fertilizer-use efficiency; agricultural practices capable of reducing the nutrient loss and
giving fertilizers more effectiveness; infrastructural investments; output markets; roads; port
facilities; distribution, and the indispensable integration of fertilizers with other inputs, are
the main areas of investigation. Only then could the Government have a right idea of the
total cost of one quintal of distributed fertilizer and compare it with the expected benefit.

2.10 DATABANK
A databank set was released in February 1996, including a reference manual and
diskettes. The reference manual explains the structure of the files on the diskettes, the
internal structure of the files, the various codings used to store the data and an overview of
all the designs and layouts of the trials between 1988 and 1995. All the trials, tests and
survey results are stored on 14 diskettes.
The databank holds information on the agricultural calendar, soil analysis, benchmark
data and yields for each trial. When useful, comments and remarks arising from the DA and
farmers were computerized.

2.10.1 Conclusions
This databank is a unique resource in Ethiopia with more than 7 000 entries. Beyond
the strict crop response to fertilizer, it can be used for many other studies and investigations,
such as yield mapping for a given crop, correlation studies between yield and other
parameters or time-series analysis. Despite the numerous reports already published, much
more can be done using the NFIU databank as a reference.

2.11 SUMMARY
The NFIU project contributed to defining the fertilizer recommendations by area, cereal
and soils. However, more integrated packages of low-risk input and improved practices have
 25

to be made ready for the small-scale farmers, according to their different socio-economic
constraints and cash availability.
The first results achieved by the project through the introduction into the farmers’
practices of IPNS are very promising. They show that it is possible to steadily increase the
crop yield, taking account of the different farming systems and the natural and socio­
economic factors. The IPNS should be extended to other crops, together with cereals.
The knowledge phase of the rural populations’ conditions, through the PRA exercise,
should continue, because there is clear evidence that, by ignoring the farmers’ constraints,
the risk of making available new technologies that are not adoptable is very high.
The training programme should be set up once a deep analysis of the knowledge,
background and tasks of the different MOA technicians in the field has been carried out. The
training programme should be interactive, involving small groups of people.
There is no sense in continuing fertilizer programmes involving single farmers
separately, because usually only the richest, living along the main roads, are involved.
The EOR is something that cannot be accepted by all the different categories of farmers,
because they have different cash availability. Finally, every programme on farm conditions
has to consider every factor of the different farming systems.
Fertilizers are an important input, but promoting only their use for the development of
agriculture in Ethiopia and neglecting the other important components of the sector can
produce poor results in terms of cost/benefit and no steady increase in yield. In addition,
investing only in fertilizers, without correcting all the factors that hinder their effectiveness,
brings about a serious wastage of resources.
 26

3. RECOMMENDATIONS

The country faces a formidable challenge to feed itself and to gradually reduce its
dependency on food aid in the shortest possible period. In this connection, the combined
effects of various technical, socio-economic and policy factors have a limiting role in the
development of productive and sustainable agriculture, where the latter is the key to achieving
food security, both at national and farm level, for the present and for the generations to
come.
Based on its findings and experiences in Ethiopian agriculture, the project suggests the
following general recommendations hoping that they may serve as essential check lists for
future priority areas to individuals and institutions involved in policy, research, development
and extension tasks.

3.1 THE NATURAL RESOURCE CAPITAL

Environmental degradation, population growth, the small dimension and scattered nature
of the farms, and usufruct, all cause damage to the territory, and the vicious spiral of poverty
starts. Investments to restore the natural capital must have priority in Ethiopia. The
progressive erosion of that capital, which is not renewable, compromises the life of the
present and future generations. However, delay in the investment will make the final costs
too high and beyond the financial capacity of the country.
In the restoration programme, the farmers have to be really part of the territory they
inhabit and where they practise agriculture. They have to be involved in every plan on
territory and soil-fertility protection and restoration, because conservation activity must be
part of a normal farming system.
The maintenance of soil fertility in the plain starts with the defence of the hills from
deforestation, soil erosion and, with the necessary hydraulic adjustment, water control and
harvesting. Organic contours and alley cropping are intensive, but sustainable, labour
practices. They could be introduced into Ethiopia. Reforestation can be successful if farmers
 27

are called to share plantation and maintenance and can get additional income from all the
products the forest offers (not only wood).
Every rural development programme has to involve the low potential areas. They have
to play their part in filling the food gap, according to their available resources. There is
some doubt that the surplus areas can produce what is needed by the whole country, without
compromising the environment and living standards for a long time. Moreover, the food gap
that has to be filled requires an increase in the crop output of a million tonnes. Agronomy
suggests that, considering the present situation of the highlands, the target is unlikely to be
reached.
If the inhabitants of the fragile and drought-prone areas are not given the chance to
increase production and consequently raise the standard of living, they will move, worsening
the urban poverty or the environment of other rural areas. Public investment is, therefore,
necessary, mainly in poor areas, to give the farmers off-farm income opportunities that they
can invest in agriculture.
The pastoralist areas cannot be ignored in a development programme, considering that
a million people in Ethiopia live there and considering the vital contribution of livestock and
livestock products to the national diet. Ethiopia has the largest livestock capital in Africa.
Improvement of pasture, water availability, veterinary centres, marketing and market
infrastructures, slaughter houses, stock routes and resting areas are prominent investments;
The pastoral populations have to have the possibility of inhabiting their areas and must not
be forced to invade other territories when natural calamities or recurrent animal pests push
them away.

3.2 IMPROVED SEED

It is estimated that not more than 5% of small farmers use improved seed. The sole
seed producer is the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise, a public company. The gap between supply
and demand indicates the need for a more comprehensive programme involving government
and private companies in research, production and marketing.
Moreover, farmers in many areas demand the availability of improved forage, potatoes
and vegetable seeds; regrettably, there is not, at present, an appropriate answer.
 28

3.3 RESEARCH
Research has a prominent role in agricultural development, because the pay-off is
always positive.
Small farmers in Ethiopia grow mixed crops to minimize risks. A multi-disciplinary
approach by the researchers is needed to take into account: the interaction among the different
components of the farm (livestock, trees, pasture, crops, etc.); the labour availability; gender
roles; household economics, and credit and agro-input availability.
Regrettably, research is usually commodity and mono-cropping based. In addition, the
model used to modify the farmer’s knowledge is "transfer of technology" through the
extension agents. There is evidence that, only by directly involving the rural populations and
allowing them to give their contribution, it is possible to develop a common language between
farmers and outsiders.
The activities of the research institutions should be dedicated mainly to the following
areas:
- improvement of implements and tools to ameliorate tillage and drainage;
- food crops nutrient uptake in the main agro-sub-ecological zones;
- new multipurpose tree varieties (forage, fuelwood, soil defence);
- hydraulic adjustment and water-harvesting in the hills;
- pasture improvement;
- fertilizer-use efficiency and relationship with rainfall, soil moisture, topsoil
characteristics, drainage conditions and soil depth; residual effect of fertilizer in the
main soils;
~ development of crop resistance to drought, diseases and pests (considering the
delicate genetics of teff, efforts should be concentrated initially on wheat, maize and
barley);
- use of local resources as nutrients and soil correctives: rock phosphates, lime,
bonemeal, sulphur;
- integrated crop health management - decentralized stations have to understand the
interaction between crops, pests and environment; every possible enemy of crop
parasites, in the context of local climate and farming systems, should be introduced
to avoid the massive use of chemicals that can be very dangerous considering the
current poor tillage and drainage practices in Ethiopia; moreover, the cost of
chemicals is beyond the small farmers’ capacity; the decentralized stations should
 29

also exercise permanent vigilance of the environmental conditions which favour the
development of parasites; in case of alarm, they should inform farmers, through the
PAs, of the necessity to defend their crops; the possible over-use of chemicals can
be avoided.

3.4 FERTILIZERS
Fertilizers are an important input, but they cannot support agricultural development if
they are the only factor used. The present soil-nutrient balance in Ethiopia is dramatically
negative, in particular the presence of nitrogen.
To stop nutrient depletion and steadily achieve the right balance, it is not enough to
simply increase the use of mineral fertilizers. There is a need for integrated soil fertility
management, where all inputs and outputs are manipulated in a judicious way. Fertilizers can
contribute to the yield increase, provided that the use-efficiency can be raised and that other
necessary agronomic factors are supplied.
Fertilizers are expensive in Ethiopia. Without improving logistics, marketing, the
training programme, research, infrastructural investments, crop output markets, the use of
organic matter, local nutrient resources and correctives, their consumption will not have any
positive impact on crop yield, which will continue to be affected mainly by rainfall.
In the light of the above, the following recommendations are made with regard to the
use of fertilizers:
- Special attention should be given to the maximization of fertilizer-use efficiency.
Fertilizer is a single factor for increasing yield. Hence, its use should only be
encouraged in line with the use of improved cultural practices, erosion control, pest
and weed control, use of potential crops and varieties and reduction of post-harvest
crop loss. It is only through such an approach that wastage of the costly agro-inputs
can be reduced, which ultimately leads to the maximization of benefits.
- Due attention needs to be given to risk management regarding the use of chemical
fertilizers by small-scale farmers. In particular: use and refer to as an alternative the
agronomic feasibility of the recommended rates, based on the prevailing fertilizer and
crop price relationships; under conditions where great variability in EOR for similar
growing conditions is observed, stick to the geometric mean/median of the values;
the fertilizer recommendations presented for the new regions need to be supported
and refined by additional trial results; fertilizer recommendations need to be revised
and double-checked only after a minimum 5-8 year period for both economic and
technical reasons; new fertilizer trials could be launched for new cropping and
farming systems and agro-ecological zones; fertilizer-use efficiency studies should be
initiated and strengthened in various zones of the country; trials on other plant
nutrients (secondary and trace elements) should be launched under different farming
systems.
Attention needs to be given to research, development and extension work on IPNS.
The use of chemical fertilizers in a particular farming system needs to be closely
associated with pre-determined "targeted yield levels". Attention should be given to
the prevailing food gap, people’s food habits and local market situations when
targeting yield levels in a specific area. Under specific farming conditions, marginal
yield increments through a modest use of inputs could appear to be preferred by the
farmer to high yield increments brought about by applying high input doses.
Introduction of new crops and cropping patterns to the existing cropping systems
must be initiated. In this connection, the integration of tuber crops (mainly in the
seed plough-farming system) in the Central Highlands has to be considered. Such
moves could not only bring about higher productivity indices from the external agro­
inputs, but also create tremendous opportunity for viable organic matter recycling.
Apparently, efficient extension works have to be launched in order to achieve a
gradual change in the food habits of the people.
Special attention should be given to the establishment of a "network of reference
farms". Under such a network, the opportunity to assess and evaluate various
technological packages at pre-extension stage is quite immense. Modification,
refinement and tuning up of potential packages could be carried out on the basis of
feedback from such a network.
In relation to the existence of several agro-ecologies in the country, nitrogen and
phosphorus trials need to be launched on new crops, agro-ecologies and farming
systems. Moreover, belg (short rainy season), ration (regrowth), boney farms
(residual moisture) and irrigated agriculture, etc., should be considered. Updating
of the previous recommendation is also essential.
The potential of primary (such as potassium), secondary and trace elements on yield
increment and soil fertility maintenance has to be assessed.
 31

- Subsequent attention should be given to adequately address the research and

development needs of problem soils. Hence, studies on the efficient utilization of
acid, alkaline and saline soils, etc., should be carried out. Viable development
programmes on problem soils will not only improve productivity per unit area of
land, but the opportunity to expand the area to be cultivated from reclaimed
wasteland is apparently huge.
- Efficient and viable soil test services to small-scale farmers need to be initiated and
developed in strategically selected areas/regions. However, the realization of such
services may only be achieved through an acceptable level of prior studies on
correlation and calibration works on soil test and plant response values under specific
growing conditions.
- The structure of the PRAs should be revised on the basis of recent experience;
greater homogeneity, the concentration of the items and more attention to the area
of suggestions and recommendations are needed; cut-crossing analysis and an
evaluation of the possible extension of the achievements to other areas having the
same agro-socio-economic components should be undertaken.
- Future soil fertility and fertilizer research and development and extension works need
to be carried out in a coordinated manner, where the existence of viable and organic
linkage and cooperation among the research, development and extension
institutions/firms paves the way for achieving the required success in fertilizer
*

promotion.
- Individual and group training of potential staff members for both short- and long-term
periods needs to be encouraged. In this respect, unless appropriate measures are
taken to avoid and minimize the continuous reshuffling and lack of trained personnel
at all levels, the efforts towards achieving national capacity in the sub-sector will be
unsuccessful. In view of the newly established federal and regional administration
in the country, efforts towards achieving efficient capacity building in fertilizer
development and plant nutrition management should be promoted.
- Regional and national policies, mainly in relation to the prices of external agro-inputs
and agricultural products, as well as land tenure systems, need to be conducive and
consistent. Therefore, small-scale farmers will be encouraged to maintain improved
soil-management practices and the use of external agro-inputs in order to achieve,
eventually, productive and sustainable agricultural development.
 32

- The availability of fertilizer on credit at the right time is essential for attaining the
targeted yield.
- While studying fertilizer rates, the contribution of pulse crops (precursor crop) should
be quantified.
- More emphasis should be given in the future to the relation between climatic factors,
such as rainfall, and crop resistance to any external inputs. Moreover, the climatic
factor risk should be properly assessed over a reasonable period of time. Among
other factors, the topsoil characteristics, including plough pan, micro-animal
abundance, worms abundance, water moisture content, rooting system dispersion,
etc., could be a tool for better understanding yield and productivity limitation.

3.5 TRAINING AND WORKSHOPS

The following recommendations are made:
- National workshops should give due emphasis to the active participation of the
respective regions; special attention must be given to backward regions and zones and
to female participants.
- Teaching materials need to be based on and supported by current research findings.
The need to maintain and support the trained staff in their respective duties is a pre­
condition to utilizing the best output of the training services in a sustainable manner.
- Fellowships should be organized in countries with similar socio-economic
backgrounds and which have already achieved some success in rural development.
- Field days organized in different areas of the country should be strengthened and
investment should be made in special field days.

3.6 EXTENSION SERVICE

More collaboration is needed between research, development and extension. Every year
the workplan topics should be discussed, ensuring homogeneity in their activities. They have
the same target: farmers. They should have a common, simple language when they approach
the farmers, to avoid confusion and misunderstanding.
A double cross-communication pathway from and to farmers should be established.
Very well balanced training programmes, coordinated by the MOA, should involve the DAs
 33

twice a year. All training organized by projects, NGOs and institutions should be harmonized
in collaboration with the MOA at central and regional levels.
A deep analysis of the extension resources needed to implement government policy
should be undertaken. A consistent plan of the territory, the number of farmers and the
different categories that can be covered and assisted should be the logical consequence.
 35

Appendix 1

PROJECT STAFF

Dates of Service
Name Function Starting Date Concluding Date

International

R. Ferrari Chief Technical Adviser Oct. 1992 Feb. 1996

R. Ravenna Project Manager April 1985 April 1991
J.A. Scaglia Plant Nutrition/Fertilizer
Use Specialist Feb. 1993 Feb. 1996
C.T. Ho Plant Nutritionist Sept. 1986 Dec. 1992
J. Deckers Senior Agronomist April 1985 June 1989
C. De Bie Fertilizer Use/Soil
Fertility Agronomist Jan. 1990 May 1991

National

A.T. Medhin Secretary June 1985 Feb. 1996

T. Mussie Computer Operator (temporary) Jan. 1989 Feb. 1996
M. Tamirat Computer Operator (temporary) Jan. 1994 June 1995
A.A. Wossen Driver (temporary) June 1985 June 1991
A.S. Tilahun Driver (temporary) Aug. 1987 April 1991
A.F. Hailu Driver (temporary) April 1991 Feb. 1996

Government personnel

A.B. Haile Head, ADD/MOA, NFIU counterpart March 1989 June 1991
A.A. Negari A/Head, ADD/MOA, NFIU counterpart July 1991 Nov. 1991
A.M. Bekele Head, ADD/MOA, NFIU counterpart May 1993 July 1995
B. Kabeto A/Head, ADD/MOA, NFIU counterpart Aug. 1995 present
A.M Bekele Agronomist March 1991 July 1992
A.A. Yirdaw Agronomist May 1989 March 1991
A.Y. As sen Agronomist May 1991 June 1994
A.B. Haile Senior Agronomist Sept. 1992 March 1994
A.T. Negussie Senior Agronomist May 1994 present
A.G.G. Kidan Agronomist April 1994 present
A.T. Afrasa Driver Nov. 1991 present
 36

Appendix 2

FELLOWSHIPS

Participants Studv Place Date

B. Haile Fertilizer Use Development Zimbabwe 1991

A. Yirdaw Computer course - data processing Belgium 1991
r* 2 2 ^ i> r< 2 2 >

M. Bekele Computer course - data processing Belgium 1991

M. Bekele 16th FAO Fertilizer Consultation Rome 1992
Y. Assen 17th FAO Fertilizer Consultation Islamabad 1993
A. Assefa Organic Fertilizer Consultation Belgium 1993
T. Lakew Organic Fertilizer Consultation Belgium 1993
M. Bekele IF A Regional Conference Senegal 1994
M. Bekele 18th FAO Fertilizer Consultation Rome 1994
T. Negussie Plant Nutrition Management - Food
Security in Developing Countries Viterbo 1995
 37

Appendix 3

MAJOR ITEMS OF EQUIPMENT PROVIDED

Cost
Quantity Item ($ US)

1 Stencil machine "Gestetner" Model 4130 1 675

1 Station wagon "Land Rover" Model 90 16 594
1 Station wagon "Toyota" Land Cruiser 16 097
1 Station wagon "Toyota" Land Cruiser 18 380
1 IBM personal system/2 Model 80-071 9 236
1 Copier "Canon" Model NP-4050 with complete accessories 6 028
1 Computer "IBM" PS/VP SI 6381-F4C, 486 SX 2 195
2 Computer "IBM" 486 DX2 50 MHz processor 5 610
 38

Appendix 4

LIST OF PROJECT PUBLICATIONS

A4.1 FIELD REPORTS

1. Status of Fertilizer Research in Ethiopia and Scope for Future Research and Extension
Work. July 1985.

2. Proposed New Trial Programme for Agricultural Development. August 1985.

3. Proposed New Design for the Half Hectare MO A/ADD Intermediate Trial Sites, Addis
Ababa. October 1985.

4. Five Year Budget 1985-1990 for Proposed New Trial Programme for Agricultural
Development. November 1985.

5. Outline for New Trial Programme Field Trial Sites. November 1985.

6. AISCO Procedures. November 1985.

7. Options and Priorities for the Implementation of the New Trial Programme for
Agricultural Development. November 1985.

8. Soil Structure, a Base for Soil Management and Soil Conservation. January 1986.

9. Draft Agricultural Development Agents Handbook for Crop Agronomy. January 1986.

10. New Half Hectare Trial Site (Intermediate Trials Site) Operational Manual. January
1986.

11. Field Trial Sites - Operational Manual. January 1986.

12. Simplified FAO/UNESCO Soil Classification System for Agricultural Development

Agents. February 1986.

13. The New Trial Programme for Agricultural Development. February 1986.

14. Fertilizer Nutrients and Materials - a scientific base for fertilizer and inputs
recommendations and for fertilizer diversification in Ethiopia. February 1986.

15. National Field Trial Programme. March 1986.

 39

16. Proposal of Joint IAR/ADD/NFIU National Fertilizer Plot Trial Programme. March
1986.

17. Collection, Classification and Assessment of ADD Trials and Demonstration Records.
June 1986.

18. ETHINA, Entering Ethiopian Trial Data in Apricot XI Computer. September 1986.

19. The ETHINA Data Processing Suite Illustrated Users Manual. October 1986.

20. Field Trial Sites Operational Manual (1987). November 1986.

21. Intermediate Trial Sites Operation Manual (1987). November 1986.

22. Analysis of Teff Trials and Fertilizer Recommendations Based on EPID Data (1971-
1974). December 1986.

23. Results of ADD Demonstrations in Hararghe Region 1980-1985. December 1986.

24. H I80 Graf Graphics Program and OH P & Overhead Projector Slide Program -
Operational Manual. January 1987.

25. Linkage between Soil Classification, Farmer Problems and Design of Soil Fertility
Research. March 1987.

26. Potential Cereal Crops Yield Increase by Fertilizer Application in Ethiopia. March
1987.

27. Analysis of Maize Trials and Fertilizer Recommendations Based on EPID Data. May
1987.

28. Analysis of Wheat Trials and Fertilizer Recommendations Based on EPID Data. May
1987.

29. Analysis of Sorghum Trials and Fertilizer Recommendations Based on EPID Data.
May 1987.

30. Analysis of Barley Trials and Fertilizer Recommendations Based on EPID Data. May
1987.

31. Profile of Fertilizer Marketing, Distribution and Credit in Ethiopia. August 1987.

32. Project Proposal for a Training Programme on Fertilizer Distribution, Marketing and
Credit for Service Cooperative in Ethiopia. August 1987.

33. NFIU Data Bank Status Report. September 1987.

34. Review of the Agronomy Training Activities under the National Field Trial
Programme. September 1987.
 40

35. Soil Fertility Assessment of Ethiopia Vertisols on the Basis of Extension Trial Series
of the Ministry of Agriculture. September 1987.

36. General Information on the National Fertilizer and Inputs Unit. September 1987.

37. NFIU Data Bank System, Catalogue of Software. September 1987.

38. Introduction of Fertilizer to Peasant Sector in Ethiopia, November 1987.

39. Preparation of Fertilizer Requirements for 1988 Field Trial Sites. December 1987.

40. Illustrated Guide for Software and Procedures for the NFTP Databank. December
1987.

41. 1988 Field Trials Site Operation (NFIU/AACM) Manual Part I, Layout and
Management. January 1988.

42. 1988 Field Trials Site Operation (NFIU/AACM) Manual Part II, Trials Design and
Layout. January 1988.

43. 1988 Intermediate Trials Sites Operation Manual. January 1988.

44. Cereal Crop Response to Fertilizer Application in Ethiopia and National Cereal Self
Sufficiency. February 1988.

45. 1988 On-Farm Trial Operation Manual. March 1988.

46. Cereal Crop Response to Fertilizer Application in Ethiopia and National Cereal Self
Sufficiency, Revised Edition. April 1988.

47. Description of the Computerized Database and Scope for Stratification of the Fertilizer
Trials. April 1988.

48. Numbering and Location of the ADD Field Trials and Intermediate Trial Sites, Revised
Edition. May 1988.

49. NFTP Baseline Data for the Fertilizer Trials. June 1988.

50. Review of the Fertilizer Demonstration Data of the Freedom from Hunger Campaign
in Ethiopia (1967-1969). September 1988.

51. Review of the IAR/ADD Fertilizer and Variety Trials on Cereal Crops (1981-1986).
September 1988.

52. Review of Fertilizer Trials and Demonstrations Conducted in Ethiopia from 1967 to
1987 and Proposal for New Fertilizer Recommendations for Major Cereal Crops.
November 1988.
 41

53. Proposal for the Fertilizer Trials Programme Second Phase Ethiopia 1989-1992.
November 1988.

54. 1988 Field Trial Sites Operation Manual/Fertilizer Trials Design and Layout. February
1989.

55. 1988 Dispersed Simple Fertilizer Trials (DSFT) Operation Manual. April 1989.

56. Summary of Major Activities and Results of the FAO Project "National Fertilizer and
Inputs Unit". May 1989.

57. Report on the Training Programme on Fertilizer Supply, Distribution and Credit for
Service Cooperatives (1987-1988). May 1989.

58. ETHMENU to Process Fertilizer Trials and Demonstrations. June 1989.

59. Ethiopia - Fertilizer Supply and Demand of the Peasant Sector 1985/86 - 1987/88.
October 1989.

60. 1990 Dispersed Simple Fertilizer Trial (DSFT) Operation Manual. March 1990.

61. Proposal for the Fertilizer Trial Programme - 1990/91 - 1992/93. April 1990.

62. Ethiopia: 1988/89 Fertilizer Year Book. October 1990.

63. Field Trial Sites Operation Manual for Fertilizer Trials. January 1991.

64. 1991 Dispersed Simple Fertilizer Trial No. 1 Comparative Fertilizer Trial (DSFT-2)
Operation Manual. January 1992.

65. 1991 Dispersed Simple Fertilizer Trial No. 2 Comparative Fertilizer Trial (DSFT-2)
Operation Manual. January 1992.

66. An Efficient Use of Fertilizer. January 1992.

67. Guidelines for Data Processing Activities at ADD/NFIU through LOTUS Spreadsheet
and SPSS/PC + Programmes Developed. December 1992.

68. Operation Manual for 1993 Integrated Fertility Management Trials. January 1993.

69. Operation Manual for 1993 Dispersed Simple Fertility Management Trials DSFT/MT.
January 1993.

70. Field Trial Sites - Preliminary Observation on the Effect of Ammonium Sulphate on
Yield, Protein and Calorie Contents of some Text Crops. January 1993.

71. A Contribution to the Ethiopian Agriculture. April 1993.

 42

72. A Contribution to the Ethiopian Agriculture II NFIU New Phase Guidelines. July
1993.

73. Field Programme for 1994. December 1993.

74. Trial Design and Layout (FTS). January 1994.

75. Field Book for 1994 (OFFT and OFIPNT). January 1994.

76. Socio-Economic Survey and Balance Sheet Forms 1993. January 1993.

76a. Socio-Economic Survey and Balance Sheet Forms 1994. January 1994.

77. An Overview of the Ethiopian Agriculture (Revision and Improvement of WP 44 and

49). February 1994.

78. Main Results of the Socio-Economic Survey in the Central Highland. April 1994.

79. An Assessment on the Proposed Location of the New Network in Relation to Agro-
Ecological Zones. May 1994.

80. Preliminary Study of 1993 Socio-Economic Survey. May 1994.

81. Evolution of Fertilizer Recommendation by NFIU and Price Reference List 1988-1992.
July 1994.

82. Evolution of Fertilizer Recommendations for the Five Main Cereal Crops (1988-1992).
July 1994.

83. Pre-Appraisal Survey on some Revolving Fund Schemes in Three Different Ethiopian
Areas. August 1994.

84. Field Programme for 1995 (OFFT and OFIPNT). January 1995.

85. Socio-Economic Survey Forms - 1995 Questionnaire. January 1995.

86. Evolution of NFIU Data Bank Results and Implications in Terms of Fertilizer
Application (price reference list; fertilizer-use risk). June 1995.

87. Field Book for 1995 (OFFT and OFIPNT). January 1995.

88. Information Sheets, Agricultural Areas of Ethiopia. August 1995.

89. Economic Optimum Rate Calculation: 1992. July 1994.

90. Economic Optimum Rate Calculation: 1993. May 1995.

 43

A4.2 FIELD RESULT REPORTS

1. Results of 1986 Field Trial Sites, FTS. September 1987.

2. Results of the 1986 (ITS) Partial Factorial Fertilizer Trials.January 1988.

3. Results of the 1986-1987 FTS Factorial Fertilizer Trialsand ITS Partial Factorial
Fertilizer Trials. October 1988.

4. Teff - Results of the FTS, ITS and DSFT Fertilizer Trials Conducted by ADD/NFIU
in 1988. October 1989.

5. Wheat - Results of the FTS, ITS and DSFT Fertilizer Trials Conducted by ADD/NFIU
in 1988. October 1989.

6. Barley - Results of the FTS, ITS and DSFT Fertilizer Trials Conducted by ADD/NFIU
in 1988. October 1989.

7. Maize - Results of the FTS, ITS and DSFT Fertilizer Trials Conducted by ADD/NFIU
in 1988. October 1989.

8. Sorghum - Results of the FTS, ITS and DSFT Fertilizer Trials Conducted by
ADD/NFIU in 1988. October 1989.

9. Results of Fertilizer Trials Conducted on Major Cereal Crops by ADD/NFIU (1986-

1989) (first draft). November 1990.

9a. Results of Fertilizer Trials Conducted on Major Cereal Crops by ADD/NFIU (1986-
1989). January 1991.

10. Results of Phosphate Sources Trial Conducted on Major Cereal Crops (1989-1991).
November 1992.

11. Results of Comparative Fertilizer Trial Conducted on Major Cereal Crops (1989-1991).
November 1992.

12. Results of Soil Ameliorant Trial Conducted on Major Cereal Crops (1988-1991).
December 1992.

13. Results of NPK Fertilizer Trials Conducted on Major Cereal Crops (1988-1991).
December 1992.

14. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Response Surfaces Nitrogen and Phosphorus ISO Yield
Curves for the Main Cereal Crops in Ethiopia (1988-1991). July 1993.

15. An Overview of the 1993 Results of Dispersed Simple Fertilizer Trials. September '
1995.
 44

A4.3 TECHNICAL REPORTS

1. Report on Consultant’s Mission to Assist NFIU in the Preparation of Project Work

Plan. F.W.I. Van Dierendonck. August 1985.

2. Report on Consultant’s Mission to Assist NFIU for the Computerization of Field Trials
Data. July 1986.

3. Report on Consultant’s Mission to Assist NFIU for the Computerization of Field Trials
Data. September 1986.

4. Ethiopian Agriculture Crop Yield Response and Fertilizer Policies. G.W. Fischer and
M.M. Shah. First draft, July 1989. Second draft, October 1989. Final version,
July 1990.

5. Stratification of Fertilizer Trials in Ethiopia. March 1992.

A4.4 FAO CONSULTATIONS/MEETINGS

1. FAO Fertilizer Programme in Ethiopia. Paper presented by ADD at the 11th

Consultation of the FAO Fertilizer Programme, Rome, 14-18 April 1986.

2. The Role of Fertilizer in Ethiopian Agriculture. FAO meeting, February 1987.

3. FAO Fertilizer Programme in Ethiopia. Paper presented at the 12th Consultation of

the FAO Fertilizer Programme. Awpke Aynalem, July 1987.

4. FAO Fertilizer Programme in Ethiopia. Paper presented at the 13th Consultation of

the FAO Fertilizer Programme. Betru Haile, April 1988.

5. FAO Fertilizer Programme in Ethiopia. Paper presented by ADD at the 14th

Consultation of the FAO Fertilizer Programme, Arusha, 23-26 May 1989.

6. An Overview of the Main Achievements of the FAO Fertilizer Programme in Ethiopia.

Paper presented at the 17th Consultation of the FAO Fertilizer Programme, Islamabad,
Pakistan. Yimer Assen, May 1993.

7. Results of the Broad Context Appraisal and Upgrading. Paper presented at the 18th
Consultation of the FAO Plant Nutrition Programme, 25-28 October 1994, FAO,
Rome, October 1994.

8. Integrated Plant Nutrition System Activities in Ethiopia. Paper presented at the 19th
Consultation of the FAO Plant Nutrition Programme, 12-13 December 1995.
 45

A4.5 WORKSHOPS AND SEMINARS (NATIONAL)

1. Proceedings of the Fertilizer Marketing Management Seminar for Ethiopia,

Addis Ababa, 10-13 March 1986.

2. Economics of Fertilizer Use in Ethiopia. Paper presented at the Workshop on

Fertilizer Policy Formulation for Ethiopia, March 1987.

3. Crop Response to Fertilizer in Ethiopia. Paper presented at the Workshop on

Fertilizer Policy Formulation for Ethiopia, March 1987.

4. Proceedings of the Workshop on Fertilizer Policy Formulation for Ethiopia,

Addis Ababa, 3-6 March 1987.

5. Agronomic Feasibility of the Proposed Recommendations and Comparison with the

Previous Recommendations. Paper presented at the 1993 Workshop on the "Results
of Fertilizer Trials and Recommendations for the Main Cereal Crops", June 1993.

A4.6 WORKSHOPS AND SEMINARS (INTERNATIONAL)

1. Crop Production Techniques and Fertilizer Management in Ethiopia. Paper presented

by ADD at the Imphos Seminar, New Delhi, January 1986.

2. Crop Production and Plant Nutrition in Ethiopia. Country paper presented by

Betru Haile at the Sub-Regional African Seminar. October 1988.

3. Activities of the National Fertilizer and Inputs Unit. Paper presented by

Tesfaye Negussie at Sub-Regional African Seminar, October 1988.

4. Crop Responses to Balanced Fertilization and Fertilizer Policies in Ethiopian

Agriculture. Paper presented by Betru Haile at the IFA Regional Conference for
Sub-Saharan Africa, Harare, 25-28 March 1991.

5. Plant Nutrition Management in Ethiopia, Present Status and Perspectives. Paper

presented at the IFA Regional Conference for Africa, Dakar, 1-3 February 1994.

A4.7 INTERIM/FINAL REPORTS

1. National Fertilizer and Inputs Unit, April 1985 - June 1990, Ethiopia. Interim Report, *
Rome, 1990.
 46

A4.8 PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL REPORTS

1. Region 4, Arsi Zone, Lemu Chemerri Peasant Association, December 1994.

2. Region 3, South Gonder Zone, Arga-Diddim Peasant Association, March 1995.

3. Southern Ethiopian People’s Region, Hadiya Zone - Separ, Shecha-Roma Peasant

Association, May 1995.

4. Region 3, North Welo Zone, Buhoro Peasant Association, June 1995.

5. Region 1, South Tigray Zone, Adigolo Peasant Association, June 1995.

6. Region 3, North Gonder Zone, Tach Teda Peasant Association, June 1995.