HS 3252-PROFESSIONAL ENGLISH II

STUDY MATERIAL

PART A

MODALS

USE OF PREPOSITIONS

CONJUNCTIONS

DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH

PART B

RECOMMENDATIONS

INTERPRTATION OF CHARTS / TRANCODING INFORMATION

REPORT WRITING

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 Modal Verbs
Here's a list of the modal verbs in English:

can could may might will

would must shall should ought to

Models are different from normal verbs:

1: They don't use an 's' for the third person singular.

2: They make questions by inversion ('she can go' becomes 'can she go?').
3: They are followed directly by the infinitive of another verb (without 'to').
Probability:
First, they can be used when we want to say how sure we are that something
happened / is happening / will happen. We often call these 'modals of deduction'
or 'speculation' or 'certainty' or 'probability'.

For example:

 It's snowing, so it must be very cold outside.

 I don't know where John is. He could have missed the train.
 This bill can't be right. £200 for two cups of coffee!

Ability
We use 'can' and 'could' to talk about a skill or ability.

For example:

 She can speak six languages.

 My grandfather could play golf very well.
 I can't drive.

Obligation and Advice

We can use verbs such as 'must' or 'should' to say when something is necessary
or unnecessary, or to give advice.

For example:

 Children must do their homework.

 We have to wear a uniform at work.

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 You should stop smoking.

Permission
We can use verbs such as 'can', 'could' and 'may' to ask for and give permission.
We also use modal verbs to say something is not allowed.

For example:

 Could I leave early today, please?

 You may not use the car tonight.
 Can we swim in the lake?

Habits
We can use 'will' and 'would' to talk about habits or things we usually do, or did
in the past.

For example:

 When I lived in Italy, we would often eat in the restaurant next to my flat.
 John will always be late!

The past modals 'could have + past participle', 'should have + past participle'
and 'would have + past participle' can be confusing. I explain about them here.

Modals in English Grammar

1. can

Use Examples

ability to do sth. in the present (substitute

I can speak English.
form: to be able to)

permission to do sth. in the present

Can I go to the cinema?
(substitute form: to be allowed to)

Can you wait a moment,

Request
please?

offer I can lend you my car till

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Use Examples

tomorrow.

Can we visit Grandma at the

Suggestion
weekend?

Possibility It can get very hot in Arizona.

2. Could

Use Examples

ability to do sth. in the past (substitute

I could speak English.
form: to be able to)

permission to do sth. in the past

I could go to the cinema.
(substitute form: to be allowed to)

polite question * Could I go to the cinema, please?

Could you wait a moment,

polite request *
please?

I could lend you my car till

polite offer *
tomorrow.

Could we visit Grandma at the

polite suggestion *
weekend?

possibility * It could get very hot in Montana.

3. May

Use Examples

Possibility It may rain today.

permission to do sth. in the present (substitute form: May I go to the

to be allowed to) cinema?

polite suggestion May I help you?

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4. Might

Use Examples

possibility (less possible than may) * It might rain today.

hesitant offer * Might I help you?

5. Must

Use Examples

force, necessity I must go to the supermarket today.

Possibility You must be tired.

advice, recommendation You must see the new film with Brad Pitt.

6. must not/may not

Use Examples

You mustn't work on dad's computer.

prohibition (must is a little stronger)
You may not work on dad's computer.

7. Need not

Use Examples

sth. is not I needn't go to the supermarket, we're going to the

necessary restaurant tonight.

8. Ought to

similar to should – ought to sounds a little less subjective

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Use Examples

advice You ought to drive carefully in bad weather.

obligation You ought to switch off the light when you leave the room.

9. Shall

used instead of will in the 1st person

Use Examples

suggestion Shall I carry your bag?

10. Should

Use Examples

advice You should drive carefully in bad weather.

obligation You should switch off the light when you leave the room.

11. Will

Use Examples

wish, request, demand, order (less

Will you please shut the door?
polite than would)

prediction, assumption I think it will rain on Friday.

Promise I will stop smoking.

Can somebody drive me to the

spontaneous decision
station? - I will.

habits She's strange, she'll sit for hours

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Use Examples

without talking.

12. Would

Use Examples

wish, request (more polite than

Would you shut the door, please?
will)

Sometimes he would bring me some

habits in the past
flowers.

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 PREPOSITION: DEFINITION & TYPES
A preposition is a word that indicates the relationship between a noun and the
other words of a sentence. They explain relationships of sequence, space, and
logic between the object of the sentence and the rest of the sentence. They help
us understand order, time connections, and positions.

Example:

I am going to Canada.

Alex threw a stone into the pond.

The present is inside the box.

They have gone out of the town.

There are a few interesting linguistic facts about preposition.

 First, they are a closed class of words which means no new preposition
gets added to the language. We use a fixed set of prepositions.
 Second, prepositions do not have any other form. They cannot be plural,
possessive, inflection, or anything else.
 Third, most of the prepositions have many different contextual and
natural uses. So, it is easy to be confused about preposition.
 Fourth, sometimes a preposition works as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.
 Prepositions can be of one, two, three, or even more words. Prepositions
with two or more words are called phrasal prepositions.

There are some commonly used phrasal prepositions:

Because of, in case of, instead of, by way of, on behalf of, on account of, in care
of, in spite of, on the side of, etc.

Types of Preposition

Most of the prepositions have many uses. There are some prepositions which
are common in every type of preposition as they function in a versatile way.

1. Prepositions of Time
2. Prepositions of Place and Direction
3. Prepositions of Agents or Things
4. Phrasal Prepositions

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Prepositions of Time:

Prepositions of time show the relationship of time between the nouns to the
other parts of a sentence.

On, at, in, from, to, for, since, ago, before, till/until, by, etc. are the most
common preposition of time.

Example:

He started working at 10 AM.

The company called meeting on 25 October.

There is a holiday in December.

He has been ill since Monday.

Prepositions of Place and Direction:

Prepositions of place show the relationship of place between the nouns to the
other parts of a sentence.

On, at, in, by, from, to, towards, up, down, across, between, among, through, in
front of, behind, above, over, under, below, etc. are the most common
prepositions of place/direction.

Example:

He is at home.

He came from England.

The police broke into the house.

I live across the river.

Prepositions of Agents or Things:

Prepositions of agents or things indicate a causal relationship between nouns

and other parts of the sentence.

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Of, for, by, with, about, etc. are the most used and common prepositions of
agents or things.

Example:

This article is about smartphones.

Most of the guests have already left.

I will always be here for you.

He is playing with his brothers.

Phrasal Prepositions:

A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional phrase, but they are a combination

of two or more words which functions as a preposition.

Along with, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in front of,
contrary to, in spite of, on account of, in reference to, in addition to, in regard
to, instead of, on top of, out of, with regard to, etc. are the most common phrasal
prepositions.

Example:

They along with their children went to Atlanta.

According to the new rules, you are not right.

In spite of being a good player, he was not selected.

I‟m going out of the city.

The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used
prepositions in English:

Prepositions – Time

English Usage Example

 on  days of the week  on Monday

 months / seasons
 in August / in winter
 in  time of day
 in the morning
 year
 in 2006
 after a certain period of

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 English Usage Example
time (when?)  in an hour

 for night
 at night
 for weekend
 at  at the weekend
 a certain point of time
 at half past nine
(when?)

 from a certain point of

 since  since 1980
time (past till now)

 over a certain period of

 for  for 2 years
time (past till now)

 a certain time in the

 ago  2 years ago
past

 earlier than a certain

 before  before 2004
point of time

 to  telling the time  ten to six (5:50)

 past  telling the time  ten past six (6:10)

 marking the beginning

 to / till /  from Monday to/till
and end of a period of
until Friday
time

 in the sense of how

 He is on holiday until
 till / until long something is
Friday.
going to last

 I will be back by 6
 in the sense of at the
o‟clock.
 by latest
 By 11 o'clock, I had
 up to a certain time
read five pages.

Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)

English Usage Example

 in  room, building, street,  in the kitchen, in
town, country London

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 English Usage Example
 book, paper etc.  in the book
 car, taxi  in the car, in a taxi
 picture, world  in the picture, in the
world

 meaning next to, by an

 at the door, at the
object
station
 for table
 at the table
 for events
 at  at a concert, at the
 place where you are to
party
do something typical
 at the cinema, at
(watch a film, study,
school, at work
work)

 attached  the picture on the wall

 for a place with a river
 being on a surface
 for a certain side (left,
 on
right)
 for a floor in a house
 for public transport
 for television, radio
 London lies on the
Thames.
 on the table
 on the left
 on the first floor
 on the bus, on a plane
 on TV, on the radio

 left or right of  Jane is standing by /

 by, next
somebody or next to / beside the
to, beside
something car.

 on the ground, lower

 the bag is under the
 under than (or covered by)
table
something else

 lower than something  the fish are below the

 below
else but above ground surface

 covered by something
else
 meaning more than
 over  getting to the other
side (also across)
 overcoming an
obstacle
 put a jacket over your
shirt
 over 16 years of age
 walk over the bridge
 climb over the wall

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 English Usage Example
 higher than something
 above else, but not directly  a path above the lake
over it

 getting to the other

side (also over)  walk across the bridge
 across
 getting to the other  swim across the lake
side

 something with limits

 drive through the
 through on top, bottom and the
tunnel
sides

 movement to person
or building  go to the cinema
 to  movement to a place  go to London / Ireland
or country  go to bed
 for bed

 enter a room / a  go into the kitchen /

 into
building the house

 movement in the
 go 5 steps towards the
 towards direction of something
house
(but not directly to it)

 movement to the top

 onto  jump onto the table
of something

 in the sense of where  a flower from the

 from
from garden

Other important Prepositions

English Usage Example

 from  who gave it  a present from Jane

 who/what does it
 a page of the book
 of belong to
 the picture of a palace
 what does it show

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 English Usage Example
 by  who made it  a book by Mark Twain

 walking or riding on
horseback  on foot, on horseback
 on
 entering a public  get on the bus
transport vehicle

 in  entering a car / Taxi  get in the car

 leaving a public
 off  get off the train
transport vehicle

 out of  leaving a car / Taxi  get out of the taxi

 rise or fall of
something  prices have risen by 10
 by  travelling (other than percent
walking or horse  by car, by bus
riding)

 she learned Russian at

 at  for age
45

 for topics, meaning  we were talking about

 about
what about you

Fill the blanks with the suitable prepositions

1) The dog ran ____ the road.
2) The river flows ____ the bridge.
3) The work was done ____ haste.
4) He is afraid ____ the dog.
5) I am fond ____ music.
6) He goes ____ Sunday ____ church.
7) He died ____ his country.
8) The steam-engine was invented ____ James Watt.
9) The burglar jumped ____ the compound wall.
10) The village was destroyed ____ fire.
11) What is that ____ me?
12) It cannot be done ____ offence.
13) He spoke ____ me ____ Urdu.

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14) They live ____ the same roof.
15) I have not seen him ____ Wednesday last.
16) I have known him ____ a long time.
17) The moon does not shine ____ its own light.
18) This is a matter ____ little importance.
19) I am tired ____ walking.
20) He has not yet recovered ____ his illness.
21) I shall do it ____ pleasure.
22) God is good ____ me.
23) I will sit ____ my desk to do my lesson.
24) I am sorry ____ what I have done.
25) O God! Keep me ____ sin.

Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions

1. Artificial intelligence (AI) is the science _____ of developing

computers that can learn and follow instructions ______great
accuracy and speed. An example ____ this is the use _____of expert
systems.
2. The spotted deer and the blackbucks‟ population of Guindy national
park has gone up ______ one percent, according ______ a census
conducted ______ the forest officials_____ Sunday.
3. Ahead ____the meeting_____discuss the problem _____the party
leader met some ____ his close supporters.
4. The waste heat _____ power plants is cooled______ two reasons, to
comply____ thermal pollution regulations and _____ gain greater
efficiency. This will be useful _____environmental protection.
5. The progress ____ the field ____ chemistry has resulted _____the
development _____ all kinds ______ industries. The
applications______ chemistry _____ the fields ____ medicine and
biology are significant.
6. Education is a process____ self –expression. An individual expresses
himself drawn out through education. It is a means _____adjustment
an individual _____ the society. It is a process _____which he is
brought into proper relationship ____ the ideas and meals, customs
and traditions _____the society.
7. The research study highlights the importance _____ the fossil record
_____understanding long term ecological responses

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 _____changes____ time.
8. The airplane soared_____ the clouds.
9. It has been snowing _____ Christmas morning.
10.Mary jumped ____ the stage and danced.
Answers

1) The dog ran along the road.

2) The river flows under the bridge.
3) The work was done in haste.
4) He is afraid of the dog.
5) I am fond of music.
6) He goes on Sunday to church.
7) He died for his country.
8) The steam engine was invented by James Watt.
9) The burglar jumped over the compound wall.
10) The village was destroyed by fire.
11) What is that to me?
12) It cannot be done without offence.
13) He spoke to me in Urdu.
14) They live under the same roof.
15) I have not seen him since Wednesday last.
16) I have known him for a long time.
17) The moon does not shine by its own light.
18) This is a matter of little importance.
19) I am tired of walking.
20) He has not yet recovered from his illness.
21) I shall do it with pleasure.
22) God is good to me.
23) I will sit at my desk to do my lesson.
24) I am sorry for what I have done.
25) O God! Keep me from/off sin.

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 CONJUNCTION

What is a Conjunction?
A word or group of words that connect two or more words, clauses, phrases or
sentences are called conjunctions. Conjunctions are called joining words.
Conjunctions are used to join clauses, phrases, and words together for
constructing sentences. Conjunctions make a link between/among words or
groups of words to other parts of the sentence and show a relationship
between/among them.

Conjunction Examples –

1. She is good at both cooking and dancing.

2. If we leave now, we can be home by 11 p.m.
3. He couldn‟t be taken before a magistrate for punishment.
4. Neither her friends nor relatives joined for the party.
5. The legendary dancer is also interested in folk music.
6. Alex and Robin are playing together.
7. Alex plays well, but Robin plays better than him.
8. I play cricket, and Robin plays football.
9. When he was sick, I went to see him.

Types of Conjunctions

Conjunction words are segregated into four types –

1. Coordinating Conjunction Words

2. Subordinating Conjunction Words
3. Correlative Conjunction Words
4. Conjunctive Adverbs

Go through the types of conjunctions as well as the list of conjunctions covered

under each type. Also, candidates can download the full list of conjunctions,
along with the types given in PDF format, both at the top and bottom of this
article.
Coordinating Conjunction Words
The job of a coordinating conjunction is to join two words, phrases, or
independent clauses, which are parallel in structure. There are seven

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coordinating conjunctions which are by far the most common conjunctions:
and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet.
These join the elements that are the same. Coordination conjunction words are
only seven and people remember them by an acronym FANBOYS, i.e. (For,
And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So).
Example:

 We went to the stadium and enjoyed the cricket match.

 Do you want an ice cream or chocolate?
 Go away and never come back.
Check out the list of Coordinating conjunctions along with examples:
List of Conjunctions
Coordinating Sentences – Conjunction Examples
Conjunction
Words
For He needs to find a job, for he is unemployed.
And Maria loves both ice cream and pizza.
Nor Neither Tuesday nor Wednesday is good for the party.
But She scored good marks but she is not satisfied.
Or Which fruit do you like: mango or apple?
Yet She dances well yet she hesitates to take part in the
competition.
So He is unwell so he will not come with us to the movie.

Subordinating Conjunction Words

A subordinating conjunction joins elements of an unparalleled sentence

structure. These elements are usually a dependent clause and an independent
clause.

Most commonly used subordinating conjunctions are:

After, how, than, when, although, if, that, where, as, in order that, though,
which, as much as, inasmuch as, unless, while, because, provided, until,
who/whom, before, since, what, whoever/whomever.

Example:

 Before we left home, I had had my breakfast.

 Provided they come, we can start class Tuesday.

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  When he was washing my car, I went to the store.
 Even though the weather was horrible, they still went outside.

It joins the dependent adverb clause with the independent clause. Understand it
this way, instead of joining two independent clauses of equal importance,
Subordinating conjunction words make one clause less important than another.
Conjunction examples
I will drink milk after having this chocolate (I will drink milk is an independent
clause; after having this chocolate is a dependent adverb clause).
Similarly, He will come to my home after attending the wedding (here, he will
come to my home is an independent clause; after attending the wedding is a
dependent adverb clause).
Given below is a list of conjunctions for the above-mentioned type:
List Of Conjunctions
Subordinating Sentences – Conjunction Examples
Conjunction
Words
After She went to the parlour after lunch.
Although Although the sun was shining it wasn‟t warm.
As She can do her hairstyle as she wants.
As if He behaved as if he has lost it.
As long as The dog would be cooperative as long as you fed him.
As much as He likes football as much as he likes cricket.
As soon as As soon as I get the details I will send the mail.
As though The virus is spreading as though it will end the world.
Because He did the task because he felt it was his duty.
Before The baby sleeps before the massage.
Even He has never even heard the name of the city of Ohio.
Even if Even if you perform your best, you won‟t be appreciated.
Even though She doesn‟t want to give up even though she knows it won‟t
better the relation.
If They will party in the garden if the weather is good.
If only She will feel better, if only she sees her son for a moment.
If then If it rains then we will be stuck in traffic.
In order that She will leave the party early in order that I get a cab.
Just as It began to rain just as we got home.
Lest He spent whole days in his room, wearing headphones lest he
disturbs anyone.
Now Boston is now a big city while earlier it was a small town.
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Now since Let‟s discuss the issue now since the manager is right here.
Now that Now that everything is under control, the lockdown can be lifted.
Once Once I pick you up from school we can go to the restaurant.
Provided He will behave properly provided you be polite to him.
Provided that I will go to the party provided that she comes.
Rather than Better, ignore her questions rather than lie.
Since It‟s a long time since they met.
So that He joined foreign language classes so that he could learn French.
Supposing He was bluffed into believing his competitors were not prepared.
Than The old man lived for more than 100 years.
That The yellow building you are seeing there, that is my house.
Though Though they were whispering, their voices echoed in the hall.
Till She waited at the coffee shop till 11 pm.
Unless He will not buy you a scooter unless you score good marks.
Until You will not get a driving licence until you turn 18.
When When is your mother coming from Canada?
Whenever Please share the details of your friend, whenever you get time.
Where Where is the bakery store?
Where is If Ram is with this girl, where is his wife?
Whereas The north has a hot climate whereas the south is cold.
Wherever Eat healthy meals wherever possible.
Whether She seemed undecided about whether to stay or go.
Which Which is your favourite colour?
While He did my task while I was away from the office.
Who Do you know the person who is standing near the bookstore?
Whoever Whoever wins will get a cash prize.
Why Why do people throw garbage on the streets?

Correlative Conjunctions
A correlative conjunction uses a set of words in a parallel sentence structure to
show a contrast or to compare the equal parts of a sentence. The words of
correlative conjunctions have a special connection between them.

The correlative conjunctions are not only - but also, either- or, neither - nor,
both - and, not - but, whether - or.

Example:

 Neither Alex nor Robin can play baseball.

 I want both ice cream and
 He ate not only the ice cream but also the chocolate.
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These work in pairs to join two clauses or sentences. Understand it with
examples.
Conjunction examples –
Either you cook me lunch, or I leave.
No sooner he had gone to bed than the doorbell rang.
The table below illustrates the list of conjunctions covered under Correlative
type:
List of Conjunctions
Correlative Sentences – Conjunction Examples
Conjunction Words
As / As His scorecard was not as bad as I thought.
Both / and Both the teams and their coaches worked hard.
Either/or Either eat the cake right now or it will be finished.
Hardly / when Hardly had he reached the stop when the bus started.
Neither / nor Neither the children nor their parents attended the
function.
No sooner / than No sooner had the teacher entered the classroom than the
students kept quiet.
Not only / but also Not only should you mug up for exams but also
understand the basic concepts.
Whether / or She was confused about whether to wear pink or yellow
for her engagement.

The More / The more The more he flattered his boss the more incentives he got.
So/ as Her poetry wasn‟t so boring as he had thought.
Such / that She is such a beautiful actress that everyone is her fan.
Rather / than He would rather cook at home than go out for dinner.

Conjunctions – Sample Questions

To understand the importance of knowing the conjunctions and important rules

pertaining to them, it is imperative to know the types of questions asked in the

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examination, which makes it necessary to build up knowledge regarding
conjunctions.
Direction: Sentences are divided into parts. Spot the error in the sentences. If
there is no error mark your answer as „No Error‟.
Q1. The teacher is neither(1) free or interested in(2) teaching the students(3).

1. Part 1 is incorrect
2. Part 2 is incorrect
3. Part 3 is incorrect
4. No error

Answer (2) The conjunction neither is always followed by nor.

Q.2. No sooner does the principal(1) enter the class(2) then the students stand
up(3).

1. Part 1 is incorrect
2. Part 2 is incorrect
3. Part 3 is incorrect
4. No error

Answer (3) The conjunction pair of No Sooner is Than.

Q.3. She has a dog(1), a cat(2) who dislike each other(3)

1. Part 1 is incorrect
2. Part 2 is incorrect
3. Part 3 is incorrect
4. No Error

Answer (2) Coordinating conjunction (and) is missing.

Q.4. Read to contradict(1) or to believe(2) and not to weigh or consider(3)

1. Part 1 is incorrect
2. Part 2 is incorrect
3. Part 3 is incorrect
4. No Error

Answer (1) correlative conjunction (either) is missing.

Q.5. Ram lost not only(1) his wallet(2), but also his watch(3).

1. Part 1 is incorrect

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 2. Part 2 is incorrect
3. Part 3 is incorrect
4. No Error

Answer (4) No error

The above-given questions are a sample of error spotting questions asked in the
exams. Other types of questions like rearranging the sentences based on
conjunctions are also asked.
Similarly, knowing about the conjunction rules is imperative for questions like
Reading Comprehension, Essay/Letter Writing, Precis Writing, etc. Hence,
given below are important rules of conjunctions in English grammar for
competitive exams.
CONJUNCTION RULES IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Given below are a few important rules of conjunctions in English Grammar,

which will be helpful for both the objective as well as the descriptive section of
the English language.
Rules of Conjunctions:
Rule: 1

The conjunction so/as and as/ as is used to make a comparison. But, so/as is
used in negative sentences whereas as/as can be used for both negative and
affirmative sentences.

Example:
As you behave so you have to bear.
She is not as beautiful as you/ She is as beautiful as you.
Rule: 2

The conjunction Both is always followed by the conjunction and.

Example:
Both Rajat and Meera went for shopping
She is both pretty and intelligent.

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Rule: 3

Lest is a negative word and is always followed either by should or first form of
the verb. Remember, the words (not, no, never) cannot be used with lest.

Example:
Dance carefully lest she should fall.
Dance carefully lest she falls.
Rule: 4

The conjunction Though/Although is always followed by a comma(,) or yet.

Examples:
Though She put in a lot of effort, she didn‟t crack the exam.
Although the diamonds are costly yet people buy them because it adds to
status.
Rule: 5

Unless and Until is negative words. Unless is action-oriented while Until is

time-oriented. Remember, do not use the words (never, not, no) with the clause
containing until and unless words.

Example:
The father asked his daughter to wait until he returned.
Unless the employee works hard, the company will not progress.
Rule: 6

Always use the correct pair of conjunctions. Like not only with but also and
more.

Hardly__ when or before

No sooner__than
Barely__when or before
Scarcely__when or before
Examples:

24
No sooner had he finished his speech than the audience applauded.
The Thief not only stole jewels but also took away the gizmos.
Rule: 7

The conjunction doubt/doubtful is followed by that in negative or

interrogative sentences whereas in affirmative sentences these are followed
by if or whether.

Example:
He doubts if he can come to drop you.
I don‟t doubt that he is hardworking.
She is doubtful whether she will attend the party.
Rule: 8

The conjunction From is followed by to and Between is followed by and.

Examples:
It is difficult to choose between gold and silver
He keeps playing the guitar from morning to evening
Rule: 9

When more than two persons or things are involved, then (none of/ one of) is
used instead of (neither/either)

Examples:
One of the employees complained about the manager.
None of the employees complained regarding the theft.
Rule: 10

The conjunction Rather/Other is followed by Than.

Examples:
You have no other option than to go back to school.
He would rather give a car than a necklace.

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 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

We may report the words of a speaker in two ways.

We may quote his actual words. This is called Direct speech.

We may report what he said without quoting his exact words.

This is called indirect or reported speech.

Ex:

Ragu said, “I am very busy now”

Ragu said that he was very busy then.

Reporter - Ragu

Reporting verb - said

Reported verb - am

In direct speech, we use inverted commas to mark off the exact words of the
speaker.

In indirect we do not.

We have used the conjunction that before the indirect statement.

The pronoun I is changed into he

The verb am is changed to was.

The adverb now is changed to then.

Rules for changing Direct speech into Indirect speech.

The tenses of the verbs inside the inverted commas are changed as follows.

Present tense is changed into past tense.

Present continuous is changed into past continuous.

26
Present perfect is changed into past perfect.

Present perfect continuous is changed into past perfect continuous.

Past tense remains as past tense or sometimes is changed into Past perfect.

Shall is changed into should

Will is changed into should or would.

So that the changes are:

Direct speech Indirect speech

Am Was
Is Was
Are Were
Was had been
Were had been
Will would be
Has Had
has been had been
have been had been
had been had been
Will Would
Shall Should
Can Could
May Might
have to had to
has to had to
Must had to
Would Would
Should Should

1. The man said, “I have come from Dubai”.

The man said that he had come from Dubai.

2. The patient said to the doctor, “I am feeling better today”.

The patient told the doctor that he was feeling better that day.

3. He said, “I am unwell”.
He said that he was unwell.

27
4. He said, “My master is writing letters”.
He said that his master is writing letters.

5. He said, “I have passed the examination”.

He said that he had passed the examination.

6. He said, “The horse died in the night”.

He said that the horse had died in the night.

Words expressing nearness in time or place are generally changed into

expressing distance.

Direct speech Indirect speech

Now Then
Here There
Ago Before
Thus So
Today that day
Tonight that night
Tomorrow the next day
Yesterday the day before
last night the night before
This That
These Those
last week the previous week
next week the following week
hence forward hence forward

He says, “I am glad to be here this evening”.

He says that he was glad to be there that evening.
 The changes do not occur if the speech is reported during the same
period or at the same place.
He says, “I am glad to be here this evening”.
He says that he is glad to be here this evening.

28
 ASSERTIVE SENTENCE:

A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called a Assertive

or declarative sentence.

Direct Indirect

Says says

said said

said to told

1. He says, “I am going to Mumbai”

He says that he is going to Mumbai.

2. He said, “I will try it”.

He said that he would try it.

3. He said to the murderer, “God will punish you for this”.

He told the murderer that God would punish him for that.

4. He said to me, “I shall meet you at the station”.

He told that he would meet me at the station.
IMPERATIVE SENTENCE:

A sentence that expresses a command or request is called an

Imperative sentence.

Commands and Requests:

If the reporting verb is in the past tense and if the section within the
inverted commas is in the form of a command or request.

1. The word „that‟ is not used before the reported section.

2. The reported part is introduced after any one of the following verbs.

Command: commanded; asked; ordered; instructed; request; asked; requested;

appealed; begged; advised; etc instead of said; said to; told; please; kindly.

1. The pronouns are changed according to the persons to whom they refer.

29
 2. The verbs within the inverted commas are used in the full infinitive form
in the reported speech.
1. Affirmative imperative-to
2. Affirmative negative----not to
3. Words expressing nearness are changed into words expressing distance.

1. Mrs. Das said to leela, “Put those plates on the table.

Mrs. Das asked leela to put those plates on the table.

2. The boy said to the headmaster, “Please give me a scholarship”.

The boy requested the headmaster to give him a scholarship.

3. The king said to the soldiers, “Put this man in prison”.

The king ordered his soldiers to put that man in prison.

4. The teacher said to the boys, “Don‟t write on both sides”.

The teacher asked the boys not to write on both sides.

5. The captain said to his men, “Don‟t allow the enemy to get across”.
The captain ordered his men not to allow his enemy to get across.

6. The clerks said to the manager, “Please, don‟t refuse leave to me.
The clerk requested the manager not to refuse leave to him.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE:

A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence.

1. If the reporting verb is in the past tense and the section within the
inverted commas is in the form of a question.
(i) The word “that” is not used before the reported part
(ii) The reported part introduced after anyone of the following
verbs or expressions
1. asked
2. enquired
3. enquired of
4. demanded
5. wanted to know

30
 2. If the question inside the inverted commas begins without a question
word, the reported part is begun with the word if or whether.
Yes or no type questions - if or whether

1. “Is the train late?”, the man asked the station master
The man asked the station master if the train was late.

2. He said, “Will you listen to such a man?”

He asked them whether they would listen to such a man.

3. The blind man said to the boy, “will you lead me to the temple?
The blind man asked the boy whether he would lead him to the temple.

4. She said, “Are you going to home?”

She asked if I was going home.
3. If the question inside the inverted commas begins with a question word, the
reported part is begun that word
WH words --WH words

1. He said to me, “What are you doing?”

He asked me what I was doing.

2. Mr. Das asked his wife, “Who is coming to dinner?”

Mr. Das asked his wife who was coming to dinner.

3. The policeman said to us, “where are you going?”

The policeman enquired where we were going.

4. “Where do you live?” asked the stranger.

The stranger enquired where I lived.

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE:

A sentence that expresses a strong feeling is called an exclamatory

sentence.

If the reporting verb is in the past tense and if the section within the
inverted commas is in the form of an exclamation.

1. The word “that” is used before the reported section.

2. The reported section is introduced after anyone of the following verbs
 Said

31
  Remarked
 Exclaimed
 Commented
 Applauded
3. The exclamatory sentence must be changed into the statement form.

My friend said, “What a beautiful view!”

My friend exclaimed that it was a beautiful view.

4. Used the adverb “very” with the verb instead of question words like how,
what, etc

1. Indira said, “How kind he is!”

Indira exclaimed that he was very kind.

2. Praveen said, “Alas! I am robbed!”

Praveen exclaimed with sorrow that he was robbed.

3. “Hurrah! I won the first prize!” said susila

Susila exclaimed with joy that she had won the first prize.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations are suggestions or advice of a person or a committee
on what is the most suitable thing for a problem/ critical situation.
Recommendations are obtained to improve the performance/ production/
condition of something in an institution.
Recommendations are prepared by the employees to their higher officials
or to their employers. They may also be written to Government authorities to
complain about or to bring about a change in the state of something in the
society (untidiness of the streets, encroachments in crowded areas in the city).
Unlike Instructions they need not be followed by the addressed/
receiver. It is for the receiver to opt for it or ignore it based on the relevance,
feasibility, affordability and efficiency of the Recommendations made.
They should be written in the impersonal passive voice. Suggestive, and
not authoritative, tone should be used It is suggested to use modal verbs such as
could, should, may…

32
  Recommendation is a set of suggestion that something good or suitable
for a particular purpose or job.
 It is commonly used in technical and general writing.
 Its in the form of statement.
 While writing ,the passive forms of modal auxiliary verbs should be used
 Ex: can be, must be, should be, ought to be, need to be
 We can also use different set of phrases to write recommendation
They are
 It is recommended to
 It is suggested that
 It is advised to
 It is mandatory to
 It is necessary to
 It is the best thing would be
Sample Recommendations
Recommendations for safety in nuclear plants:
Format 1
1. It‟s recommended to locate nuclear plants from densely populated areas.
2. It‟s necessary to make adequate waste disposal facilities.
3. It‟s mandatory to build concrete and steel walls thick enough to prevent
any escape of radiation.
4. It‟s advised to insert control rods, also known as neutron absorbing rods,
into the core to slow down the working of the reactor
5. It is suggested to fit emergency systems to prevent any accident in the
fuel element of the cooling system.
6. It‟s advised to protect the workers with gloves, overshoes, etc in the
plant.
7. It‟s instructed to use Radiation measuring instruments to monitor
radiation levels in and around the plants.
8. It‟s recommended to ensure that all releases into air and water are kept
well below permissible levels.

Format 2
1. Nuclear plants should be suitably located away from densely populated
areas.
2. Adequate waste disposal facilities must be made available.
3. The reactor should be surrounded by concrete and steel walls thick
enough to prevent any escape of radiation.

33
 4. The working of the reactor should be slowed down by inserting control
rods, also known as neutron absorbing rods, into the core.
5. The reactor must be fitted d with emergency systems to cope with any
accidental of the fuel elements of the cooling system.
6. Workers at the plant must be protected with gloves, overshoes, etc.
7. Radiation measuring instruments have to be used to monitor radiation
levels in and around the plants.
8. It should be ensured that all releases into air and water are kept
well below permissible levels

CHARTS
FLOW CHART

 It represents the chain of a procedure in a step by step technique

 It‟s a pictorial representation showing all the steps of a process
 Describe each step in a separate block box
 Each should be in the right sequence of occurrence
 Each block should be connected by straight lines or arrows
 Care must be taken to use the appropriate connective words such as
“Initially, first, next, then, as a result of, consequently, finally,
accordingly, as an effect of”.
 All interpretation should be made in passive voice.

BAR CHART

 Use appropriate expressions of comparison and contrast such as

“which, however, on the other hand, similarly, in contrast”.
 It‟s an evenly spaced bar extending lines horizontally/vertically
 It presents the relationship of numbers in two/three dimensions
 Draw the “x” axis “y” axis and mention what they represent
 Represent the scale factor evenly
 Represent the different items by shading in different ways

PIE CHART

 It should be interpreted focusing on the percentage of each

segment
 It‟s a way of summarizing a set of categorical data
34
  It‟s appeals to see comparisons, patterns and trends in data
 It‟s a circle divided in segments
 Each segment represents a particular category
 The segments are arranged in a alphabetical order and proceed
in a clock-wise direction
 Each part is made a distinct with the use of different shades and
designs
 Begin the first segment a t a line from the centre to the top of the
circle
 Draw an arrow from the border of the circle and explain it there.

INTERPRETATIONS OF CHART
FLOW CHART

*It represents the chain of a procedure in a step by step technique

*Care must be taken to use the appropriate connective words such as

“Initially, first, next, then, as a result of, consequently, finally, accordingly,

as an effect of”.

*All interpretation should be made in passive voice.

BAR CHART

*Use appropriate expressions of comparison and contrast such as

“which, however, on the other hand, similarly, in contrast”.

PIE CHART

*It should be interpreted focusing on the percentage of each segment

*Use comparative and contrast technique.

35
 SEQUENCE WORDS
Next, Finally, Last, To begin with, First, Then, After that, Second,
etc.,

Abruptly After After a few days

After a long time After a short time After a while

After that Afterward All at once

All of the time All the while Always

As long as As soon as At first

At last At length At present

At that time At the beginning At the end

At that onset At the same time At this moment

At times Before Begin

By now Commence Commencing

Concurrently Consequently Continually

Currently Cyclically Directly

During Earlier Embark

Eventually Every time Final

Finally First Following

Following that Former Formerly

Frequently From this point Generally

Gradual Henceforth Hereafter

36
Heretofore Immediately In an instant

In awhile In conclusion In the end

In the first place In the future In the last place

In the meantime In the past In the second place

In turn In frequently Initial

Instantly Instantaneously Intermittent

Just then Last Last of all

Lastly Later Later on

Later that day Little by little Meanwhile

Momentarily Never Next

Not at all Not long after Not long ago

Now Occasionally Of late

Often Often time On the next occasion

Once Once upon a time Past

Periodically Preceding Present

Presently Previously Prior to

Promptly Quick Rarely

Recently Repeatedly Right after

Right away Second Seldom

Sequentially Shorty Simultaneously

37
Slow So far Some of the time

Some time Soon Soon after

Soon afterward Sporadically Starting with

Subsequently Suddenly Temporary

The latter The next The final

Then Thereafter This instant

Third To begin with To conclude

To finish Today Tomorrow

Twice Uncommon Ultimately

Until Until now Usually

When While Yesterday

Yet

SAMPLE BAR CHART INTERPRETATION

Writing Exam Tip

When describing visual information in Task 1, it is important to think about

what tenses you will need. If the diagram includes time references (dates, years)
you will need a range of past and present tenses. If the graph has no past time
reference, you will need to use the present simple tense only.

You should spend about 20 minutes on this task.

1. The graph below shows female unemployment rates in each country

of the United Kingdom in 2013 and 2014.

Summarise the information by selecting and reporting the main

features, and make comparisons where relevant.

38
Write at least 150 words.

Model answer

The bar chart shows the unemployment rates among women in the countries
that make up the United Kingdom, both in 2013 and in 2014. There has
generally been a small decrease in female unemployment rates from 2013 to
2014, except in Scotland.

In 2013, 5.6% of women in Northern Ireland were unemployed. The only

country with a smaller percentage of women unemployed was Wales, with a
rate of 5.4%. Both countries saw a decrease in the percentage of unemployed
women in 2014. In Northern Ireland, the percentage fell to 4.6% and in Wales it
fell to 5%.

England had the greatest percentage of unemployed women in 2013, with 6.8%.
However, this decreased by 0.3% in 2014. Lastly, Scotland was the only
country which had an increasing percentage of unemployed women. In 2013, it
had 6.1% of women out of work. This increased to 6.7% in 2014, making it the
country with the highest female unemployment rate of the four countries.

39
 SAMPLE INTERPRETATION OF FLOWCHART

Write a report for a university lecturer describing the process shown.

» You should write at least 150 words.

» You should spend about 20 minutes on this task.

Sample Answer :
The given diagram shows the stages of manufacturing and process adjustment
of the consumer goods. As is observed from the flowchart, the goods

40
manufacturing is a complex process which is done in several stages and
information is sometimes fed back to earlier stages to make some adjustments.

Firstly, raw materials and other components are stored together and production
planning is done. Two major process involves in the overall manufacturing
process: one is manufacturing process itself and another one is the information
feedback process with which the adjustment of the manufacturing is done. After
the product research, the design part is done and this input is used in product
planning stage. After the production planning is complete the assembly,
inspection, testing and packaging stages are done sequentially. Feedback from
testing phase is used in the design stage and which led back to product planning
stage. Again, the market research affects the design and advertising stages and
inputs from the market research stage are used in the packaging stage. The final
two stages are dispatch and sales. The information flow stage gives feedback to
other stages to refine and adjust the process.

In summary, the consumer goods manufacturing process involves both the

multi-staged manufacturing and research methods. The manufacturing stages
involve the storage, assembly, inspection, packing to the sales methods whereas
the research stages include market & product research, design and
advertisement.

SAMPLE PIE CHART INTERPRETATION

1. You should spend about 20 minutes on this task.

The diagrams below give information on transport and car use in

Edmonton.

Summarise the information by selecting and reporting the main features,

and make comparisons where relevant.

Write at least 150 words.

41
 People’s reasons for using the car in city
Commute to work 55%
Shopping 15%
Leisure activities 15%
Taking children to
40%
school
Business 45%

Test Tip

In IELTS Writing Task 1, when you must describe two figures, ask yourself the
following:

1) What do both figures relate to?

2) What kind of relationship is evident? (a similarity, a difference, a cause and
effect relationship or some other type of relationship)
3) Which aspects of each figure should be highlighted?
4) Should I describe the figures in separate paragraphs, or should I compare
different aspects of the figures within a series of paragraph?

Model answer

The table shows the reason why people in Edmonton use their cars in the city
and the pie chart explains what type of transport people prefer to use most of the
time.

Looking at the pie chart first, it is clear that the car is the most popular means of
transport in this city. 45% of the people say that they prefer to commute by car.

42
The second most popular form of transport is the LRT, while busses and taxis
are the main means of transport for the rest of the people.

The table gives more detailed information about why people use their cars.
Surprisingly, 55% of the people need to commute to work by car. Cars are also
used a lot for taking children to school or business purposes. Only 15% of
drivers are doing their shopping and, similarly, 15% need to travel by car for
leisure.

Overall, people in Edmonton make good use of alternative methods of transport

but there is a heavy dependence on cars for work.

WRITING REPORTS

A report is prepared for a person who was not present on the scene. It is
presented in a conventional format and is written for a specific audience.

A report contains the description of procedures followed by collection and

examination of data, the conclusion reached and recommendations given. The
purpose of technical report is to catch the audience attention.

Writing method:

 Narrative form is used. It outlines the developmental stages of an

experiment or piece of research.
 Systematically presented and numbered.
 Divided into sections and sub-sections.
 Use plain functional language.
 Use short sentences for clarity.
 A report writer should be highly objective, precise and formal in his
presentation.
 There is no place for personal opinion or feeling.
 Conclusion and recommendations should be based on facts.
 Avoid using “I” and “we”, unless the situation warrants.

Kinds of report:

1. Descriptive /Progress Report

2. Evaluation/Investigation Report
3. General Report (Accident Report)
4. Lab Report

43
5. Feasibility Report
6. Survey Report
7. Industrial Visit Report

Discuss the objective, characteristics and types of reports:

A report is a formal document written for a specific audience to meet a specific

need. It may contain facts of a situation, project or process; an analysis and
interpretation of data, events and records; inferences or conclusions drawn from
data; or suggestions and recommendations.

Objectives of report:

Reports help in the analysis of a condition, situation, or a problem for an

effective solution.thus reports serve several purposes which may include:

Presenting data
Describing problems and suggesting solutions
Discussing and analyzing data
Recording events and happening
Analyzing a situation or a condition
Giving feed back, suggestions or recommendations
Characters of report:

Reports are factual and systematic representations of specific business or

professional activities. Reports are objective and always written precisely giving
importance to the data. Reports should accurate, brief and concise. Reports may
vary from a one page informal trip report summarizing the events of a business
trip to a 250 page formal annual report of an organization .they may be
presented orally, electronically, or in a written form. Reports may also vary in
form, content, approach and purpose.

Types of report:
Reports can be classified as
1. Informal and analytical (according to their function)
2. Routine or special (as per periodicity)
3. Oral and written (according to their communicative form)
4. Formal and non-formal (based on their nature, scope and length)

44
GENERAL REPORT (ACCIDENT REPORT):

Date:

Place:

To:

----------------

----------------

Explain what, when, where, how the incidents happened.

Use reported speech/passive voice/past tense to write sentence.

Giving suggestions/ solutions is a welcoming factor.

Express gratitude.

Close report with complementary close

Lab Report:

1. Aim Of The Experiment

2. Apparatus Required
3. Principle
4. Procedure
5. Calculation
6. Result / Findings
The entire report should be in the passive voice.

45
 SURVEY REPORT

Title page

A Survey Report

On

Introduction of Cosmetics

In The City Markets

Submitted To

The Managing Director

Cosmo Hair Oil Company

Chennai-600026

Submitted By

Cyril

Chief Marketing Executive

Date:

46
SURVEY REPORT

Survey is related to identifying specific problems and analyzed in detail. A

survey has the following parts.

1. Aim: tells what the survey is meant to be

2. Method: tells the procedure by which the survey is conducted.
3. Observations: reveals the significant aspects of the survey. A careful
observation can make the survey a successful one.
4. Causes: explains the survey‟s essentialities.
5. Results: achieved through a systematic implementation of all the other
steps.
6. Conclusion: logical end of the survey.

MODEL SURVEY REPORT

The Chennai Metropolitan Authority recently conducted a survey of air

pollution in Chennai. The following is the outline of the research and the report
was written about it.

Aim : to study the degree of air pollution in Chennai over

a period

of six months.

Method : collect samples of air over a large area of North

Chennai and

Central Chennai and analyse the samples.

Observations : 200 tonnes of particles, 65tonnes of harmful

gases-sulphur

dioxide of nitrogen, smoke.

Causes : i. Domestic and industrial burning

ii. Fumes from vehicles.

47
 iii. 1,00, 000 domestic ovens.

iv. High humidity and little wind.

Results : winter fog 25% of the population of north Chennai

suffer

from respiratory diseases.

Conclusion : i. More research needed.

ii. Need to reduce pollution to improve the health of

the people.

iii. Possibility of using smokeless fuel for industry.

iv. Possibility of law to prohibit excessive exhaust

from vehicles.

SURVEY REPORT

A study to discover the degree of air pollution in Chennai was carried out
for the six month period 1.6.2014 to 30.12.2014 by the Chennai Metropolitan
Authority. Samples of air were collected over a large area of north Chennai and
central Chennai. The contents of the samples were analyzed. It was found that
each day 250 tonnes of particles and 75 tonnes of harmful gases were released
into the atmosphere. These were produced by the burning of coal in homes and
industries, and by the fumes from motor vehicles. In addition, a large amount of
smoke was produced daily by 10,000 domestic ovens. The problem of pollution
is made worse by the climate in Chennai, which has very high humidity but
little wind. This causes fog during the winter. As a result, 25% of the population
of Chennai suffer from respiratory diseases.

These results show that pollution is a serious and urgent problem in

Chennai. Some solution must be found as soon as possible, in order to improve
the health of the inhabitants. Two possible ways of reducing pollution would be
develop the use of smokeless fuel in industry, instead of using coal, and to pass
a law prohibiting excessive exhaust from vehicles. Further, research into the
problem is needed immediately.

48