Technological University (Sittwe)

Department of Civil Engineering

(2019-2020) Academic Year

CE-51016 Design of Hydraulic Structures I (2-1-0)

Chapter (7) Reservoir Planning

7.1 Introduction

A reservoir is a large, artificial lake created by constructing a dam across a river (Fig. 7.1).

Broadly speaking, any water pool or a lake may be termed a reservoir.

in water resources engineering - large body of water stored on the upstream of a dam construced for this

purpose.

Thus a dam and a reservoir exit together.

This discharge in a river generally varies considerably during different periods of a year.

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- total precipitation occurs during the monsoon season from June to September.

- Most of the rivers carry very little or no water during non-monsoon period.

- During the period of low flow, it is not possible to meet the water demands for various purposes such as

irrigation, water supply and hydroelectric power.

- To regulate the water supplies, a reservoir is created on the river to store water during the rainy season.

- The stored water is later released during the period of low flows to meet the demand

In the monsoon season, the rivers carry a huge quantity of water.

The reservoirs store excess water when the discharge in the river is high.

Thus, besides releasing the water during the period of low flows, the reservoirs also help in flood control.

If a reservoir serves only one purpose, it is called a single-purpose reservoir.

On the other hand, if it serves more than one purpose, it is termed a multipurpose reservoir.

A single purpose reservoir is not economically feasible.

The various purposed served by a multipurpose reservoir include

(i) irrigation,

(ii) municipal and industrial water supply,

(iii) flood control,

(iv) hydropower,

(v) navigation,

(vi) recreation,

(vii) development of fish and wild life,

(viii) soil conservation,

(ix) pullution control and (HW)

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 (x) mosquito control. (HW)

7.2 Types of reservoirs

Q.1 What are the different types of reservoirs? Explain the various purposes of different types of reservoirs.

Depending upon the purpose served, the reservoirs may be broadly classified into five types:

1. Storage (or conservation) reservoirs

2. Flood control reservoirs

3. Multipurpose reservoirs

4. Distribution reservoirs

5. Balancing reservoirs

1. Storage (or conservation) reservoirs

Storage reservoirs are also called conservation reservoirs because they are used to conserve water.

Storage reservoirs are constructed to store the water in the rainy season and to release it later when the

river flow is low.

Although the storage reservoirs are constructed for storing water for various purposed, incidentially they

also help in moderating the floods and reducing the flood damage to some extent on the downstream.

However, they are not designed as flood control reservoirs.

2. Flood control reservoirs

A flood control reservoir is constructed for the purposed of flood control.

It protects the areas lying on its downstream side from the damages due to flood.

However, absolute protection from extreme floods is not economically feasible.

A flood control reservoir reduces the flood damage, and it is also known as the flood-mitigation reservoir.

Sometimes, it is called flood protection reservoir.

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 In a flood control reservoir, the flood water is discharged downstream till the outflow reaches the safe

capacity of the channel downstream.

When the discharge exceeds the safe capacity, the excess water is stored in the reservoir.

The stored water is subsequently released when the inflow to reservoir decreases.

Care is, however, taken that the discharge in the channel downstream, including local inflow, does not

exceed its safe capacity.

A flood control-reservoir is designed to moderate the flood and not to conserve water.

However, incidentally some storage is also done during the period of floods.

Flood control reservoirs have relatively large sluice-way capacity to permit rapid drawdown before or after

the occurrence of a flood.

3. Multipurpose reservoirs

A multipurpose reservoir is designed and constructed to serve two or more purposes.

4. Distribution reservoir

A distribution reservoir is a small storage reservoir to tide over the peak demand of water for municipal

water supply or irrigation.

The distribution reservoir is helpful in permitting the pumps to work at a uniform rate.

It stores water during the period of lean demand and supplies the same during the period of high demand.

As the storage is limited, it merely helps in distribution of water as per demand for a day or so and not for

storing it for a long period.

Water is pumped from a water source at a uniform rate throghout the day for 24 hours but the demand

varies from time to time.

During the period when the demand of water is less than the pumping rate, the water is stored in the

distribution reservoir.

On the other hand, when the demand of water is more than the pumping rate, the distribution reservoir is

used for supplying water at rates greater than the pumping rate.

Distribution reservoirs are rarely used for the supply of water for irrigation.

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 These are mainly used for municipal water supply.

5. Balancing reservoir

A balancing reservoir is a small reservoir constructed d/s of the main reservoir for holding water released

from the main reservoir.

7.3 Types of flood control reservoirs

Q.2 What are the different types of flood control reservoirs? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each

type.

The flood control reservoirs are of two types:

1. Detention reservoirs (or detention basins)

2. Retarding reservoirs (or retarding basins)

1. Detention reservoirs

 A detention reservoir stores excess water during floods and releases it after the flood.

 The discharge from a detention reservoir to the downstream channel is regulated by gates.

 In the earlier stages of a flood, the gates are left open and the water is released subjected to the safe

carrying capacity Q2 of the channel downstream.

 In the later stages of the flood when the discharge downstrem exceeds the maximum capacity of the

downstream channel, the gates are kept partially closed.

 There is basically no differenc between the detention reservoir and a storage reservoir except that the

former has a larger spillway capacity and sluiceway capacity to permit rapid drawdown just before or

after a flood.

 The reservoir is quickly emptied and thus the full reservoir capacity is made available again for

moderating a subsequent flood after a short interval.

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  In this manner, the available capacity is more effectively used.

2. Retarding reservoirs

 A retarding reservoirs is provided with spillways and sluiceways which are ungated.

 The maximum combined discharging capacity of all spillways and sluiceways is limited to the safe-

carrying capacity of the channel downstream.

 The retarding reservoir stores a portion of the flood when the flood is rising and releases it later when

the flood is receding.

 However, in this case, the discharge downstream cannot be controlled becasued there are no gates.

 There is an automatic release of water, depending upon the level of water in the reservoir.

 As the flood occurs, the reservoir gets filled and at the same time, the discharge from the spillways and

sluiceways occurs.

 When the elevation of water in the reservoir increases, the discharge through spillways and sluiceways

also increases.

 The water level in the reservoir goes on rising until the flood starts receding when the inflow is reduced

and it becomes equal to or less than the outflow.

 After that stages has reached, the water level in the reservoir starts falling and it continue till the stored

water has been completely discharged and the water level has reached the lowest sluiceway level.

Advantages and disadvantages of detention and retarding reservoirs

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(a) Detention reservoir

Advantages

1) It provides more flexibility of operation and better control of outflow than retarding reserviors. Large

reservoirs are usually detention reservoirs.

2) The discharge from various detention reservoirs on different tributaries of a river can be adjusted

according to the carrying capacity of the d/s channel.

Disadvantages

1) The detention reservoirs are more expensive than the retarding reservoirs because of high initial cost

and maintenance cost of gates and the lifting machinery.

2) Due to the possibility of human error or negligence, a disaster can occur.

(b) Retarding reservoirs

Advantages

1) The retardintg reservoirs are relatively less expensive than detention reservoirs.

2) As the outflow is automatic, there is no possibility of a disaster due to human error or negligence.

Disadvantages

1) The retarding reservoirs do not provide any flexibility of operation as the outflow is automatic.

2) The discharge from retarding reservoirs on different tributaries of a river may coincide and cause heavy

flood in the river downstream.

7.4 Available storage capacity of a reservoir

Q.3 How would you estimate the available storage capacity of the reservoir? Draw typical storage-elevation

curve.

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 Whatever may be the used of a reservoir, its most important function is to store water during floods

and to release it later.

The storage capacity of a reservoir is, therefore, its most important characteristics.

The available storage capacity of a reservoir depends upon the topography of the site and the height

of dam.

To determine the available storage capacity of a reservoir upto a certain level of water, enigneering

surveys are usually conducted.

For preliminary estimates of the capacity, the Survey of India maps can be used.

These maps are available to a scale of 1 cm = 500 m, and 1 cm = 2500 m, with contours marked on it.

For accurate determination of the capacity, a topographic survey of the reservior area is usually

conducted, and a contour map of the area is prepared.

A contour plan of the area is prepared to a scale of 1 cm = 100 m or 150 m with a contour interval of 1

to 3 m, depending upon the size of the reservoir.

The storage capacity and the water spread area at different elevations can be determined from the contour

map.

(a) Area-elevation curve

Planimeter is used for measuring the area.

An elevation-area curve (Fig. 7.4)

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(b) Elevation-capacity curve

The storage capacity of the reservoir at any elevation is determined from the water spread area at various

elevations.

The following formulae are commonly used to determine the storage capacity (i.e. storage volumes).

1. Trapezoidal formula

The storage volume between two successive contours of areas A1 and A2 is given by

Where, h is the contour interval.

Therefore, the total volume V of the storage is given by

Where n is the total number of areas.

2. Cone formula

The storage volume between two successive contours of areas A1 and A2 is given by

The total volume is given by

3. Prismoidal formula

The storage volume between 3 successive contours is given by

The total volume is given by

Where A3, A5, etc. are the areas with odd numbes: A2, A4, A6, etc. are the areas with even numbers. A1

and An are respectively, the first and the last area.

 The prismoidal formula is applicable only when there are odd numbers of areas (i.e. n should be an odd
number).

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 In the case of even number of areas, the volume upto the last but one area is determined by the
prismoidal formula, and that of the last segment is determined by the trapezoidal formula.

Storage volume from cross-sectional areas

In the absence of adequate contour maps, the storage volume can be computed from the cross-
sectional areas of the river.
Cross-sectional areas are obtained from the cross-sections of the river taken upstream of the dam
upto the u/s end of the reservoir.
The volume is determined from the prismoidal formula,

Where, A1, A2 etc. are the areas of the cross-section of the river upto the full reservoir level and d is
the distance between the sections.
The formula is applicable for odd number of sections.

An elevation-storage volume (Fig. 7.5)

Generally, the volume is calculated in Mm3 or Mha-m.

(c) Combined Diagram

both the elevation-area curve and the elevation-storage curve on the same paper (Fig 7.6)

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 Submerged area
In addition to finding out the capacity of a reservoir, the contour map of the reservoir can aslo be used
to determine the land and property which would be submerged when the reservoir is filled upto various
elevations.
It would enable one to estimate the compensation to be paid to the owners of the submerged property
and land.
The time scheduled (according to which the areas should be evacuated as the reservoir is gradually
filled,) can also be drawn.

Illustrative Example 7.1

A reservoir has the following areas enclosed by contours at various elevations.
Determine the capacity of the reservoir between elevations of 200 to 300.
Elevation
200 220 240 260 280 300
(m)
Area of
contour 150 175 210 270 320 400
(km2)
Use (a) trapezoidal formula, (b) prismoidal formula.
Solution:
(a) By Trapezoidal formula,
From Eq. 7.2,

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 𝒉
V = 𝟐 (A1 + 2A2 + 2A3 + 2A4 + 2A5 + A6)
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= 2
(150 + 2x175 + 2x210 + 2x270 + 2x320 + 400)

= 25000 m-km2 = 25000 Mm3 = 2.5 Mha-m

(b) By Prismoidal formula,

In this case, there are even number of areas. The prismoidal formula is applied to first 5 areas.
From Eq. 7.6, considering the first 5 areas,
𝒉
V1 = 𝟑 [(A1 + A5) + 4(A2 + A4) + 2A3]
20
= 3
[(150 + 320) + 4(175 + 270) + 2X210]

= 17800 m-km2 = 17800 Mm3

Volume between the last two areas from Eq. 7.1,
𝒉
V2 = 𝟐 (A5 + A6)
20
= 2
(320 + 400)

= 7200 m-km2 = 7200 Mm3

Total volume V = V1 + V2 = 17800 + 7200 = 25000 Mm3 = 2.5 Mha-m

(In this case, the computed volumes from both methods are equal.
In general, it is not always the case.)
Problems:

7.5 Investigations for reservoir planning

Q.5. What are the various investigations required for reservoir planning? Discuss in brief.

The following investigations are usually conducted for reservoir planning.

1. Engineering surveys

2. Geological investigations

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3. Hydrologic investigations

1. Engineering survey

Engineering surveys are conducted for the dam, the reservoir and other associated works.

Generally, the topographic survey of the area is carried out and the contour plan is prepared.

(The horizontal control is usually provided by triangulation survey, and the vertical control by precise levelling.)

(a) Dam site

For the area in the vicinity of the dam site, a very accurate triangulation survey is conducted.

A contour plan to a scale of 1/250 or 1/500 is usually prepared. The contour interval is usually 1 m or 2 m.

The contour plan should cover an area at least upto 200 m upstream and 400 m downstream and for

adequate width beyond the two abutments.

(b) Reservoir

For the reservoir, the scale of the contour plan is usually 1/15,000 with a contour interval of 2 m to 3 m,

depending upon the size of the reservoir.

The area-elevation and storage-elevation curves are prepared for different elevations upto an elevation 3

to 5 m higher than the anticipated maximum water level (M.W.L).

2. Geological investigations

Geological investigations of the dam and reservoir site are done for the following purposes.

(i) Suitability of foundation for the dam

(ii) Watertightness of the reservoir basin

(iii) Location of the quarry sites for the construction materials.

(i) Suitability of foundation for the dam

The type and height of the dam mainly depend upon the type of foundation.

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Subsurface explorations are carried out to determine the depth of overburden to be removed for laying the

foundation of the dam, the type of rock, the nature and extent of the fault zones, if any, present in the rock.

Depending upon the location of bed rock, the following methods of subsurface explorations are used.

(a) Excavation of open pits or trenches of suitable size.

(b) Drifting (or tunneling) into the sides of the valley.

(c) Driving vertical inspection shafts into the rock.

(d) Core drilling to obtain the samples and to determine the configuration of the strata.

If the hard rock lies far below the surface, the dam site may be suitable for a low gravity dam or an earth

dam.

The dam in that case may have to be founded on soil foundations.

Subsurface investigations are done to determine the type of soil, the properties of soil, the soil profile, and

the loaction of the water table.

The information obtained from the geological investigations is used for devising a suitable programme of

foundation treatment and grouting, if necessary.

(ii) Watertightness of the reservoir basin

The reservoir basin should be watertight so that the stored water is not wasted due to the seepage

through the bed and banks, otherwise the very purpose of constructing the reservoir would be defeated.

Geological investigations are conducted to detect the presence of cavernous rock formations which have

cavities and are porous. The stored water may escape through such cavities into adjacent valleys.

If such formations exist in a small areas, they may be treated and made watertight.

However, if they are widespread, the site may have to be abandoned.

(iii) Location of quarry sites

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 Large quantities of construction material such as stones, aggregates, sand, soil, rockfill, etc. are required

for the construction of a dam.

Geological investigations are conducted for location of suitable quarries for stones and borrow areas for

soils.

The quality and the quantity of the available construction materials are also determined.

3. Hydrological investigations

The hydrological investigations are conducted for the following purposes:

(i) To study the runoff pattern and to estimate yield.

(ii) To determine the maximum discharge at the site.

(i) Runoff pattern and yield

The most important aspect of the reservoir planning is to esimate the quantity of water likely to be

availabe in the river from year to year and seasons to season.

For the determination of the required storage capacity of a reservoir, the runoff pattern of the river at

the dam site is required.

If the stream gauging has been done for a number of years before the construction of the dam, the runoff

pattern will be availabe from the record.

It is generally assumed that the runoff pattern will be sustantially the same in furture also.

The avilable record is used for estimating the storage capacity.

The inflow hydrographs of two or three consecutive bad years when the discharge is low are frequently

used for estimating the required capacity.

(However, if the stream gauging records are not available, the runoff and yield have to be estimated

indirectly by the methods discussed in Chapter 4.)

(ii) Maximum discharge

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The spillway capacity of the dam is determined from the inflow hydrograph for the worst flood when the

discharge in the river is the maximum.

Flood routing is done to estimate the maximum outflow and the maximum water level reached during the

worst flood.

The methods for the estimation of the maximum flood discharge have been discussed in Chapter 4.

7.6 Selection of site for a reservoir

Q.6 What considerations will you have while selecting the site of a reservoir?

A good site for a reservoir should have the following characteristics:

1. Large storage capacity

The topography of the site should be such that the reservoir has a large capacity to store water.

2. Suitable site for the dam

A suitable site for the dam should exit on the downsteram of the proposed reservoir.

There should be good foundation for the dam.

The reservoir basin should have a narrow opening in the valley so that the length of the dam is small. The cost

of the dam is often a controlling factor in the selection of a site for the reservoir.

3. Watertightness of the reservoir

The geological conditions of the reservoir site should be such that the reservoir basin is watertight.

The reservoir sites having pervious rocks are not suitable.

The reservoir basins having shales, slates, schists, gneiss, granite, etc. are generally suitable.

4. Good hydrological conditions

The hydrological conditions of the river at the reservoir site should be such that adequate runoff is available

for storage.

The catchment area of the river should give high yield.

There should not be heavy losses in the catchment due to evaporation, transpiration and percolation.

5. Deep reservoir

The site should be such that a deep reservoir is formed after the construction of the dam.
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A deep reservoir is preferred to a shallow reservoir because in the former the evaporation losses are small, the

cost of land acquisition is low and the weed growth is less.

6. Small submerged area

The site should be such that the submerged area is a minimum.

It should not submerge costly land and property.

It should not affect the ecology of the region.

Monuments of historical and architectural importance should not be submerged.

7. Low silt inflow

The life of the reservoir is short if the river water at the site has a large quantity of sediments.

The reservoir site should be selected such that it avoids or excludes the water from those tributaries which carry

a high percentage of silt.

8. No objectionable minerals

The soil and rock mass at the reservoir site should not contain any objectionable soluble minerals which may

contaminate the water.

The stored water should be suitable for the purpose for which the water is required.

9. Low cost of real estate

The cost of real estate for the reservoir site, dam, dwellings, roads, railways, etc. should be low.

7.7 Basic terms and definitions

Q.8 Explain the following terms:

1. Full reservoir level (FRL)

- The full reservoir level (FEL) is the highest water level to which the water surface will rise during normal

operation conditions.

- The effective storage of the reservoir is computed upto the full reservoir level.

- The FRL is the highest level at which water is intended to be held for various uses without any passage of

water through the spillway.

- In case of dams without spillway gates, the FRL is equal to the crest level of the spillway (Fig. 7.7(a)).
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- However, if the spilway is gated, the FRL is equal to the level of the top of the gates (Fig. 7.7(b)).

- The full reservoir level is also called the full tank level (FTL) or the normal pool level (NPL).

- However, in this text, the term FRL shall be commonly used.

Normal conservation level (NCL)

- It is the highest level of the reservoir at which water is intended to be stored for various uses other than

flood.

- The normal conservation level is different from the FRL as the latter may include a part of the flood.

- However, if there is no storage for flood upto FRL, the normal conservation level and the FRL become

indentical.

2. Maximum water level (MWL)

- The maximum water level is the maximum level to which the water surface will rise when the design flood

passes over the spillway.

- The maximum water level is higher than the full reservoir level so that some surcharge storage is available

between the two levels to absorb flood.

- The maximum water level is also called the maximum pool level (MPL) or maximum flood level (MFL).

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3. Minimum pool level

- The minimum pool level is the lowest level up to which the water is withdrawn from the reservoir under

ordinary conditions.

- The minimum pool level gnerally corresponds to the elevation of the lowest outlet (or sluiceway) of the

dam.

- However, in the case of a reservoir for hydroelectric power, the minimum working head required for the

efficient working of turbines.

- The storage below the minimum pool level is not useful and is called the dead storage.

4. Useful storage

- The volume of water stored between the full reservoir level (FRL) and the minimum pool level is called the

useful storage.

- The useful storage is available for various purposes of the reservoir.

- In most of the reservoirs, the useful storage is the conservation storage of the reservoir.

- However, in the case of multipurpose reservoirs in which the flood control is also a designed function, the

useful storage is subdivided into (a) the conservation storage for other purposes and (b) the flood control

storage for the flood control, in accordance with the adopted pan of operation of the reservoir.

- The useful storage is also known as the live storage.

5. Surcharge storage

- The surchage storage is the volume of water stored above the full reservoir level upto the maximum water

level.

- The surchage storage is an uncontrolled storage which exists only when the river is in flood and the flood

water is passing over the spillway.

- This storage is available only for the absorption of flood and it cannot be used for other purposes.

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6. Dead storage

- The volume of water held below the minimum pool level is called the dead storage.

- The dead storage is not useful, as it cannot be used for any purpose under ordinary operating conditions.

7. Bank storage

- If the banks of the reservoir are porous, some water is termporarily stored by them when the reservoir is

full.

- The stored water in the banks later drains into the reservoir when the water level in the reservoir falls.

- Thus, the banks of the reservoir act like mini reservoirs.

- The bank storage increases the effective capacity of the reservoir above that indicated by the elevation-

storage curve.

- However, in most of the reservoirs, the bank storage is small because the banks are usually impervious.

8. Valley storage

- The volume of water held by the natural river channel in its valley upto the top of its banks before the

construction of a reservoir is called the valley storage.

- The valley storage depends upon the cross section of the river, the length of the river and its water level.

- The net increase in the storage capacity after the construction of a reservoir is equal to the total capacity

of the reservoir upto FRL minus the valley storage.

- However, this distinction between the net storage capacity and the total storage capacity is not of much

significance in a conservation or storage reservoir where the main concern is the total water available for

different purposes.

- But in the case of a flood control reservoir, the difference between the net storage capacity and the total

storage capacity is quite important because the effective storage for flood control is reduced due to the

valley storage. The effective storage is equal to the sum of the useful storage and the surcharge storage

minus the valley storage in the case of a flood control reservoir.

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9. Yield from a reservoir

- Yield is the volume of water which can be withdrawn from a reservoir in a specified period of time.

- The time period for the estimation of yield is selected according to the size of the reservoir.

- It may be a day for a small reservoir and a month or a year for a large reservoir.

- The yield is usually expressed as Mha-m/year or Mm3/year for large reservoirs.

- As discussed later, the yield is determined from the storage capacity of the reservior and the mass inflow

curve.

10. Safe yield (Firm yield)

- Safe yield is the maximum quantity of water which can be supplied from a reservoir in a specified period

of time during a critical dry year.

- Generally, the lowest recorded natural flow of the river for a number of years is taken as the critical dry

period for determining the safe yield.

- However, there is a possibility that a still drier period may occur in future and the yield available may be

even less than that determined on the basis of past records.

- This factor should be kept in mind while fixing the safe yield.

- There is generally a firm commitment by the organisation to the consumers that the safe yield will be

available to them.

- It is therefore also called the firm yield or the gauranteed yield.

11. Secondary yield

- Secondary yield is the quantity of water which is available during the period of high flow in the rivers when

the yield is more than the safe yield.

- There is no firm commitment (or guarantee) to supply the secondary yield.

- It is supplied on as and when basis at the lower rates.

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- The hydropower developed from secondary yield is sold to industries at cheaper rates.

- However, the power commitment for domestic supply should be based on the firm yield.

12. Average yield

- The average yield is the arithmatic average of the firm yield and the secondary yield over a long period of

time.

13. Design yield

- The design yield is the yield adopted in the design of a reservoir.

- The design yield is usually fixed after considering the urgency of the water needs and the amount of risk

involved.

- The design yield should be such that the demands of the consumers are reasonably met with, and at the

same time, the storage required is not unduly large.

- Generally, a reservoir for the domestric water supply is planned on the basis of firm yield.

- On the other hand, a reservior for irrigation may be planned with a value of design yield equal to 1.2 times

the firm yield because more risk can be taken for the irrigation water supply than for domestic water

supply.

7.8 Mass inflow curve and demand curve

For the determination of the reservoir capacity, it is useful to study the mass inflow curve and demand curve.

(a) Mass inflow curve

A mass inflow curve, also called a mass curve, is a plot between accumulated inflow volume as ordinate and

time as abscissa.

A mass inflow curve is prepared from the inflow hydrograph of a river for a large number of consecutive years.

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Fig. 7.8 (b) shows the hydrograph of a river at a particular site from the year 1960 to 1964.

The discharge ordinates represent the annual average discharge [i.e., aeverage discharge of the full year,

obtained from the total annual volume of stream flow by dividing it by (365 x 24 x 3600).

The area A1 under the hydrograph from the starting year 1960 to 1961 (shown hatched) represents the volume

of water in cumec-year that has flowed through the river (1 cumec-year = 1 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 365 = 31.536 Mm3).

Similarly, the areas under the hydrograph in other years represent the volume of water in the corresponidng

years.

Thus the total area of hydrograph from 1960 to 1962 is equal to the total volume from 1960 to 1962, and so

on.

Fig. 7.8 (a) shows the mass inflow curve.

The ordinate of the curve at the year 1960 is zero and at the year 1961 is equal to the volume of water flowed

from the year 1960 to 1961.

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The ordinate at the year 1962 represents the total volume of water from the year 1960 to 1962.

Likewise, the other ordinates of the mass curve are found and plotted.

It may be noted that the mass curve as it shows the accumulated volume upto that time.

If there is no flow during a certain period, the mass curve can be horizontal but it can never fall.

On the other hand, the mass curve will rise steeply when there is large inflow.

Thus the slope of the curve at any point indicates the rate of inflow at that time.

Relatively dry periods are indicated as depressions with concavity upwards, wheras the periods of high

discharge are indicated as crests with convexity upwards.

(b) Mass demand curve

A demand curve is a plot between the demand rate as ordinate and the time as abscissa.

The mass demand curve is a plot between the accumulated demand volume as ordinate and the time as

abscissa.

The mass demand curve is determined from the demand curve.

If the demand is uniform, the demand curve is a horizontal line [Fig. 7.9(b)], and the corresponding mass

demand curve is a straight line, having a slope equal to the demand rate [Fig. 7.9 (a)].

On the other hand, if the demand curve is variable, the mass demand curve is a rising curve.

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The mass demand curve is obtained from the demand curve after finding out the area of the demand curve

for consecutive years.

7.9 Determination of the required capacity

The capacity required for a reservoir depends upon the inflow available and the demand.

(If the available inflow in the river is always greater than the demand, there is no storage required.

On the other hand, if the inflow in the river is small but the demand is high, a large reservoir capacity is

required.)

The required capacity for a reservoir can be determined by the following methods:

1. Graphical method, using mass curves.

2. Analytical method.

3. Flow-duration curves method.

1. Graphical method

(a) Storage required for uniform demand

The following procedure is used when the mass demand curve is a straight line.

1. Prepare a mass inflow curve from the flow hydrograph of the site for a number of consecutive years

including the most critical years (or the driest years) when the discharge is low. Fig. 7.10 shows the mass

inflow curve for 4 consecutive years.

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2. Prepare the mass demand curve corresponding to the given rate of demand. If the rate of demand is

constant, the mass demand curve is a straight line, as shown in the inset in diagram in Fig. 7.10. The

scale of the mass demand curve should be the same as that of the mass inflow curve.

3. Draw the lines AB, FG, etc. such that (i) They are parallel to the mass demand curve, and (ii) They are

tangential to the crests A, F, etc. of the mass curve. The points A, F, etc. indicate the beginning of the

dry periods marked by the depressions.

4. Determine the vertical intercepts CD, HJ, etc. between the tangential lines and the mass inflow curve.

These intercepts indicate the volumes by which the inflow volumes fall short of demand.

Assuming that the reservoir is full at point A, the inflow volume during the period AE is equal to

ordinate DE and the demand is equal to ordiante CE. Thus the storage required is equal to the volume

indicated by the intercept CD. [Note: If the reservoir is not full in the beginning.]

5. Determine the largest of the vertical intercepts found in Step (4). The largest vertical intercept

represents the storage capacity required.

The following points should be noted.

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 (i) The capacity obtained in the net storage capacity which must be available to meet the demand.

The gross capacity of the reservoir will be more than the net storage capacity. It is obtained by

adding the evaporation and seepage losses to the net storage capactiy.

(ii) The tangential lines AB, FG, etc. when extended forward must intersect the curve. This is

necessary for the reservoir to become full again. If these lines do not intersect the mass curve,

the reservoir will not be filled again. However, very large reservoirs sometimes do not get

refilled every year. In that case, they may become full after 2-3 years.

(iii) The vertical distance such as FL between the successive tangents represents the volume of

water spilled over the spillway of the dam.

(b) Storage required for Non-uniform Demand (Variable demand)

If the demand rate is not uniform, the mass demand curve is a curve instead of a straight line. The following

procedure is used.

1. The mass demand curve is superposed on the mass inflow curve such that it chronologically coincides with

the latter (Fig. 7.11). In other words, the mass demand for the period 1950-51, must coincide with the mass

inflow for 1950-51, and so on.

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2. The vertical intercepts are then determined between the mass demand curve and the mass inflow curve,

where the demand curve is higher. The required storage capacity is equal to the maximum of the vertical

intercepts so obtained.

(c) Storage required when the demand is equal to the average discharge of the river

If the reservoir is to be designed such that its yield is equal to the average value of the discharge of the river

for the entire period, the following proceduce is used.

1. Join the end points of the mass inflow curve by a straight line AB to determine the average discharge

of the river over the entire period of the curve (Fig. 7.12).

2. Draw two lines A’B’ and A’’B’’ such that they are parallel to the line AB and also tangential to the mass

curve at the lowest point C and the highest point D respecitvely.

3. Determine the vertical intercept between the two tangents. The required capacity is equal to this

vertical intercept.

(If the reservoir having this capacity is assumed to have a volume of water equal to the intercept A’A at

the beginning of the period (in 1950), then the reservoir will be full at D and empty at C.

The following points may be noted. (i) If the reservoir is empty in the very beginning at A, it would be

empty again at point E, F, and K. (ii) If the reservoir is full in the very beginning at A, it would be full again

at E, F and K. During the period AE, there would be spill of water over the spillway.)
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7.10 Determination of yield of a reservoir

The yield from a reservoir of a given capacity can be determined by the use of the mass inflow curve.

The following procedure is used.

1. Prepare the mass inflow curve from the flow hydrograph of the river (Fig. 7.13).

2. Draw tangents AB, FG, etc. at the crests A, F, etc. of the mass inflow curve in such a way that the maximum

departure (intercept) of these tangents from the mass inflow curve is equal to the given reservoir capacity.

3. Measure the slopes of all the tangents drawn in Step 2.

4. Determine the slope of the fattest tangent.

5. Draw the mass demand curve from the slope of the fattest tangent. The yield is equal to the slope of this

line. [Note. The tangents when extended must intersect the mass inflow curve; otherwise the reservoir will

not be full again.]

Illustrative Example 7.2

The average annual discharge of a river for 11 years is as follows:
Year 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1968 1970
Discharge 1750 2650 3010 2240 2630 3200 1000 950 1200 4150 3500
(cumecs)

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Determine the storage capacity required to meet a demand of 2000 cumecs throughout the year.
Solution:
1 cumec-year = 1 x 365 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 31.536 x 106 m3 = 3153.6 ha-m
Yearly demand = 3153.6 x 2000 = 6.31 Mha-m
Inflow volume in 1960 = 1750 x 3153.6 = 5.52 Mha-m
The inflow volume and cumulative inflow are calculated in the table below:
Year 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1968 1970
Discharge 1750 2650 3010 2240 2630 3200 1000 950 1200 4150 3500
(cumecs)
Inflow 5.52 8.35 9.49 7.06 8.29 10.09 3.15 3.00 3.78 13.09 11.04
volume
(Mha-m)
Cumulative 5.52 13.87 23.36 30.42 38.71 48.80 51.95 54.95 58.73 71.82 82.86
Inflow
(Mha-m)
Fig. 7.14 shows the mass inflow curve. The tangents are drawn at the crests at the slope of 6.31 Mha-m per year.
The maximum intercept is 7.7 Mha-m. Storage capacity = 7.7 Mha-m.

Illustrative Example 7.3

The runoff from a catchment area during successive months in a year is given below. Determine the maximum
capacity of the reservoir required if the entire volume of water is to be drawn off at a uniform rate, without any
loss of water over the spillway.
month Jan Feb Mar Apri May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Runoff 1.3 2.0 2.70 8.50 12.0 12.0 19.0 22.0 2.50 2.20 1.90 1.70
(Mm3)
Solution
Total inflow = 1.30 + 2.01 + … + 1.70 = 87.8 Mm3
For no wastage, monthly yield = 87.8/12 = 7.32 Mm3
The cumulative inflow is calculated in the table below.
month Jan Feb Mar Apri May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Cumulative 1.3 3.30 6.00 14.50 26.50 38.50 57.50 79.50 82.00 84.20 86.10 87.80
inflow
(Mm3)

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Fig. 7.15 shows the mass inflow curve. The tangents are drawn at the crest and at the depression parallel to the
average demand line at a slope of 7.32 Mm3/month. The vertical intercept between the two tangents is 36
Mm3.
Required capacity = 36.0 Mm3

Illustrative Example 7.4

The average monthly runoff that flowed down a river during a critical year is given below.
month Jan Feb Mar Apri May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Runoff (Hect-m) 500 350 650 600 300 650 7500 6000 3500 2500 600 700
(a) If the monthly demands are as under, determine the required storage capacity. Assume that the reservoir
is full on Jan 1.
month Jan Feb Mar Apri May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Demand 5 6 7 5 8 10 5 6 4 8 10 12
(cumecs)
If there is a uniform demand of 6 m3/s, determine the required storage.
Solution:
(a) 1 cumec – month = 1 x 30 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 10-4 = 259.2 ha-m
The cumulative inflow and cumulative demand are calculated in the table below. The mass inflow and mass
demand curves are drawn (Fig. 7.16). The maximum intercept between the two curves is 7.6 Mha-m.
Required storage capacity = 7.6 x 106 ha-m
month Jan Feb Mar Apri May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Cumulative 500 850 1500 2100 2400 3050 10550 16550 20050 22550 23150 23850
Inflow
(ha-m)
Demand 1296 1555.2 1814.4 1296 2073.6 2592 1296 1555.2 1036.8 2073.6 2592 3110.4
(ha-m)
Cumulative 1296 2851.2 4665.6 5961.6 8035.2 10627.2 11923.2 13478.4 14515.2 16588.8 19180.8 22291.2
Demand
(ha-m)

(b) Demand for one month = 259.2 x 6 = 1555 ha-m.

Tangent is drawn at the crest with a slope equal to this demand.
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 Required storage capacity = maximum intercept = 14.4 x 106 ha-m

Illustrative Example 7.5

Fig. 7.13 shows a mass inflow curve of a river. If the storage capacity is 1.5 Mha-m, determine the safe yield.
Solution:
The tangents are drawn at the crests such that the maximum intercept CD and HJ between the tangents and the
mass inflow curve are 1.5 Mha-m.
The slope of the flattest tangent (FG) is 2 Mha-m per year.
Safe yield = 2 Mha-m/year
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