உங்களுக்கு தெரியுமா Do You Know PDF - சமூக அறிவியல் 6th to 12th Full PDF

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உங்களுக்குததரியுமர?
தனுஸ்ரீ பதிப்பகம்
myF 1 tuyhW vd;why; vd;d?
tuyhw;wpy; fhyk;
tuyhw;wpd; fhyk; Mz;Lfspy; fzf;fplg;gLfpwJ. ngh.M.K/ ngh. M

vd;gJnghJMz;bw;FKd; / nghJMz;L
2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
ngh. M. K ngh. M
tuyhW vd;gJ fle;jfhyepfo;Tfspd; fhythpirg; gjpT
tuyhWvd;wnrhy; fpNuf;fr; nrhy;yhd‘,];Nlhhpah’(Istoria) vd;gjpypUe;Jngwg;gl;lJ. ,jd;

nghUs; “tprhhpg;gjd; %yk; fw;wy;”vd;gjhFk;.
‘jk;kh’vd;gJgpuhfpUjnrhy;. ,Jrk];fpUjj;jpy; ‘jh;kh’vdg;gLfpwJ. ,jd; nghUs;

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ehztpay; - ehzak; mjd; tuyhWnjhlh;ghdmwptpay; rhh;e;jJiwahFk;.
fy;ntl;bay; - fy;ntl;Lfspy; gjpTnra;ag;gl;lnra;jpfisMuha;tjw;fhdJiw
,jd; mbg;gilapy; rhh;y]; Myd; vDk; Mq;fpNyavOj;jhsh; mNrhfh;

Fwpj;jmidj;Jtuyhw;WMtzq;fisAk; Nrfhpj;Jj; njhFj;J E}yhfntspapl;lhh;. me;j
E}ypd; ngah; The Search for the India’s Lost Emperor.
mjw;Fg; gpwFMl;rpFwpj;jnra;jpfisntspf;nfhzh;e;jdh;. ,jw;fhdrhd;Wfs; rhQ;rp

];J}gpapYk;>rhuehj; fw;W}zpYk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,it mNrhfhpd; ngUikiaekf;FvLj;Jr;
nrhy;Yfpd;wd
SAIS ACADEMY Page 1

typikkpf;fNguurh; mNrhfh;
gz;ila ,e;jpamurh;fspy; NgUk; GfOk; ngw;wmurh; mNrhfh; Mthh;. ,tuJMl;rpapy;

jhd; Gj;jkjk; Mrpahtpd; gy;NtWgFjpfSf;Fg; gutpaJ. fypq;fg; NghUf;Fg; gpd; gycaph;fs;
kbtijf; fz;LtUe;jp>Nghh; njhLg;gijf; iftpl;lhh;. mjw;Fg; gpwFGj;jrkaj;ijj;
jOtp>mikjpiaAk; mwj;ijAk; gug;Gtjw;fhfj; jd; tho;itNamh;g;gzpj;jhh;.
nghJkf;fSf;Fmth; Mw;wpaNritKd; khjphpahftpsq;fpaJ. ntw;wpf;Fg; gpd; Nghiuj;
Jwe;jKjy; murh; mNrhfh; jhd;. cyfpNyNaKjd;Kjyhftpyq;FfSf;Fk;
jdpNakUj;Jtkidmikj;Jj; je;jtUk; Mthh;. ,d;Wk; mth; cUthf;fparhiyfisehk;
gad;gLj;jpf; nfhz;L ,Uf;fpNwhk;. ekJNjrpaf; nfhbapy; ,lk; ngw;Ws;s 24 Muf;fhy; rf;fuk;
mNrhfh; epWtparhuehj; fw;W}zpy; cs;sKj;jpiuapypUe;Njngwg;gl;lJ.
,jpypUe;JmNrhfuJKf;fpaj;Jtj;ijehk; mwpayhk;. Mdhy;> ,j;jifarpwg;Gfisf;
nfhz;lmNrhfh; Fwpj;jjfty;fs;>tuyhw;wpd; gf;fq;fspy; 20 Mk; E}w;whz;Ltiu ,lk;ngwNt
,y;iy. Mq;fpNyatuyhw;WMa;thsh;fshdtpy;ypak; N[hd;]>; N[k;]; gphpd;nrg;>mnyf;]hz;lh;
fd;dpq;fhk; Nghd;wth;fs; tuyhw;W Ma;Tfs; %yk; fz;Lgpbj;j tuyhw;Wr; rhd;Wfs; jhd;
khkd;dh; mNrhfhpd; rpwg;GfisntspcyFf;Fnfhz;Lte;jd.
myF 2 kdpjh;fspd; ghpzhktsh;r;rp
kdpjh;fs; ghpzhktsh;r;rpmile;jfijiaj; njhy;ypay;>khDltpay; cjtpAld; ehk;

mwptpay; Nehf;fpy; gapyKbAk;
tuyhw;Wf;FKe;ijafhykdpjh;fisAk; mth;fs; gad;gLj;jpanghUl;fisAk; gw;wpg;

gbg;gJnjhy;ypay; MFk;. njhy;ypay; Ma;tpw;FKf;fpa Mjhukhf mfo;thuha;r;rpg; nghUl;fs;
cjTfpd;wd
Fifapy; thofw;Wf; nfhz;lFNuhkf;dhd;]; kdpjh;fs; gpuhd;rpy; cs;syh];fh]; vd;Dkplj;jpy;

cs;sFiffspy; tho;e;jjw;fhdnjhy;ypay; rhd;Wfs; fpilj;Js;sd. ,th;fsplk;
,we;jth;fisGijf;Fk; gof;fk; ,Ue;jJ.
khDltpay; (anthropology) kdpjh;fisAk; mth;fspd; ghpzhktsh;r;rpiag;

gw;wpgbg;gJkhDltpay; MFk;.
khDltpay; (anthropology) vd;Dk; nrhy; ,uz;LfpNuf;fthh;j;ijfspypUe;Jngwg;gl;lJ.

anthroposvd;gjd; nghUs; kdpjd.; logos vd;gjd; nghUs; vz;zq;fs; my;yJfhuzk;.
khDltpay; Ma;thsh;fs;>kdpjFyj;jpd; tsh;r;rpiaAk;>elj;ijiaAk; Muha;e;Jkdpjdpd;
fyhr;rhukw;Wk; r%fepfo;Tfs; gw;wpa KO tpsf;fj;ijAk; miltjw;FKay;fpd;wdh;.
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1. M];l;uNyhgpjpf]; - fpof;FMg;gphpf;fh
2. N`hNkhn`gpyp]; -njd; Mg;gphpf;fh
3. N`hNkhvuf;l]; - Mg;gphpf;fhkw;Wk; Mrpah
4. epahz;lh;jhy; - A+Nuhrpah (INuhg;ghkw;Wk; Mrpah)
5. FNuh–kf;dhd;]; - gpuhd;];
6. gPfpq; kdpjd; -
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7. N`hNkhNrg;gpad;]; - Mg;gphpf;fh
8. i`ly;gh;f; kdpjd; - yz;ld;
myF 3 rpe;Jntspehfhpfk;
 ,e;jpanjhy;ypay; Jiw–ASI
(Archaelogical Survey of India)
 1861 Mk; Mz;Lmnyf;]hz;lh;
fd;dpq;`hk; vd;wepymsitahsh;
cjtpAld; epWtg;gl;lJ
 ,jd; jiyikafk; GJ jpy;ypapy;
cs;sJ.
kdpjh;fshy; Kjd; Kjypy;

fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lkw;Wk;
cgNahfg;gLj;jg;gl;lcNyhfk; - nrk;G
SAIS ACADEMY Page 3

ntz;fyf; fhyk;
kf;fs; ntz;fyj;jhyhdnghUl;fisg; gad;gLj;jpafhyk; MFk;
nkn`h;fh; - rpe;Jntspehfhpfj;Jf;FKd;Ndhb
nkn`h;fh; Gjpafw;fhykf;fs; tho;e;jXh; ,lk; MFk;. ,Jghfp];jhd; ehl;by; gYr;rp];jhd;
khepyj;jpy; Nghyd; Mw;Wg; gs;sj;jhf;fpy; mike;Js;sJ. ,Jnjhlf;ffhykdpjh;fs; tho;e;jjhff;
fz;lwpag;gl;l ,lq;fSs; xd;Wkf;fs; Ntshz;ikapYk;>fhy;eiltsh;g;gpYk; <Lgl;ljw;fhdrhd;W
,q;Ffpilj;Js;sJ. ngh.M.K 7000 – I xl;bafhyj;jpNyNankn`h;fhpy;
ehfhpfj;Jf;FKe;ijatho;f;ifepytpajw;fhdnjhy;ypay; rhd;Wfs; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
fl;llq;fs; fl;Ltjw;FVd; Rl;lnrq;fw;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd? Vndd;why;

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Nf.tp.b (nfhw;if–tQ;rp–njhz;b) tshfk; : ghfp];jhdpy; ,d;Wk;

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nfhw;if>G+k;Gfhh; Nghd;wrq;ffhyefuq;fs; kw;Wk; JiwKfq;fspd; ngah;fSld; cs;s ,lq;fs;
Mg;fhdp];jhdpy; cs;sd. Mg;fhdp];jhdpy; cs;sMWfshdfhtphp>nghUz;]; kw;Wk;
ghfp];jhdpy; cs;sMWfshdfhtphpthyhkw;Wk; nghUidMfpangah;fs; jkpo;r;
nrhw;fisKOikahfg; gpujpgypf;fpd;wd.
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rpe;Jntspkf;fs; Mguzk; nra;arptg;Gepwkzpf;fw;fisg; (camelian) gad;gLj;jpdh;.
rpe;Jntspkf;fSf;F ,Uk;gpd; gad; gw;wpnjhpahJ
nkh`Q;rjhNuhtpy; njhy;nghUs; Muha;rr ; peilngWk; ,lk; cyfg; ghuk;ghpaj;

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fjphpaf;ffhh;gd taJf;fzpg;GKiw–njhy;ypay;
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Kiwfjphpaf;ffhh;gd; Kiwmy;yJfhh;gd; Kiwvd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
cyfk; me;ehspy;
ngh.M.K 2500 y; F/G kd;ddhy; Rz;zhk;Gf;fy;yhy; fl;lg;gl;lfpNrgpukpL (xt;nthd;Wk; 15 ld;
vilcilaJ)
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Nfhapy;fs; cs;s ,lk;
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உன்னரல் முடியும் என்று எண்ணுவததய ர அல்லது

முடியும் என்று கனவு கரண்பததய ர துணிந்து ததரடங்கு.
உனது துணிவியலய அறிவும், ஆற்றலும், மந்திரமும்
அடங்கியுள்ளன.
SAIS ACADEMY Page 5
myF 4 jkpo;ehl;bd; gz;ilaefuq;fs;
NrhoehL–NrhWilj;J
 Gfhh; JiwKfefuk;
ghz;baehL–Kj;Jilj;J
 kJiutzpfefuk;
NruehL–NtoKilj;J  fhQ;rpfy;tpefuk; MFk;
njhz;ilehL–rhd;NwhUilj;J
NruehL–Nfhit>ePyfphp>f&h;>fd;dpahFkhpkw;Wk; ,d;iwaNfus
khepyj;jpd; gFjpfs;
NrhoehL–jQ;ir>jpUth&h;>ehif>jpUr;rp>GJf;Nfhl;ilkhtl;lq;fs;
ghz;baehL–kJiu> ,uhkehjGuk;>rptfq;if> J}j;Jf;Fb>jpUney;Ntyp
cs;spl;lnjd; khtl;lq;fs;
njhz;ilehL–fhQ;rpGuk;>jpUts;@h;>jUkGhp>jpUtz;zhkiy>NtY}h; kw;Wk;
tpOg;Guk; khtl;lj;jpd; tlf;Fg; gFjp
myF 1 Nguz;lk; kw;Wk; #hpaf;FLk;gk;
mz;lj;ij gw;wpa gbg;gpw;F‘mz;ltpay;’(Cosmology) vd;Wngah;. fh];kh]; vd;gJ

xUfpNuf;fr; nrhy;yyhFk;
Xh; xspahz;Lvd;gJxspXh; Mz;by;

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fw;gidnra;Jghh;f;fTk; #hpad; 1.3 kpy;ypad; Gtpfisjdf;Fs;Nsmlf;ff;$batifapy;

kpfg;nghpajhFk;.
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Nfhs;fspd; thpiria epidtpw; nfhs;s (Mnemonics) :
GJ nts;sk; Gtpapy; nrYj;jpdhy; tpthjk;> rz;il> Aj;jk; neUq;fhJ.
#hpaDf;Fk; Gtpf;Fk; ,ilNacs;snjhiyT 150 kpy;ypad; fpNyhkPl;luhFk;. kzpf;F

800 fp.kPNtfj;jpy; nry;Yk; thD}h;jp #hpaid nrd;wila 21 tUlq;fs; MFk;.
gz;ilj; jkpoh;fs; #hpad; kw;Wk; gpwNfhs;fisg; gw;wpmwpe;jpUe;jdh; vd;gJrq;f

,yf;fpaq;fs; thapyhfekf;Fg; GydhfpwJ. cjhuzkhf>rpWghzhw;Wg;gilapy; fhzg;gLk; ‘ths;
epwtpRk;gpd; Nfhs; kPd; #o;e;j ,sq;fjph; QhapW’vd;Wghly; thpfspypUe;Jehk;
njhpe;Jnfhs;Nthk;.
,e;jpatpz;ntspMuha;r;rpepWtdk; (ISRO) nrt;tha;f; Nfhspd; tspkz;lyk; kw;Wk;

jiug;gFjpiaMuha;tjw;fhf 24.09.2014 md;Wkq;fs;ahd; (Mars Orbiter Mission) vdg;gLk;
tpz;fyj;ijmDg;gpaJ. ,jdhy; ,e;jpahnrt;tha;f; NfhspidMuhAk; ehLfspd; gl;baypy;
u~;ah tpz;ntspMuha;rr; pepWtdk;> eh]h (USA)
INuhg;gpatpz;ntspMuha;r;rpepWtdj;jpw;FmLj;jjhfehd;fhk; ,lj;jpy; cs;sJ.
epyitg; gw;wpMuha;tjw;fhf ,e;jpahtpy; mDg;gg;gl;lKjy; tpz;fyk; re;jpuhad; - 1

MFk;. ,J 2008 Mk; Mz;Ltpz;zpy; nrYj;jg;gl;lJ.
Gtpapd; RoYk; Ntfk; epyeLf;Nfhl;Lg; gFjpapy; 1670 fp.kP/ kzpMfTk;>

0
60 tlf;Fml;rNuifapy; 845 fp.kP/ kzpMfTk;>JUtg; gFjpapy; RoYk; Ntfk; RopahfTk; ,Uf;Fk;
es;spuT #hpad; vd;gJ ,U miuf;Nfhsq;fspYk; Nfhilf;fhyj;jpy; Mh;f;bf;

tl;lj;jpw;Ftlf;fpYk;>mz;lhh;bf; tl;lj;jpw;Fnjw;fpYk; 24 kzpNeuKk; #hpad; jiyf;FNky;
njhpAk; epfo;thFk;.
kd;dhh; caph;f;Nfhs; ngl;lfk; ,e;jpangUq;flypy; 10>500 rJufp.kPgug;gstpy;

mike;J s;
s J
SAIS ACADEMY Page 7
#hpaDf;Fk; mz;ik’(Penhelion) vd;gJGtpjd; Rw;Wg;ghijapy; #hpaDf;F

kpfmUfpy; tUk; epfo;thFk;. #hpar; Nra;ik(Aphelion) vd;gJGtpjd; Rw;Wg;ghijapy;
#hpaDf;Fj; njhiytpy; fhzg;gLk; epfo;thFk;.
myF 2 epyg;gug;Gk; ngUq;flYk;
jUkGhpgPlG+kp>Nfhak;Gj;J}h; gPlG+kpkw;Wk; kJiugPlG+kp Mfpad jkpo;ehl;by; fhzg;gLk;

gPlG+kpfshFk;.
,yf;fpaj;jpy;
rq;f ,yf;fpaj;jpy; epytifg;ghL
FwpQ;rp - kiyAk; kiyrhh;e;jepyKk;
Ky;iy - fhLk; fhLrhh;e;jepyKk;
kUjk; - taYk; tay; rhh;e;jepyKk;
nea;jy; - flYk; fly; rhh;e;jepyKk;
ghiy - kzYk; kzy; rhh;e;jepyKk;
Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpYs;s nghUs;fis (ghiwfs;) mhpj;J mfw;WjNy mhpj;jy;

vdg;gLfpwJ. ,t;thW mhpf;fg;gl;l ghiw Jfs;fs; flj;jg;gl;L jho;epyg; gFjpfspy; gba
itf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,r;nray; gbaitj;jy; vdg;gLfpwJ.
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];ngapd; ehl;bd; khYkpngh;bdhz;Lnkfy;yd; grpgpf; vdngahpl;lhh;. grpgpf; vd;gjd;

nghUs; mikjpvd;gjhFk;.
cyfpd; caukhdvtnu];l; rpfuk; (8>848 kP) khpahdhmfopapy; (10>994 kP) %o;fptpLk; vd;why;
mjd; Moj;ijczh;e;jwpthahf flypd; Moj;ijkP-vd;wFwpaPl;lhy; Fwpg;gplNtz;Lk;.
60fhy;tha; - ,e;jpuhKidiaAk; ,e;NjhNdrpahitAk; gphpf;fpwJ.

80fhy;tha; - khyj; jPitAk; kpdpf;fha; jPitAk; gphpf;fpwJ.
90fhy;tha; - yl;rjPitAk; kpdpf;fha; jPitAk; gphpf;fpwJ.
100fhy;tha; - me;jkhd; jPitAk; epf;Nfhghh; jPitAk; gphpf;fpwJ.
Mw;Wr; rkntspfs; gz;ilaehfhpfq;fspd; njhl;byhftpsq;fpd. ,e;jpahtpy;

rpe;Jejpkw;Wk; vfpg;jpd; iey; ejpNghd;wMw;Wr; rkntspfspy; ehfhpfq;fs;
Njhd;wpnropj;Njhq;fptsh;e;jd.
myF 1 gd;Kfj; jd;ikapidmwpNthk;
 Nkfhyahtpy; cs;snksrpd;uhk; mjpfkionghopAk; gFjpMFk;

 uh[];jhdpy; cs;s n[a;rhy;kh; Fiwthdkiog;nghopAk; gFjpMFk;.
,e;jpa murpayikg;Gr; rl;lj;jpd; vl;lhtJml;ltizapd;gb 22 nkhopfs;

mYtyfnkhopfshfmq;fPfhpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. 2004 Mk; Mz;L ,e;jpamurhy; Kjy;
nrk;nkhopahf“jkpo; nkhop”mwptpf;fg;gl;lJ. jw;NghJ 6 nkhopfs;
nrk;nkhopfshfmwptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
SAIS ACADEMY Page 9

,e;jpanjhy;ypay; Jiw ,Jtiufz;Lgpbj;jfy;ntl;Lr; rhd;Wfspy; 60% jkpo;ehl;by;

,Ue;Jfz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;litMFk;. mtw;wpy; ngUk;ghyhditjkpo; nkhopapNyNavOjg;gl;ld.
,e;jpahtpy; Ngrg;gLk; Kjy; Ie;Jnkhopfs;

(2001 – d; fzf;nfLg;gpd;gb)
nkhop nkhj;jkf;fs; njhifrjtpfpjk;
,e;jp 41.03 %
tq;fhsk; 8.10 %
njYq;F 7.19 %
kuhj;jp 6.99 %
jkpo; 5.91 %
,e;jpah“Ntw;Wikapy; xw;Wik”cs;sehlhftpsq;FfpwJ. ,r;nrhw;nwhluhdJekJRje;jpu

,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; gpujkuhd [t`h;yhy; NeUtpd; “b];fthp M/g; ,e;jpah”vd;w E}ypy; ,lk;
ngw;Ws;sJ
,e;jpahtpy; gy;NtW ,d kf;fs; fhzg;gLtjhy;> ,e;jpahit“,dq;fspd;

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myF 2 rkj;Jtk; ngWjy;
,depwntwpf;FKbT
njd;dhg;gphpf;fhtpd; Kd;dhs; mjpguhdney;rd; kz;Nlyhmth;fs;> 27 Mz;Lfs;
rpiwtho;f;iff;Fg; gpd; 1990 Mk; Mz;LtpLjiyahdhh;. ,th; njd;dhg;gphpf;fhtpypUe;j
,depwntwpf;FKbTfl;bdhh;. cyfstpy; mikjpepytTk;>kdpjchpikfSf;fhdNghuhl;lj;jpy;
Kd;NdhbahfTk; jpfo;e;jhh;.
lhf;lh; gPk;uht; uhk;[p mk;Ngj;fhh;
 ,th; ghghrhN`g; vdgpugykhfmiof;fg;gLfpwhh;.

 ,th; ,e;jparl;lepGzuhfTk;>nghUshjhuepGzuhfTk;>murpay;thjpahfTk;>r%fr;
rPh;jpUj;jthjpahfTk; jpfo;e;jhh;
 ,th; 1915 ,y; vk;.V gl;lj;ijngw;whh;. gpd;dh; 1927 ,y;
nfhyk;gpahgy;fiyf;fofj;jpy; gp.vr;.b. gl;lj;ijngw;whh;. mjw;FKd;dh; ,yz;ld;
nghUshjhug; gs;spapy; D.Scgl;lj;ijAk; ngw;wpUe;jhh;.
 ,th; murpayikg;Geph;zarigapd; tiuTFOtpd; jiytuhf ,Ue;jhh;. vdNt>
,th; ,e;jpamurpayikg;gpd; je;ijahff; fUjg;gLfpwhh;.
 ,th; Rje;jpu ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; rl;lmikr;ruhfg; gzpahw;wpdhh;.
 ,tuJkiwTf;Fg; gpd;dh;> 1990 Mk; Mz;Lghujuj;dhtpUJtoq;fg;gl;lJ.
SAIS ACADEMY Page 10

vOj;jwpTtpfpjk; - 2011 Mk; Mz;Lfzf;nfLg;G
mjpfk; FiwT
t. vz; khtl;lj;jpd; tpfpjk; t. khtl;lj;jpd; tpfpjk;
ngah; vz; ngah;
1 fd;dpahFkhp 91.75 % 1 jUkGhp 68.54 %
2 nrd;id 90.18 % 2 mhpaY}h; 71.34 %
3 J}j;Jf;Fb 86.16 % 3 fpU~;zfphp 71.46 %
4 ePyfphp 85.20 % 4 tpOg;Guk; 71.88 %
Mjhuk; :censusindia.com
ghypdtpfpjk; - 2011 Mk; Mz;Lfzf;nfLg;G

jyhMapuk; Mz;fSf;Fepfuhdngz;fspd; vz;zpf;if
mjpfk; FiwT
t. vz; khtl;lj;jpd; tpfpjk; t. khtl;lj;jpd; tpfpjk;
ngah; vz; ngah;
1 ePyfphp 1041 1 jUkGhp 946
2 jQ;rhT+h; 1031 2 Nryk; 954
3 ehfg;gl;bdk; 1025 3 fpU~;zfphp 956
4 J}j;Jf;Fb 1024 4 ,uhkehjGuk; 977
Mjhuk; :censusindia.com
myF 1 tl,e;jpahtpy; Ntjfhyg; gz;ghLk; njd;dpe;jpahtpy; ngUq;fw;fhyg;

gz;ghLk;
hpf;Ntjkf;fs; mwpe;jpUe;jcNyhfq;fs;
 jq;fk; (`puz;ah)
 ,Uk;G (rpahkh)
 jhkpuk; / nrk;G (mah];)
ghyp - ,J xU thp MFk;. xUth; jdJ tptrha kf#ypy; my;yJ fhy;eilfspy; 1/6 gq;if
,t;thpahfr; nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;
rgh - %j;Njhh;fisf; nfhz;lkd;wk;
rkpjp–kf;fs; midtiuAk; nfhz;lnghJf;FO

Ntjfhyj;ijtifg;gLj;Jjy;
Ntjfhyj;jpd;
,uz;Lfl;lq;fs;
njhlf;fNtjfhyk; fp.K (ngh.M.K) gpd; Ntjfhyk; fp.K (ngh.M.K)

1500 - 1000 1000 - 600
ehd;FNtjq;fs; : hpf;> a[{h;>rhk>mjh;tz
fhyk;>gug;G>rhd;Wfs;
Gtpapay; gug;G tl ,e;jpah
fhyg;gFjp ,Uk;Gf; fhyk;
fhymsT fp.K (ngh.M.K) ,e;jpahtpd;NjrpaFwpf;Nfhs;
1500 – 600 tiu
rhd;Wfs; Ntjfhy “rj;aNkt n[aNj” (“tha;ikNanty;Yk;”)
,yf;fpaq;fs; vd;wthf;fpak; Kz;l cgepljj;jpy; ,Ue;J
ehfhpfj;jpd; ,ay;G fpuhkehfhpfk; vLf;fg;gl;lJ

cg;ghw;wpd; ,U fiufspYk; goq;fhytho;tplq;fs; ,Ue;jijRl;bf;fhl;Lfpd;wd. kJiukhtl;lk;

eurpq;fk;gl;bapYk;><NuhLkhtl;lk; Fkhpf;fy; ghisaj;jpYk;>nfhLkzypYk; ,J Nghd;wepidTj;
J}z;fs; cs;sd.
eLfw;fs;
,we;JNghdtPudpd; epiditg; Nghw;Wk; tifapy; elg;gLk; fy; eLf;fy;yhFk;.
jdJfpuhkj;ijnfhbatpyq;FfsplkpUe;Jmy;yJvjphpfsplk; ,Ue;Jfhg;ghw;Wk; Kaw;rpapy;
kjpg;Gtha;e;jkuzj;ijj; jOtpatPuuh;fspd; epidthfelg;gLtJMFk;. jpz;Lf;fy; khtl;lk;
godpf;FmUNfAs;skhD}h;> J}j;Jf;Fbkhtl;lk; nts;shsd; Nfhl;il>jpz;Lf;fy; khtl;lk;
Gypkhd; Nfhk;igMfpa ,lq;fspy; eLfw;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
fw;jpl;ilfs; (Dolmens) : ,we;jth;fisg; Gijj;j ,lj;jpy; ,UGwk;

,uz;Lfw;gyiffs; nrq;Fj;jhfelg;gl;Lmtw;wpd; kPJkw;nwhUfw;gyifgLf;iftrj;jpy;
itf;fg;gLk;. ,f;fw;jpl;ilfs; tPuuhftGuk; (fhQ;rpGuk; khtl;lk;) Fk;khskUJgl;b (jpz;Lf;fy;
khtl;lk;) eurpq;fk;gl;b (kJiukhtl;lk;) Mfpa ,lq;fspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
epidTfw;fs; (Menhir) : gphpl;lhdpa(Breton) nkhopapy; ‘nkd;’vd;why; fy;>‘fph;’vd;why;

“ePskhd”vd;WnghUs;. xNufy;ypyhd ,j;J}z;fs; ,we;Njhhpd; epidthfnrq;Fj;jhfelg;gLk;.
jpUg;G+h; khtl;lk; rpq;fhpghisak;>Njdpkhtl;lk; ntk;G+h; Mfpa ,lq;fpsy; ,t;thwhdepidTj;
J}z;fs; cs;sd.
jkpo;ehl;by; ngUq;fw;fhyepidTr; rpd;dq;fs;

Gjpafw;fhyj;jpd; filg;gFjpapy; tho;e;jkf;fs; ngUq;fw;fhyg; Gijg;G Kiwfisg;
gpd;gw;wj; njhlq;fpdh;. ,k;Kiwapd; gb ,we;jth;fspd; cly; nghpakl;ghz;lj;jpy; itf;fg;gLk;.
Vida rpynghUl;fSk; mjDld; itf;fg;gLk;. ,e;jngUq;fw;fhyepidTr; rpd;dq;fs; ,Uk;igf;
Fwpj;jmwpitg; ngw;wpUe;j>r%fkhf $b thoj; njhpe;jpUe;jkpfTk; Kd;Ndwpajkpo;
ehfhpfj;jpw;fhd rhl;rpfshFk;.

myF 2 khngUk; rpe;jidahsh;fSk;

Gjpaek;gpf;iffSk;
RtNuhtpaq;fs;
kfhuh~;buhkhepyk; xsuq;fhghj;jpy; cs;s m[e;jhFiffspd; Rth;fspYk; Nkw;$iuapYk;
tiuag;gl;Ls;sXtpaq;fs; [hjffijfisrpj;jphpf;fpd;wd
ngsj;jkhehLfs; - ,lk;
,il top (eLTepiy top) :
KjyhtJ - ,uh[fpUfk; cyfRfq;fspd; kPJjPtpukhdgw;Wk;
,y;yhky;>mNjrkak;
,uz;lhtJ - itrhyp fLikahdjttho;itAk; Nkw;nfhs;shky;
,Ug;gijf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
%d;whtJ - ghlypGj;jpuk;
ehd;fhtJ - fh~;kPh;
irj;jpak; - xUngsj;jf; Nfhtpy; my;yJjpahdf; $l;lk;
tpfhiufs; - klhyaq;fs; / Jwtpfs; thOk; ,lq;fs;
];J}gp - Gj;jUilacly; cWg;Gfspd; vQ;rpaghfq;fs;

kPJfl;lg;gl;bUf;Fk; fl;llk;. ,itfiyj;jpwik
tha;e;jepidTr; rpd;dq;fs; MFk;.
rkzk; (Jain) vd;Dk; nrhy; [pdh(Jina) vd;wrk];fpUjnrhy;ypy;

,Ue;Jngwg;gl;ljhFk;. mjd; nghUs; jd;idAk;>ntspAyfj;ijAk; nty;tJvd;gjhFk;.
Nkhl;rk; vd;gJgpwg;Gkw;Wk; ,wg;gpd; Row;rpapy; ,Ue;JtpLjiyngWjy; MFk;

ngsj;jgphpTfs;
`Pdahdk; kfhahdk;
 Gj;jhpd;  Gj;jhpd; cUtq;fistzq;fpdh;
rpiyfisNahcUtg;  tphpthdrlq;Ffisg; gpd;gw;wpdh;
glq;fisNahtzq;fkhl;lh  midj;Jcaphpdq;fSk;
h;fs; Kf;jpngWtNjjq;fsJNehf;fk; vdek;gpdh;
 kpfvspikahf ,Ug;gh;  rk];fpUjnkhopiag; gad;gLj;jpdh;
 jdpkdpjh;fs;  ,g;gphpTkj;jpaMrpah>
Kf;jpmiltNjjq;fspd; ,yq;if>gh;kh>Neghsk;>jpngj;>rPdh> [g;ghd;
Nehf;fk; vd;Wek;gpdh; MfpaehLfspy; gutpaJ. ,e;ehLfspy;
 gpuhfpUjnkhopiag; kj;jpk top Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gl;lJ
gad;gLj;jpdh;
 `Pdahdk; Njuthjk;
vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ
,aw;ngah; - th;j;jkhdh;
gpwg;G - itrhypf;FmUNfAs;sFe;jfpuhkk;>gPfhh;
ngw;Nwhh; - rpj;jhh;j;jh;>jphpryh
,wg;G - gtGhp–gPfhh;
,aw;ngah; - rpj;jhh;j;jh
gpwg;G - Yk;gpdpNjhl;lk; Neghsk;
ngw;Nwhh; - Rj;Njhjdh>khahNjtp
,wg;G - Frpefuk;> c.gp
fh;kh my;yJ fh;ktpid vd;why; vd;d?
,g;gpwtpapy; xUth; nra;Ak; nray;fNsmtUila/ mtSila ,g;gpwtpapd; gpw;gFjp

tho;f;ifiaAk;>mLj;jgpwtpapy; mth; thog;NghFk; tho;f;ifiaAk; jPh;khdpf;fpwJ vd;w ek;gpf;if
MFk;.

kfhtPuhpd; jiyikr; rPluhdnfsjkRthkp>kfhtPuhpd; Nghjidfisj; njhFj;jhh;.mjd;

ngah; Mfkrpj;jhe;jk; vdg;gLk;
Kf;fpaVw;Wkjpg; nghUl;fs; Kf;fpa ,wf;Fkjpg;

nghUl;fs;
 eWkzg; nghUl;fs;  Fjpiufs;
 Kj;Jf;fs;  jq;fk;
 ituq;fs;  fz;zhbg;
 gUj;jp ,io Jzp nghUl;fs;
 je;jj;jpdhyhdnghUl;fs;  gl;L (ypdd;)
 rq;Ffs;>rpg;gpfs;
Uj;ujhkdpd; [{dhfj; / fph;dhh; fy;ntl;L Rjh; rdh Vhp vDk; ePh;epiy

cUthf;fg;gl;lijg; gjpT nra;Js;sJ. ,jw;fhd gzpfs; re;jpuFg;jnkshpahpd; fhyj;jpy;
njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. mNrhfhpd; fhyj;jpy; gzpfs; epiwTngw;wd.
myF 3 Fbj;jiyikapy;
,Ue;JNguuRtiu
gz;ilangah; jw;Nghijangah;
uh[fpufk; uh[;fph;
ghlypGj;jpuk; ghl;dh
fypq;fh xbrh
af;~d; vd;gJ ePh;> tsk;>kuq;fs;>fhLfs;>fhl;Lr; #oy;

Mfpatw;NwhLnjhlh;GilaflTs; Mthh;. af;~p vd;gJ af;~htpd; ngz; tbtkhFk;.
cyfk; me;ehspy;
xypk;gpahtpd; [pa]; (Zeus) Nfhapy;
fphp]; ehl;by; cs;sxypk;gpahtpy; fp.K (ngh.M.K) Ie;jhk; E}w;whz;by; fl;lg;gl;lNfhapy; [pa];

vd;wflTSf;Fmh;gg ; zpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,Jgz;ilacyfpd; VO mjpraq;fspy; xd;whFk;.

cyfk; me;ehspy;
rPdg; ngUQ;Rth;
,J goq;fhyj;jpy; fl;lg;gl;l njhlh;r;rpahd gyNfhl;ilr; RtuhFk;. Fd; - rp - `q; vd;Dk;
Nguurh; jdJNguurpd; tl vy;iyia ghJfhg;gjw;fhf fp.K (ngh.M.K) %d;whk; E}w;whz;by;
,e;jr; Rth;fis ,izj;jhh;.
rpq;fKfj;J}z;
rhuehj;jpYs;s mNrhfUila J}zpd; rpfug; gFjpapy; mike;Js;s rpq;f cUtq;fs; ,e;jpa
Njrpa rpd;dkhfTk;>tl;l tbt mbg;gFjpapy; ,lk; ngw;Ws;s rf;fuk; ,e;jpahtpd; Njrpaf;
nfhbapd; ikar; rf;fukhfTk; Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;gl;Ls;sJ.
mNrhfh; fy;ntl;Lfspy; vOj;JKiw

rhQ;rp - gpuhkp
fhe;jfhh; - fpNuf;fk; kw;Wk;muhkpf;
tlNkw;Fg; gFjpfs; - fNuh];tjp
“mNrhfh; xUgpufhrkhdel;rj;jpuk; Nghy ,d;Wtiuxsph;fpwhh;”
H.G. nty;]; - tuyhw;wwpQh;
Nguhiz–murhy; my;yJcah; gjtpapy; ,Ug;gtuhy; ntspaplg;gl;l Miz my;yJgpufldk;

MFk;.
ghlypGj;jpuj;jpd; gpuk;khz;lk;
nksphpag; Nguurpd; khngUk; jiyefukhdghlypGj;jpuefUf;F 64 EioTthapy;fSk; 570
fz;fhzpg;GNfhGuq;fSk; ,Ue;jd.

nkf];jdp];
fpNuf;fMl;rpahsh; nrYf;f]; epNfl;lhpd; J}Jtuhf>re;jpuFg;jnkshpamuritapy; ,Ue;jth;.
gjpdhd;FMz;Lfs; ,e;jpahtpy; ,Ue;jhh;. mth; vOjpaE}ypd; ngah; ,z;bfh. nkshpag; Nguuirg;
gw;wpehk; njhpe;Jnfhs;s ,e;E}y; xUKf;fpar; rhd;whFk;.
‘fzh’vd;Dk; nrhy; ‘rhprkkhd r%fme;j];ijf; nfhz;lkf;fisf; Fwpf;Fk;. ‘rq;fh’vd;why;

‘kd;wk;’vd;WnghUs;. fzrq;fq;fs; rpwpaepyg;gFjpapy; Nkl;Lf;Fbkf;fisf; nfhz;lFOthy;
Msg;gl;lJ. fzrq;fq;fs; rkj;JtkuGfisg; gpd;gw;wpd.
‘Kbahl;rp’muR vd;gJ xUepyg;gFjpia murNdhmy;yJmurpNahMs;tjhFk;. Kbahl;rpKiw

murpy; xUFLk;gk; ePz;lfhyk; Ml;rpnra;Ak;NghJ mJmurtk;rkhfkhWfpwJ. ,e;jmuRfs;
itjPfNtjkuGfisg; gpd;gw;wpd.
nkshpag; NguuR
rhd;Wfs;
njhy;ypay; rhd;Wfs; Kj;jpiugjpf;fg;gl;lehzaq;fs;

fy;ntl;Lfs; mNrhfhpd; fy;ntl;Lg; Nguhizfs;> [{dhfj;
fy;ntl;LMfpait
kjr;rhh;gw;w ,yf;fpaq;fs; nfsby;ahpd; mh;j;j rh];jpuk; tprhfjj;jhpd; Kj;uhuhl;r~k;
kh%ydhhpd; mfehD}w;Wg; ghly;
kjk; rhh;e;j ,yf;fpaq;fs; rkz>ngsj;j E}y;fs;>Guhzq;fs;
ntspehl;Lr; rhd;Wfs; jPgtk;rk;>kfhtk;rk;> ,d;bfh
ehse;jh– And];Nfhtpd; cyfg; ghuk;ghpar; rpd;dk;
ehse;jh gz;ila kfjehl;by; ,Ue;j ngsj;jklhyak; MFk;. Fg;jh;fspd; fhyj;jpy; mJkpfg;

Gfo ;ngw;w fy;tpikakhfj; jpfo;e;jJ. ehse;jhvd;Dk; rk];fpujr; nrhy; eh+myk;+jhvd;w
%d;Wrk];fpUjnrhw;fspd; ,izg;gpy; cUthdJ. ,jd; nghUs; “tw;whj mwpit
mspg;gth;”vd;gjhFk;.
nkshpag; NguuR- ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; NguuR
jiyefh; ghlypGj;jpuk; (jw;Nghijaghl;dh)

muR Kbahl;rp
tuyhw;Wf; fhyk; Vwj;jhofp.K (ngh.M.K) 322 Kjy; 187
tiu
Kf;fpamuRfs; re;jpuFg;jh;>gpe;Jrhuh;>mNrhfh;

myF 1 tsq;fs;
];ngh;k; jpkpq;fyj;jpy; ,Ue;Jngwg;gLk; xUtifjplg;nghUNsjpkpq;fyg; GDF MFk;. xUgTz;L

(0.454 fp.fp) jpkpq;fyg;GDfpd; tpiy 63>000 mnkhpf;flhyh; kjpg;GilajhFk;. ,Jthridj;
jputpaq;fs; jahhpf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ.
ntg;gkz;lykiof;fhLfs; “cyfpd; ngUk; kUe;jfk;”(world’s largest pharmacy)

vdmiof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,g;gFjpapy; fhzg;gLk; jhtuq;fspy; 25 % jhtuq;fs; kUj;JtFzk;
nfhz;ljhtuq;fshFk;. (v.fh) rpd;Nfhdh
fly; <];l;lhdJ(Marine Yeast) epyg;gug;gpYs;s<];iltpl(Terrestrial Yeast) kpFe;jMw;wy;

cilaJ. ,r;rj;ijnuhl;bjahhpj;jy;> kJ tbj;jy;>jpuhl;irurk; jahhpj;jy;>caphpvj;jpdhy;
jahhpj;jy; kw;Wk; kUj;Jtg;Gujk; jahhpj;jYf;Fg; gad;gLfpwJ.
xUnghUspd; gad;ghl;bidf; fz;lwpe;jgpd;Gjhd; mg;nghUs; tskhfkhWfpwJ.

kdpjdpd; Njitfs; ehSf;Fehs; khWglf;$bait.
NjitahdJkhWgLk;nghOJmijepiwTnra;fpd;wtsq;fSk; khWfpwJ.
xUnghUistskhfkhw;Wtjw;fhdfhuzpfs; fhyKk; njhopy; El;gKk; MFk;.
cjhuzkhfepyf;fhpAk;>ngl;NuhypaKk; Fiwe;Jnfhz;NltUk; ,f;fhyfl;lj;jpy;
Gjpafz;Lgpbg;ghd #hpaj; jfLfs;> #hpa Mw;wiykpd;dhw;wyhfkhw;wcjTfpwJ. vdNtjw;NghJ
,J xUrpwe;jtskhfNtePbf;fpwJ.
Nflwpahf; nfl;l ,lj;Jk; tsq;Fd;wh
ehnld;gehl;bd; jiy–Fws; 736
ve;j tifapYk; nfLjiy mwpahky;>xUNtis nfLjy; Vw;gbDk;>mjid rPh ;nra;Akstpw;F

tsq;Fd;wh epiyapy; cs;sehL jhd; ehLfspNy jiy rpwe;j ehlhFk;.
EioAKd;
,g;ghlk; tsk; vd;why; vd;d? vd;gJgw;wpAk; mjd; tiffs; kw;Wk;
epiyahdtho;tpw;Fmjidg; ghJfhj;jiyg; gw;wpAk; tpsf;FfpwJ. NkYk; nghUshjhur;
nray;ghLfs; vd;why; vd;d? vd;gJgw;wpAk;> ,aw;iff;Fk; kdpjnray;ghl;bw;Fk;
,ilNacs;snjhlh;gpidAk; tpsf;FfpwJ.

myF 1 Njrpar; rpd;dq;fs;
,e;jpaf; FbauRehspd; %d;whtJehshd [dthp 29>md;W‘ghriwf;FjpUk;Gjy;’vd;w

tpohrpwg;ghfeilngWk;. me;ehspy; jiug;gil>flw;gil>tpkhdg;giliar; Nrh;e;j ,irf;FOtpdh;
epfo;r;rpfis elj;Jth;. FbauRjiyth; ,e;epfo;tpd; Kjd;ik tpUe;jpdh; Mthh;. ,t;tpohtpd;
xUgFjpahfkhiy 6 kzpf;FFbauRj; jiyth; khspif kpd;tpsf;Ffshy; myq;fhpf;fg;gLk;.
,e;jpaNjrpaf; nfhbiaMe;jpuhitr; Nrh;e;jgpq;fhypntq;ifahvd;gth; tbtikj;jhh;.
 tpLjiy ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; Njrpaf; nfhbjkpo;ehl;by; cs;sFbahj;jj;jpy; (NtY}h;

khtl;lk;) nea;ag;gl;lJ.
 ,f;nfhbiag; gz;bj [t`h;yhy; NeUmth;fs; (15.08.1947) nrq;Nfhl;ilapy; Vw;wpdhh;.
 ,f;nfhbjw;NghJnrd;idapy; cs;sGdpj [hh;[; Nfhl;ilmUq;fhl;rpafj;jpy; nghJkf;fs;
ghh;itf;Fitf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
mNrhfh; fhyj;jpy; rhuehj; J}zpd; cr;rpapy; mike;jpUe;jehd;Kfr; rpq;fk;

jw;NghJrhuehj; mUq;fhl;rpafj;jpy; ghJfhf;fg;gLfpwJ.
jkpo;ehl;by; GJf;Nfhl;ilkhtl;lj;jpy; cs;stpuhypkiyapy; kapy;fSf;fhdruzhyak;

cs;sJ.
nfhbfhj;jFkud;
jpUg;G+h;f; Fkud; <NuhLkhtl;lj;jpy; cs;snrd;dpkiyapy; gpwe;jhh;. ,stajpypUe;Nj

,e;jpa tpLjiyg; Nghuhl;lj;jpy; fye;Jnfhz;lhh;. 1932 ,y; fhe;jpabfisf; ifJ nra;jijf;
fz;bj;J ehnlq;fpYk; Nghuhl;lq;fs; jpUg;G+h;f; Fkud; fye;Jnfhz;lhh;. fhty; Jiwapdhpd;
fLikahdjhf;FjYf;F cl;gl;L caph; Jwe;jhh;. Nghuhl;lf; fsj;jpy; caph;ePj;j NghJk;
%th;zf;nfhbiaf; fPNotpltpy;iy. ,jdhy; jpUg;G+h;f; Fkud;
‘nfhbfhj;jFkud;’vdmiof;fg;gLfpwhh;. mtuJ jpahfj;ij epidT $Wk; tifapy; mtuJ
E}w;whz;by; ,e;jpa muR mQ;ry; jiyntspapl;Lr; rpwg;gpj;jJ.

myF2 ,e;jpamurikg;Gr; rl;lk;
jfty; Ngio
 murikg;Gr; rl;ltiuTf; FOtpy; gp. Mh;.mk;Ngj;fh;>vd;. Nfhghyrhkp>Nf. vk;.Kd;~p> gp.

vy;.kpl;lh;>vd;. khjtuht;> b. b. Nf> b. gp. Nfjhd; Mfparl;lty;Ydh;fs; ,lk;
ngw;wpUe;jdh;.
 mf;FOtpd; jiytuhd gp.Mh;.mk;Ngj;fh; ekJ murpay; rl;lj;ij cUthf;fpa Kjd;ik
tbtikg;ghsuhff; fUjg;gLfpwhh;.
 ekJ murpay; rl;lk; cUthd NghJ> 395 cWg;Gfs;> 22 gFjpfs; kw;Wk; 8
ml;ltizfs; ,lk; ngw;wpUe;jd. jw;NghJ 448 cWg;Gfs;> 25 gFjpfs; kw;Wk; 12
ml;ltizfs; ,lk; ngw;Ws;sd.
 murikg;Gr; rl;lk; 16.9.2016 –tiu 101 Kiw jpUj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
jkpofj;jpd; khepy ,aw;ifr; rpd;dq;fs;
khepytpyq;F tiuahL
khepyg; gwit kufjg; Gwh
khepykyh; nrq;fhe;js; kyh;
khepykuk; gid kuk;
,e;jpamurikg;Gr; rl;lj;jpd; cz;ikg; gpujpfs; (,e;jp>Mq;fpyk;) ehlhSkd;w E}yfj;jpy; `Pypak;

thAepug;gg;gl;lNgioapy; itj;JghJfhf;fg;gl;LtUfpwJ.
mz;zy; mk;Ngj;fh; ‘,e;jpamurikg;Gr; rl;lj;jpd; je;ij’vdmiof;fg;gLfpwhh;
myF 1 nghUspay; - Xh; mwpKfk;
Nrkpg;Gvd;gJifapy; fpilf;Fk; tUkhdj;jpy; Efh;Tf;Fr; nryTnra;jJNghyvjph;fhyj;

Njitf;fhfxJf;fg;gLk; xUnjhifahFk;.
mstwpe;Jthohjhd; tho;f;ifAsNghy
,y;yhfpj; Njhd;whf; nfLk;
- Fws; 0479
tpsf;fk; : jd; nry;tj;jpd; msTmwpe;Jmjw;FVw;gthohjtDilatho;f;ifgytsq;fSk;
,Ug;gJNghyj; Njhd;wpcz;ikapy; ,y;yhjtdha;g; gpd;Gmg;ngha;j; Njhw;wKk; ,y;yhky;
mopAk;.

Efh;Nthh; nghUl;fs;
md;whlj; Njitfisg; G+h;j;jpnra;akf;fs; mq;fhbapypUe;Jthq;fpg; gad;gLj;Jk; nghUl;fs;
Efh;Nthh; nghUl;fs; vd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpd;wd. (v.fh) mhprp>Jzpfs;>kpjptz;bfs; Nghd;wit.
Kjy; epiyj; njhopy;fs;

czTj; Njitf;Fk; njhopy; cw;gj;jpf;Fk; Njitahd
%yg;nghUs;fiscw;gj;jpnra;tJKjy; epiyj; njhopy;fs; vdg;gLfpwJ.
 Ntshz;ik
 fhy;eilfs; tsh;j;jy;
 kPd; gpbj;jy;
 fdpkq;fs;>jhJg;nghUl;fs; Nghd;w %yg;nghUs;fs; Nrfhpj;jy;
 fdpfs;>nfhl;ilfs;>Njd;> %ypiffs;>ug;gh;>gprpd; Nghd;witNrfhpj;jy;>kuk; ntl;Ljy;
,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;

Kjy; epiyj; njhopy;fs; %yk; Nrfhpf;fg;gLk; %yg;nghUs;fspy; ,Ue;J ,ae;jpuq;fs;
Kjy; md;whlj; Njitf;fhdnghUl;fs; tiungUkstpy; cw;gj;jpnra;jy; ,uz;lhk;
epiynjhopy;fs; vd;Wk;>njhopy; Jiwvd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
cw;gj;jpj; Njitf;fhd %yg;nghUs;fs;> %yjdk;>clikMfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy;
njhopy;fs; tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
%yg;nghUs;fs; gad;ghLmbg;gilapy; njhopw;rhiyfistifg;gLj;Jjy;
 Ntshz; mbg;gilj; njhopw;rhiyfs; - gUj;jp>rh;f;fiu>czTgjg;gLj;Jjy;

 fhLrhh;e;jnjhopw;rhiyfs; - fhfpjj;njhopy;>kur;rhkhd;fs;>fl;Lkhdg; nghUs;fs;
 fdpkj; njhopy;fs; - rpnkz;l;> ,Uk;G>mYkpdpak; Nghd;wnjhopw;rhiyfs;
 fly;rhh; njhopw;rhiyfs; - fly; czTgjg;gLj;Jjy;
%d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;

Kd;dh; $wpa ,uz;Lepiyfspy;> Fwpg;ghfnjhopy; Jiwapy;>nghUl;fis cw;gj;jpnra;tjw;Fk;
cw;gj;jpg; nghUs;fisNjitahd kf;fSf;Ff; nfhz;L Nrh;g;gjw;Fk; NjitahdNritfis
toq;Ftjhy; ,it Nritj; Jiwnjhopy;fs; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. kf;fspd; md;whlj;
NjitfisAk; Nritj; Jiwtoq;FfpwJ.
 Nghf;Ftuj;J–rhiy>uapy;> fly;>Mfhag; Nghf;Ftuj;Jfs;

 njhiyj;njhlh;G–mQ;ry;>njhiyNgrp>jfty; njhopy;El;gk;
 th;j;jfk; - nghUs;fisf; nfhs;Kjy; nra;jy;>tpw;gidnra;jy;
 tq;fp–gzg; ghpkhw;wk;>tq;fpr; Nritfs;

myF 1 gz;ilf;fhyj; jkpofj;jpy; r%fKk;

gz;ghLk; : rq;ffhyk;
MWKfehtyh; (aho;g;ghzk;) jhNkhujk; gps;is (aho;g;ghzk;) c.Nt. rhkpehj ma;ah; MfpNahh;

mUk;ghLgl;LgidNahiyfspy; vOjg;gl;bUe;j jkpo; nrt;tpay; ,yf;fpaq;fisAk; gz;ilf;fhyj;
jkpo; E}y;fisAk; kPl;LntspapLtjpy; gyMz;Lfisr; nrytpl;ldh;.
njhy;fhg;gpak; xUjkpo; ,yf;fz E}yhFk;. mJrq;ffhyj; jkpo; kf;fspd;

nkhop>gz;ghLMfpatw;wpd; cah; juj;ijr; Rl;bf;fhl;LfpwJ
fypNghh;dpahgy;fiyf;fofj;jpd; jkpo;nkhopg; Nguhrphpah; [hh;[; vy; `hh;l; vd;ghh; jkpo;nkhopahdJ

,yj;jPd; nkhopapd; mstpw;Fg; goikahdJvDk; fUj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;shh;. Vida nkhopfspd;
nry;thf;fpw;Fcl;glhky; Kw;wpYk; Rje;jpukhdxUkughfmJcUngw;WvOe;Js;sJvdmth;
$Wfpwhh;.
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; kpFe;jNrumurh;fs;
 cjad; Nruyhjd;
 ,katuk;gd; neLQ;Nruyhjd;
 Nrud; nrq;Fl;Ltd;
 Nruy; ,Uk;nghiw
fy;ntl;Lfs; - fypq;fehl;Lmurd; fhuNtyDila `jpFk;ghfy;ntl;L>Gf@h;

(f&h;f;FmUNf) fy;ntl;L>mNrhfUila ,uz;Lkw;Wk; gjp%d;whk;
Nguhizf; fy;ntl;Lf;fs;. NkYk; khq;Fsk;>mofh;
kiy>fPotsTMfpaCh;fspYs;s (,t;T+h;fs; midj;Jk;
kJiuf;FmUNfAs;sd) fy;ntl;Lf;fs;
nrg;Gg; gl;laq;fs; - Nts;tpf;Fbkw;Wk; rpd;dkD}h; nrg;NgLfs;
ehzaq;fs; - rq;ffhyj;ijr;
Nrh;e;jNru>Nrho>ghz;bamurh;fshYk;>FWepykd;dh;fshYk;
ntspaplg;gl;lehzaq;fSk;>Nuhkhdpaehzaq;fSk;
ngUq;fw;fhyepidTr; rpd;dq;fs; - Gijtplq;fs;>eLfw;fs;
mfo;tha;tpypUe;JnghUl;fs; fpilj;j,lq;fs; -
Mjpr;rey;Y}h;>mhpf;fNkL>nfhLkzy;>Gfh
h;>nfhw;if>mofd;Fsk;>ciwA+h;
,yf;fpar; rhd;Wfs; - njhy;fhg;gpak;>vl;Lj;njhif>gj;Jg;ghl;L>

%Nte;jh;fs; #l;bf;nfhz;l gl;lq;fs;
Nrud; Nrhod; ghz;bad;
 Mjtd;  nrd;dp  khwd;

 Fl;Ltd;  nrk;gpad;  tOjp
 thdtd;  fps;sp  nropad;
 ,Uk;nghiw  tstd;  njd;dh;
fhymsT - fp.K (ngh.M.K) Mk; E}w;whz;LKjy; -

fp.gp (ngh.M) 3 Mk; E}w;whz;Ltiu
jkpofj;jpd;
Gtpapay; gug;G - tlf;NfNtq;flk; (jpUg;gjp) Kjy; njw;Nf
fd;dpahFkhptiu>fpof;fpYk;>Nkw;fpYk;
fly;fisvy;iyfshff; nfhz;bUe;jJ.
fhyk; - ,Uk;Gf; fhyk;
gz;ghL - ngUq;fw;fhyg; gz;ghL
muRKiw - Kbahl;rp
Ml;rpGhpe;j
murtk;rq;fs; - Nruh;>Nrhoh;>ghz;bah;
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;jNrhomurh;fs; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;jghz;bamurh;fs;

 ,sQ;Nrl;nrd;dp
 nebNahd;
 fhpfhy; tstd;
 ed;khwd;
 Nfhr;nrq;fzhd;
 KJFLkpg; ngUtOjp
 fps;sptstd;
 ngUew;fps;sp  neLQ;nropad;
%Nte;jh; khiy JiwKfk; jiyefh; rpd;dk;

Nruh; gdk;G+ khiy Krpwp/njhz;b tQ;rp/f&h; tpy;>mk;G
Nrhoh; mj;jpg;G+ khiy Gfhh; ciwA+h;/Gfhh; Gyp
ghz;bah; Ntg;gk;G+ nfhw;if kJiu ,uz;LkPdf ; s;
khiy

jpiz epyk; njhopy; kf;fs; flTs;
FwpQ;rp kiyAk; Ntl;ilahLjy; Fwth;>Fwj;jpah; KUfd;
kiyrhh;e;j / Nrfhpj;jy;
,lKk;
Ky;iy fhLk;>fhLrhh;e;j MepiuNka;j;jy; Mah;>Ma;rr
; pah; khNahd;
,lKk;
kUjk; taYk; tay; Ntshz;ik cotd;>coj;jpah; ,e;jpud;
rhh;e;j ,lKk;
nea;jy; flYk; fly; kPdg
; pbj;jy; / gujth;>Esj;jpah; tUzd;
rhh;e;jgFjpAk; cg;Gcw;gj;jp
ghiy twz;lepyk; tPur; nray;fs; kwth;>kwj;jpah; nfhw;wit
rq;ffhyg; ngz;ghw; Gyth;fs;

xsitahh;>nts;sptPjpahh;>fhf;ifg; ghbdpahh;>Mjpke;jpahh;>nghd;Kbahh;.
fy;yiz
,Jfw;fshy; fl;lg;gl;ljLg;gizMFk;. ghrdj;jpw;fhff; fopKfg; gFjp topahf ePiuj;
jpUg;gp tpLtjw;fhf fhtphp Mw;wpd; FWf;Nf ,t;tiz fl;lg;gl;lJ. fy;yiz fl;lg;gl;lNghJ
69>000 Vf;fh; epyj;jpw;F mJ ePh;g;ghrd trjpia toq;fpaJ
tPuf;fy; / eLfy;
gz;ilfhyj; jkpoh;fs; Nghh;f;fsj;jpy; kuzKw;wtPuu;fs;Nky; ngUk; khpahijnfhz;bUe;jdh;.

Nghhpy; kuzkile;jtPudpd; epiditg; Nghw;Wtjw;fhfeLfw;fs; elg;gl;ld.
kyghh; fUkpsF
vfpg;Jmurd; ,uz;lhk; ehk;nr]pd; gjg;gLj;jg;gl;lcly; jpwf;fg;gl;lNghJ>njhy;ypay; mwpQh;fs;
mtUilaehrpapDs;Sk; mbtapw;wpYk; fUkpsFf;fjph; milf;fg;gl;bUe;jijf; fz;ldh;.
(,t;thWgjg;gLj;jpcliyg; ghJfhg;gJgz;ilaehl;fspy; gpd;gw;wg;gl;lKiwahFk;)
Krpwp–Kjy; Nguq;fhb
Nuhk; ehl;ilr; Nrh;e;j %j;jgpspdpjd;Dila ,aw;iftuyhW(Natural History) vDk; E}ypy;

Krpwpia‘,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; Nguq;fhb’vdf; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;shh;. Nuhkhdpahpd; FbapUg;G
,Ue;jKrpwpapy; mf];l]; flTSf;fhff; Nfhtpnyhd;Wfl;lg;gl;bUe;jJ.
fp.K (ngh.M.K) ,uz;lhk; E}w;whz;ilr; Nrh;e;jghg;gpu]; ,iyapy; vOjg;gl;lxUxg;ge;jg;
gj;jpuj;jpy; (tpad;dhtpYs;smUq;fhl;rpafj;jpy; cs;sJ) mnyf;]hz;bhpahitr; Nrh;e;jtzpfh;
xUtUf;Fk; Krpwpiar; Nrh;e;jxUtzpfUf;FkpilNaNkw;nfhs;sg;gl;ltzpfxg;ge;jk;
gjpTnra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ.

,e;jpatzpfh;fshy; Nuhkg; NguuRf;FtpepNahfk; nra;ag;gl;lgl;LkpfKf;fpakhdjhff; fUjg;gl;lJ.

Nuhkg; NguuRMhpypad; me;jgl;L>vilf;Fviljq;fk; nfhLj;Jg; ngwjFjpahdJvdmwptpj;jhh;.
myF2 ,e;jpah–nkshpaUf;Fg; gpd;dh;
fypq;fmurh; fhuNtyh; Rq;fmurh;fspd; rkfhyj;jth; Mthh;. fhuNtyh; gw;wpanra;jpfisehk;

`jpFk;ghfy;ntl;bypUe;JngWfpNwhk;.
ghh;Fj;>rhQ;rpMfpa ,lq;fspYs;sngsj;j ];J}gpfspy; fhzg;gLtJNghy ];J}gpfspd;

Rw;Wr;Rth;fspYk; thapy;fspYk; fw;fSf;Fg; gjpyhfkuj;ijg; gad;gLj;Jk; KiwRq;fh; fhyj;jpy;
eilKiwf;Fte;jJ.
rk];fpUjnkhopapd; ,uz;lhtJ ,yf;fzmwpQuhdgjQ;rypiag; G~;akpj;jpuh; Mjhpj;jhh;.
cyfg; Gfo;ngw;wGj;jhpd; MSaur; rpw;gq;fs; ghkpahd; gs;sj;jhf;fpYs;skiyfspy;

nrJf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,k;kiyfs; gz;ila ,e;jpahtpd; tlNkw;Fvy;iyg;Gwj;jpy; mike;jpUe;jJ.
(jw;NghJ,g;gFjpMg;fhdp];jhdpd; ikaj;jpy; cs;sJ. mz;ikapy; ,tw;iwj; jhypghd;fs;
cilj;JnehWf;fpdh;) ,r;rpw;gq;fs; nkshpah; fhyj;Jf;Fgpd;duhdfhe;jhuf; fiyg;gs;spiar;
Nrh;e;jmh;gg
; zpg;Gkpf;ffiyQh;fshy; jplkhdghiwfspy; nrJf;fg;gl;litMFk;.
murh;fs; gq;fspg;Gfs;
Kjyhk; fl;gpr]; F~hzh;fspy; kpfTk; Gfo;ngw;wKjy; murpay; kw;Wk;
,uhZtj; jsgjp ,tNuahthh;. mth; ,e;Njh–fpNuf;f>
,e;Njh–ghh;j;jpamurh;fisntw;wpnfhz;Lghf;Bhpahtpy;
,iwahz;ikAld; $bamuruhfjd;idepiyepWj;jpdhh;.
jd;DilaMjpf;fj;ijKjypy; fhG+y;>fhe;jhuNjrk;
njhlq;fp>gpd;dh; rpe;JtiuapYk; gug;gpdhh;.
,uz;lhk; fl;gpr]; ,th; rPdh>Nuhkhdpamurh;fSld; el;GwitNkw;nfhz;lhh;.
may;ehl;Lth;j;jfj;ijCf;Ftpj;jhh;. mtUilaehzaq;fs;
rpytw;wpy; rptngUkhdpd; cUtq;fs; nghwpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
murUilagl;lg;ngah;fs; fNuh~;jpnkhopapy;
nghwpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

,e;Njh–ghh;j;jpa (gfyth;) murh;fs;
,e;Njh–fpNuf;fh;> ,e;Njh–rpj;jpah; MfpNahUf;Fg; gpd;dh; ,e;Njh–ghh;j;jpah; te;jdh;. mjidj;

njhlh;e;J ,th;fs; fp.gp Kjyhk; E}w;whz;bd; gpw;ghjpapy; F~hzh;fshy; Njhw;fbf;fg;gl;ldh;.
,e;Njh–ghh;j;jpamuRmy;yJNfhd;Nlhghpj; tk;rk; Nfhz;Nlhngh;d]hy; epWtg;gl;lJ. ,e;Njh–
ghh;j;jpah; Ml;rpnra;jgFjpfhG+y;>fhe;jhuhMfpatw;iwcs;slf;fpajhFk;. Nfhz;Nlhngh;nd];
vDk; ngah; fpwpj;JtcgNjrpah; GdpjjhkRld; njhlh;GilajhFk;.; khw;wpdhh;.
Fg;jh; fhyj;jpy; epyq;fistifg;gLj;Jjy;

NÑj;uh Ntshz;ikf;Fcfe;jepyq;fs;
fpyh jhpRepyq;fs;
mg;ufjh tdk; my;yJfhl;Lepyq;fs;
t];jp FbapUg;gjw;Fcfe;jepyq;fs;
fgjrufh Nka;rr
; y; epyq;fs;
myF 3 NguuRfspd; fhyk; :Fg;jh;>th;j;jdh;
gpur];jp/nka;f;fPh;j;jp : gpur];jpvd;gJxUrk];fpUjr; nrhy;. mjd; nghUs; xUtiug; ghuhl;bg;

‘Gfo;tjhFk;’. mitf;fsg; Gyth;fs; murh;fisg; Gfo;e;Jghbmth;jk; rhjidfisg;
gl;baypl;ldh;. ,itgpd;dh; kf;fs; gbj;Jj; njhpe;Jnfhs;tjw;fhfj; J}z;fspy; nghwpf;fg;gl;ld.
ypr;rhtpgoikahdfdrq;fq;fspy; xd;whFk;. mjDilaMl;rpg; gFjpfq;ifejpf;Fk;

Neghsehl;bw;Fk; ,ilg;gl;ljhf ,Ue;jJ.
,yq;ifiar; Nrh;e;j = Nkfth;kd; vDk; ngsj;jmurd; rKj;jpuFg;jhpd; rkfhyj;jtuhthh;
,uz;lhk; re;jpFg;jhpd; gl;lg; ngah;fs; :

tpf;fpukhjpj;jpah;>eNue;jpure;jpuh;>rpk;kre;jpuh;>eNue;jpurpk;kh;>tpf;fukNjtuh[h;>NjtFg;jh;>Njt=
Fg;jh;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l cNyhfq;fs; :

,Uk;G>jq;fk;>jhkpuk;>jfuk;><ak;>gpj;jis>nrk;G>kzpntz;fyk;>ikf;fh>khq;fdPR>rpfg;Gr; Rz;zk;
MfpaitahFk;.
`h;~h; rPdg;gazpAthd; Rthq;ifKjd;Kjyhf uh[;kfhYf;F ([hh;fz;l); mUNfAs;s

f[d;fyhvd;w ,lj;jpy; re;jpj;jhh;.
Fg;jh;fspd; ehza mikg;G Kiwia mwpKfg;gLj;jpath; rKj;jpuFg;jh; Mthh;.

F~hzh;fspd; ehzaq;fs; rKj;jpuFg;jUf;F ce;J jiy toq;fpd. Fg;jh;fspd; nghw;fhRfs;
jpdhuhvd;wiof;fg;gl;ld. Fg;jh;fs; ntspapl;l nghw;fhRfis tpl nts;sp>nrg;Gf; fhRfs;
FiwthfNt ntspaplg;gl;ld. Fg;jh;fSf;F mLj;J te;j fhyj;jpy; nghw;fhRfspd; Row;rpapy;
tPo;r;rp Vw;gl;lJ. mJ NguurpDila tsq;fspd; tPo;r;rpiar; Rl;bf; fhl;Ltjha; cs;sJ.

ehse;jhgy;fiyf;fofk;
 ehse;jhgy;fiyf;fofk; Ie;jhk; kw;Wk; Mwhk; E}w;whz;Lfspy; Fg;jg; Nguurpd; Mjutpy;

jioj;Njhq;fpaJ. gpd;dh; fd;Ndhrpiar; Nrh;e;jNguurh; `h;~hpd; Mjutpy; rpwg;Gw;wJ
 ehse;jhtpy; ngsj;jj; jj;JtNkKf;fpag; ghlg;gphpthf ,Ue;jJ. Nahfh>Ntj
,yf;fpaq;fs;>kUj;Jtk; MfpaitAk; fw;gpf;fg;gl;ld.
 mg;gy;fiyf;fofj;jpy; Athd; - Rthq; ngsj;jjj;Jtj;ijg; gw;wpg; gbg;gjpy;
gyMz;Lfs; nrytopj;jhh;.
 me;jtshfj;jpy; vl;LkfhghlrhiyfSk; %d;Wkpfg;nghpa E}yfq;fSk; ,Ue;jd
 ehse;jhgy;fiyf;fofk; gf;jpahh; fpy;[p vd;ghhpd; jiyikapy; te;jkk;Yf;Ffs;
vdmiof;fg;gl;lJUf;fpa ,];yhkpambiktPuh;fshy; mopj;Jj; jiukl;lk; Mf;fg;gl;lJ.
 ehse;jh And];Nfhtpd; cyfg;ghuk;ghpar; rpd;dkhFk;
tpf;fpukhjpj;ahpd;
mitapypUe;jetuj;jpdq;fs;
fhspjhrh; rk];fpUjg; Gyth;
`hpNrdh; rk];fpUjg; Gyth;
mkurpk;`h; mfuhjpapay;
Mrphpah;
jd;te;jphp kUj;Jth;
fhfghdfh; Nrhjplh;
rd;F fl;llf;
fiyepGzh;
tuhfkpfpuh; thdpay; mwpQh;
tuhr;rp ,yf;fzMrphpah;
kw;Wk; rk];fpUjg;
Gyth;
tpl;ly;gl;lh; khatpj;ijf;fhuh;
(Magician)
`{zh;fs; vd;Nghh; ahth;? `{zh;fs; vd;Nghh; ehNlhbg; goq;Fbapduhth;. jq;fs;

kngUk; jiyth; ml;by;yhtpd; jiyikapy; ,th;fs; NuhkhGhpiaAk; fhd;];lhz;b NehgpisAk;
Ngur;rj;jpw;Fcs;shf;fpdh;. ,th;fNshL njhlh;Gila nts;is `{zh;fs; kj;jpaMrpahtopahf
,e;jpah te;jdh;. jq;fs; njhlh; gilnaLg;Gfspd; %ykhf vy;iyNahuehLfSf;Fj; njhe;juT
nfhLj;J te;jdh;. ];fe;jFg;jiuj; Njhw;fbj;jgpd;dh; ,th;fs; kj;jpa ,e;jpag; gFjpfspy;
gutpdh;. mth;fspd; jiytuhdNjhukhdh; jdf;Fj; jhNdmuruhfKb #l;bf; nfhz;lhh;.
mtUf;Fg; gpd;dh; mtuJkfd; kpfpuFyh; Ml;rpnra;jhh;. Kbtpy;>kj;jpa ,e;jpahtpy;
khstj;ijMl;rpnra;Jte;jaNrhjh;kd; mth;fisj; Njhw;fbj;J mth;fspd; Ml;rpf;FKbT
fl;bdhh;.

‘Gdpjahj;hf
P h;fspd; ,sturd;’vd;wiof;fg;gLk; Athd; Rthq;> `h;~hpd; Ml;rpapd;NghJ
,e;jpahTf;Fte;jhh;. rp– A –fpvDk; mtuJgazf; Fwpg;Gfs; mlq;fpaMTzq;fspd; njhFg;G>
`h;~h; fhyj;J ,e;jpahtpd; r%fnghUshjhu>kj>gz;ghl;Lepiyfs;
Fwpj;Jtphpthdnra;jpfistoq;FfpwJ. `h;~h; xUngsj;juhftoq;FfpwJ. `h;~h; xUngsj;juhf
,Uj;jNghJk;>gpuahifapy; eilngw;wkhngUk; Fk;gNkshtpohtpy; fye;Jnfhs;sr; nrd;whh;
vd;WAthd; Rthq; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;shh;.
fd;Ndhrpngsj;jg; Nguitapy; 20 murh;fs; gq;Nfw;wdh;. ngUk; vz;zpf;ifapy;

ngsj;j>rkz>NtjmwpQh;fs; ,k;khehl;by; fye;Jnfhz;ldh;. ngsj;jklhyak; xd;wpy; Gj;jhpd;
jq;fr; rpiynahd;WepWtg;gl;lJ. Gj;juJ %d;wbcauk;
nfhz;lNtnwhUrpiyCh;tykhfvLj;Jr;nry;yg;gl;lJ.
gpuahifg; Nguitapy; `h;~h; jdJnry;tq;fisg; ngsj;jj; JwtpfSf;Fk;
Ntjtpj;jfh;fSf;Fk; ViofSf;Fk; nfhilahftpepNahfpj;jhh;. ehd;Fehl;fs;
eilngw;wme;jepfo;tpy; midj;Jehl;fspYk; mth; ngsj;jj;
JwtpfSf;F>mstplKbahjghpRfisms;spf; nfhLj;jhh;
myF 4 njd;dpe;jpa muRfs;
fy;ntl;Lfs; - kz;lfg;gl;LFiff; fy;ntl;L> ,uz;lhk;
GypNfrpapd; ma;Nfhy; fy;ntl;L
nrg;NgLfs; - fhrf;Fbr; nrg;NgLfs;
Kjyhk; eurpk;kth;kdpd; gilj;jsgjpguQ;Nrhjp>rpWj;njhz;lh; (63 ehad;khh;fspy; xUth;) vdg;

gpugykhfmwpag;gl;lhh;. guQ;Nrhjpthjhgpg; gilnaLg;gpy; gy;yth; gilf;Fj;
jiyikVw;Welj;jpdhh;. mjd; ntw;wpf;Fg; gpd;dh; kdkhw;wk; ngw;wmth; rptgf;juhfkhwpdhh;.
- nghpaGuhzk;
,yf;fpaq;fs; - kj;jtpyhrg; gpufrdk;>mte;jpRe;jhpfij>

fypq;fj;Jg;guzp>nghpaGuhzk;>ee;jpf; fyk;gfk;
mayth;
Fwpg;Gfs; - Athd; Rthq;fpd; Fwpg;Gfs;

murh;fspd; gl;lq;fs;
ngah;fs;
rpk;ktp~;Z mtdprpk;kh;
Kjyhk; rq;fPuz[jp>kj;jtpyhrd;>Fzghud;>rpj;jpufhug;
kNfe;jputh;kd; Gyp>tprpj;jpurpj;jd;
Kjyhk; khky;yd;>thjhgpnfhz;lhd;
eurpk;th;kd;
fy;ntl;Lfs; kq;fNsrdpd; thjhgpFiff;

fy;ntl;L>fhQ;rpifyhrehjh;
Nfhtpy; fy;ntl;L>gl;llf;fy;
tpUg;ghÑhNfhtpy;
fy;ntl;L>Kjyhk; GypNfrpapd;
ma;Nfhy; fy;ntl;L
mayth; Athd; Rthq;fpd; Fwpg;Gfs;
Fwpg;Gfs;
ma;Nfhy; fy;ntl;L : ,f;fy;ntl;Lma;NfhypYs;s (ghfy;Nfhl; khtl;lk;>fh;ehlfh) NkF

jpNfhtpypy; cs;sJ. ,J rhSf;fpa murd; ,uz;lhk; GypNfrpapd; mitf;fsg; Gytuhdutp
fPh;j;jp vd;gtuhy; rk];fpUj nkhopapy; vOjg;gl;lJ. ,f;fy;ntl;L `h;~th;j;jdh; ,uz;lhk;
GypNfrpahy; Njhw;fbf;fg;gl;lijf; Fwpg;gpLfpd;wJ
gl;llf;fy; : And];Nfhcyfg;ghuk;ghpar; rpd;dk; gl;llf;fy; fh;ehlfkhepyk; ghfy;Nfhl;

khtl;lj;jpYs;sxUrpw;W}h; MFk;. mq;F 10 Nfhtpy;fs; cs;sd. mtw;wpy; ehd;Ftl
,e;jpaghzpahdehfhuhghzpapYk; kw;WKs;s MW njd;dpe;jpajpuhtplghzpapYk;
fl;lg;gl;Ls;sd. tpUg;ghf;~h NfhtpYk; rq;fNk];tuhNfhtpYk; jpuhtplg; ghzpapYk; ghg;gehjh;
Nfhtpy; ehfhuhghzpapYk; mike;Js;sd. tpUg;ghf;~h Nfhtpy; fhQ;rpifyhrehjh;
Nfhtpiykhjphpahff; nfhz;Lfl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,f;fl;Lkhdg; gzpapy;
fhQ;rpGuj;jpypUe;Jtutiof;fg;gl;lrpw;gpfs; <LgLj;jg;gl;ldh;.
myF 1 Mrpah kw;Wk; INuhg;gh
‘Kbr;R’vd;gJkiyj; njhlh;fs; $Lk; / gphpAk; ,lq;fs; MFk;.

xd;wpizf;fg;gl;l gy jPTfs;>jPTf;$l;lk; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,e;NjhNdrpah

kpfg;nghpaj; jPTf;$l;lk; MFk;.
jpngj; ‘cyfpd; $iu’vdmiof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. mq;FepyTk; fLq;Fsphpd;

fhuzkhfTk;>ed;dPhpd; kpfg;ngUk; ,Ug;gplkhfTk;>kf;fs; tho ,ayhj #oy;
fhzg;gLtjhYk; jpngj; ‘%d;whk; JUtk;’vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
Kg;gs;sj;jhf;FePh;j; Njf;fkhdJ ahq;rpMw;wpd; FWf;Nf

fl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,/J cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa ePh;j;Njf;fkhFk;. ,J rPdhtpd;
kpd;rhuNjitapy; 10 rjtPjj;ijg; G+h;j;jpnra;fpwJ.
&g – my; - fhypghiytdk; cyfpd; kpfj;njhlh;r;rpahd

kzw;ghq;fhd ghiytdkhFk;. ,J nrsjp mNugpahtpd; njd;fpof;Fg; gFjpapy;
fhzg;gLfpwJ
jfty; Ngio : ghiytdk;
ghiytdg; gpuNjrk; vd;gJ kpff; Fiwe;j kiog;nghopitg; ngWk; gFjpahFk;.

,q;Ff; Fiwe;j mstpNyNa jhtuq;fs; kw;Wk; tpyq;fpdq;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
Mrpahtpy; ,uz;L tifahd ghiytdq;fs; cs;sd. ntg;gg; ghiytdk;
kw;Wk; Fsph; ghiytdk;

t.vz; MW gpwg;gplk; NrUkplk; ePsk; (fp.kP)

1 ahq;rp jpngj; gPlG+kp fpof;Fr; 6,350
rPdf;fly;
2 N`hthq;Nfh jpngj; gPlG+kp Nghfha; 5,464
tisFlh
3 kPfhq; jpngj; gPlG+kp njd;rPdf; fly; 4,350
4 vdprp jhDthyhkiy Mh;bf; 4,090
ngUq;fly;
5 Xg; my;lha; kiy Xg; tisFlh 3,650
6 gpuk;kGj;jpuh ,kakiy tq;fhstphpFlh 2,900
7 rpe;J ,kakiy mugpf;fly; 3,610
8 m%h; rpfh>Mh;fd; lhlhh; ePh;r;re;jp 2,824
MWfspd; rq;fkk;
9 fq;if ,kakiy tq;fhstphpFlh 2,525
10 Iuhtjp tlf;Fkpahd;kh; tq;fhstphpFlh 2,170
fUq;fhLfs; : fUj;jepwKilanropj;JtsUk; mj;jpkw;Wk; igd; kuq;fs;

,g;gFjpf;Ff; fUikepwj;ijmspf;fpd;wd
mq;Nfhh;thl; : ,/J cyfg; ghuk;ghpajskhFk;. ,uz;lhk; #hpath;kd;

vd;wkd;duhy; fp.gp (ngh.M) 1100 k; Mz;by; fk;Nghbahtpy; fl;lg;gl;lJ. nfkh; nkhopapy;
‘mq;Nfhh;thl;’vd;why; ‘Nfhapy;fspd; efuk;’vdg; nghUs;. ,JNtcyfpd;
kpfg;nghpaNfhapyhFk;.
Nkhl;lh;`hh;d; : gpukpLtbtj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; Nkl;lh;`hh;d; kiyRtp];ehl;by;

cs;sMy;g] ; ; kiyapy; mike;Js;sJ. ,jd; cauk; 4478 kPMFk;. ,k;kiy
,jd; tbtj;jpw;Fg; Gfo; ngw;wjhFk;.

gdht; gbf;fl;LKiwney; tptrhak;
,g;nfs]; vd;wgpypg;igd;]; kf;fshy; 2000 Mz;LfSf;FKd; ,J

cUthf;fg;gl;ljhFk;. ,J fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;JRkhh; 1524 kPcauj;jpy;
mike;Js;sJ.
jfty; Ngio
/gpahh;l; (fiord) (gpsTgl;lflw;fiu) nrq;Fj;jhd ghiwfSf;fpilNa

(gdpahw;Wr; nray;ghLfspd; fhuzkhf) cs;s FWfpa>Mokhd flw;fiu
gpsTgl;l flw;fiu vdg;gLk;.
gpd;tUk; topfspy; gad;gLfpwJ
1. ,itfhw;Wvj;jpirapypUe;JtPrpdhYk; mjd; Ntfj;ijf; Fiwf;fpd;wd.

2. fly; miyfspd; Ntfj;ijAk; ,it fl;Lf;Fs; itf;fpd;wd. vdNt>
,g;gpsT gl;lflw;fiuahdJ ,aw;ifJiwKfq;fs;
miktjw;FVw;wjhfcs;sJ.
t.vz; MW ePsk; gpwg;gplk; fyf;Fkplk;

(fp.kP)
1 Nthy;fh 3692 thy;Nl]; gPlG+kp fh];gpad; fly;
2 Nld;A+g; 2860 fUq;fhL fUq;fly;
3 ePg;gh; 2145 thy;lha; Fd;Wfs; fUq;fly;
4 iud; 1230 Rtp]; My;g]; ; tlf;F fly;
5 Nuhd; 813 Rtp]; My;g]; kj;jpajiuf;fly;
6 Ngh 652 Nfhl;bad; My;g] ; ; Vl;hpahbf; fly;
7 Njk;]; 346 nfk;gpy; tlf;F fly;
jfty; Ngio
tlml;yhz;bf; ntg;gf;fly; ePNuhl;lk; INuhg;ghtpd; Nkw;Fg;

gFjpf;Fkpjkhdntg;gj;ijmspf;fpd;wJ. NkYk;
Nkw;fj;jpafhw;WINuhg;ghKOtJk; ntg;gj;ijf; flj;Jfpd;wJ.

fhyepiygphpg;ghd; : My;g]
; ; kiyj;njhlh; kj;jpaj; jiuf;fly; fhyepiyiaAk;
tlINuhg;ghtpy; fhzg;gLk; Fsph;ej
; fhyepiyAk; gphpf;fpd;wxUmuzhfcs;sJ
myF 2 Gtpkhjphp
INuhg;gpaxd;wpak; : INuhg;gpa xd;wpak; (European Union) vd;gJ 28 cWg;G

ehLfspd; nghUshjhu kw;Wk; murpay; eyDf;fhf cUthf;fg;gl;l xU
FOkkhFk;. ,Jjdf;nfd xU jdpnfhbAk;>nghJthdehza (A+Nuh) kjpg;Gk; (
nfhz;lJ.
Gtp 510.1 kpy;ypad; rJufpNyhkPl;lh; gug;gsitf; nfhz;ljhFk;.
 cyfpy; Kjd;KjyhfGtpkhjphpia(Globe) fp.gp (ngh.M) 150 – Mk; Mz;by;

fpNuf;fh;fs; cUthf;fpAs;sdh;
 ,e;jpathdpay; mwpQh; Kjyhk; Mhpagl;lh; mth;fs;
vOjpa“Mh;agl;lrpj;jhe;jk;”vd;w E}ypy; “tpz;kPd;fs; thdpy;
Nkw;Fg;Gwkhfefh;tJNghd;wNjhw;wk;>Gtpjd;Dilamr;rpy; jd;idj;jhNd
Rw;wpf; nfhs;tjhy; tpisfpwJ”vd;WFwpg;gpl;Ls;shh;
Gtpapd; eLtpy; tiuag;gl;Ls;sepyeLf;NfhL(Equator) kw;wml;rf;

NfhLfistplePskhff; fhzg;gLfpwJ. vdNt> ,f;NfhL‘ngUtl;lk;’(Great Circle)
vd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ.

jPh;f;ff;NfhLfs; Gtpapy; epyeLf;Nfhl;Lg; gFjpapy; 111 fp.kP

,ilntspapYk;> 450ml;rg;gFjpfspy; 79 fp.kP ,ilntspapYk;>JUtg;gFjpfspy;
,ilntspapd;wpAk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
1. nkhpbad; (Merdian) vd;wnrhy; ‘nkhpbahd];’(Meridianus) vd;w ,yj;jPd;

nkhopr; nrhy;ypypUe;Jte;jjhFk;. ,jw;Fez;gfy; Midday (Medius – middle, dies =
day) vdg; nghUs; vdNtMeridian vd;gJ #hpad; Xh; ,lj;jpd; Neh;
NkNycr;rpapy; cs;sijf; Fwpf;fpwJ.
2. a.mvd;gJ‘anti – meridiem’ (anti = before) ez;gfYf;FKd;djhfvdg;

nghUs;gLk;.
3. p.mvd;gJ‘post – meridiem’ (post = after or later) ez;gfYf;Fg; gpwFvdg;

nghUs;gLk;.
jfty; Ngio
,e;jpahfpilkl;lg;gutypy; Nkw;fpy; F[uhj;jpy; cs;snfsh;Nkhl;lh(Ghuar Mota)

vd;w ,lj;jpw;Fk;>fpof;fpy; mUzhr;rygpuNjrj;jpYs;sfpgpj;J(Kibithu) vd;w
,lj;jpw;Fk; rkJ}u ,ilntspapy;>cj;jpug;gpuNjrkhepyk; myfhghj;jpy;
cs;skph;rhG+h; (Mirzabur) vd;w ,lj;jpd; topNa82
½0fpof;FjPh;f;ff;NfhLnry;fpwJ.
jfty; Ngio
 Gtpjd; mr;rpy; xUKiwjd;idj;jhNd Rw;wpf; nfhs;Sk; fhymsTxUehs;

 1 ehs; = 24 kzpNeuk;
 1 kzpNeuk; = 60 epkplq;fs;

myF 3 Nghpliug;
Ghpe;Jnfhs;Sjy;
Nghplh;
,aw;ifNghplh; kdpjdhy; cz;lhFk; Nghplh;fs;
 epyeLf;fk;  neUg;G
 vhpkiy  fl;blq;fs; ,be;JNghjy;
 Rdhkp  njhopw;rhiytpgj;Jf;fs;
 #whtsp  Nghf;Ftuj;Jtpgj;Jf;fs;
 nts;sk;  jPtputhjk;
 epyr;rhpT  $l;lnehpry;
 gdpr;rhpT
 ,bkw;Wk; kpd;dy;
,e;jpahtpd; ngUk; efuq;fspy; xd;whdnrd;id ,e;jpahtpd; njd;fpof;Ff;

flw;fiuapy; mike;Js;sJ. ,/J xt;nthUMz;Lk; tlfpof;Fg;
gUtf;fhw;whYk;>ntg;gkz;lyGayhYk; ngUk; jhf;fj;jpw;Fcs;shfpd;wJ.
2015 Mk; Mz;L>etk;gh; kw;Wk; brk;gh; khjj;jpy; nga;jngUk; kioapdhy;
Vw;gl;lnts;sj;jpy; nrd;idkw;Wk; jkpofj;jpd; rpygFjpfs; Nguopitr;
re;jpj;jd. ,jpy; Rkhh; 400 f;Fk; Nkw;gl;Nlhh; caphpoe;jdh; ngUkstpy;
nghUl;NrjKk; Vw;gl;lJ. kdpjcaph;fisf; fhg;ghw;wTk; kf;fspd; Jah;
Jilf;fTk; kj;jpamuRkw;Wk;
jkpofmuRVuhskhdeltbf;iffisNkw;nfhz;ld.

myF 1 kf;fshl;rp
“kf;fshy;
“kf;fshl;rpapd;
kf;fSf;fhfkf;fNselj;Jk;
gpwg;gplk; fpNuf;fk; MFk;”.
Ml;rpkf;fshl;rp”
- ;
- Mg;ufhk; ypq;fd;
gpujpepjpj;Jtkf;f
shl;rp
ehlhSkd;wkf;fshl;rp mjpgh; kf;fshl;rp
 ,e;jpah  mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehLfs;
 ,q;fpyhe;J  fdlh
,e;jpaf; Fbkf;fspy; 79% Ngh;

2007 y; I.eh. jq;fsJehl;bd; kf;fshl;rpapd;
rig nrg;lk;gh; 15 Mk; kPJek;gpf;ifnfhz;Ls;sjhfg;
ehiscyfkf;fshl;rpjpdkh Gs;sptptuq;fs; njhptpf;fpd;wd. ,jd;
fmwptpj;Js;sJ. fhuzkhfcyfmstpyhd ,g;gl;baypy;
,e;jpahtpw;FKjyplk; fpilj;Js;sJ.

kf;fshl;rp
Neubkf;fshl;rp gpujpepjpj;Jtkf;fshl;rp
 Rtpl;rh;yhe;J  ,e;jpah
 ,q;fpyhe;J
 mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehLfs;
rl;lq;fs; kw;Wk; tpjpfs; rl;lq;fs; kw;Wk; tpjpfs;
Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;lgpujpepjpfs;
thf;Ffs; thf;Ffs;
kf;fs; kf;fs;

myF 2 cs;shl;rpmikg;G–CufKk; efh;g;GwKk;
1688 y;
cUthf;fg;gl;lnrd;idkhef jkpo;ehl;by; Kjd; Kjypy;
uhl;rpjhd; ,e;jpahtpd; cUthf;fg;gl;lefuhl;rpthyh
kpfgoikahdcs;shl;rpmi [hNgl;ilefuhl;rpMFk;
kg;ghFk;. (NtY}h; khtl;lk;)
efuhl;rpfs;
mjpfkhfcs;skhtl;lk;
fhQ;rpGuk; khtl;lk;
jkpo;ehl;bYs;s
 tpOg;Guk; khtl;lj;jpy; fpuhk Cuhl;rpfs; - 12>524

jhd; mjpfg;gbahf 22
Cuhl;rp xd;wpaq;fs; - 385
Cuhl;rpxd;wpaq;fs;
cs;sd. khtl;l Cuhl;rpfs; - 31
 ePyfphpkw;Wk; nguk;gY}h;
Ng&uhl;rpfs; - 561
khtl;lq;fs;
xt;nthd;wpYk; 4 efuhl;rpfs; - 125
Cuhl;rpxd;wpaq;fs; khefuhl;rpfs; - 12
jhd; cs;sd.

myF 3 rhiyghJfhg;G
ghjrhhpfs; flf;Fk; ,lk;
ghjrhhpfSf;Fvd;Wrhiyapy; flf;Fk; gFjp 1934 Mk; Mz;Lgphpl;ldpy;

mikf;fg;g ; l;lJ. rhiyfs; Gs;spfshy; Md NfhLfshy; Fwpf;fg;gl;ld.
eilghijfspy; ngyp~hNgf;fd; vd;Wmiof;fg;gl;lxspf;fk;gq;fs;
mikf;fg;gl;ld. ,J gphpl;ldpd; Nghf;Ftuj;Jj;Jiwmikr;rh; vy;.
N`hhpngyp~hmth;fspd; ngahpy; mikf;fg;gl;lJ. [{g;uhfpuhrpq; vdg;gLk;
fUg;Gnts;isfshy; Md gl;ilfs;>fUg;Gnts;isf;
NfhLfshfkhw;wkile;jd. ,uz;lhk; cyfg;NghUf;Fg;gpd; jhd;
[{g;uhfpuhrpq; cUthf;fg;gl;ld.

7k;tFg;
G
c q;
fS f;
F njup
Akh ?
jfty;Ngio
rp
WJsp
ml;
ltiz fs;
kdtiug;
glq;
fs;
;
NkYk;mwp
e;
J nfhs;
Nthk;
myF1 ,ilf;fhy ,e;jpa

tuyhw;W Mjhuq;fs;
xsuq;frPg;gpd; mitf;fs tuyhw;W mwpQuhf ,Ue;j fh/gpfhdpd; Gfo; ngw;W

$w;W cq;fSf;Fj; njhpAkh?
“tpRthrk; cs;stuhf ,Uj;jy;> yhg Nehf;fk; ,d;ik> Mgj;Jf;F mQ;rhik>

xUjiygl;rkhf ,y;yhjpUj;jy;> tpUg;G ntWg;gpd;wp ,Uj;jy;> ez;gUf;Fk;
me;epaUf;FkpilNa Ntw;Wik ghuhik> Neh;ikAld; vOJjy; Mfpait
tuyhw;W Mrphpah;fspd; flikfs;”vdmth; $wpAs;shh;.
rhd;Wfis
tifg;gLj;Jjy;
Kjy;epiyr; rhd;Wfs; ,uz;lhk; epiyr; rhd;Wfs;
rhyNghfk; fy;tp epiyaq;fisg; guhkhpg;gjw;fhf

toq;fg;gl;l epyq;fs;
Njtjhdk; Nfhtpy;fSf;Ff; nfhilahf toq;fg;gl;l
epyq;fs;
gs;spr; re;jk; rkzrkaepWtdq;fSf;Ff; nfhilahf
mspf;fg;gl;l epyq;fs;
jgfj; - muhgpar; nrhy; - jiyKiwfs; my;yJ E}w;whz;Lfs;

vd;WnghUs;.
j[{f; - ghurPfr; nrhy; - Rarhpijvdg;nghUs;.
jhhpf; my;yJjhFA+f; - muhgpar; nrhy; - ,jd; nghUs; tuyhWvd;gjhFk;.

xU [pl;ly; 3.6 nts;spFd;wpkzpfisf; nfhz;ljhFk;. 48

[pl;ly;fs; 1 nts;splq;fhTf;Fr; rkkhFk;.
Ntshz; tif gpuhkzuy;yhjcilikahsUf;Fr;

nrhe;jkhdepyq;fs;
gpuk;kNjak; gpuhkzh;f;Ff;
nfhilahftoq;fg;gl;lepyq;fs;
myFIII njd; ,e;jpag; GjpamuRfs; gpw;fhyr;

Nrhoh;fSk;>ghz;bah;fSk;
Kjyhk; uh[uh[dpd; Ml;rpf;fhyj;jpy; Nrhoh;fSf;Fk; fPior;

rhSf;fpah;fSf;Fk; ,ilapyhdjpUkzcwTnjhlq;fpaJ.
mtUilakfshdFe;jitrhSf;fpa ,sturh; tpkyhjpj;jidkze;jhh;.
mth;fspd; kfdhd uh[uh[ eNue;jpud; Kjyhk; uhN[e;jpudpd;
kfshdmk;kq;fhNjtpiakze;jhh;. mth;fspd; kfNdKjyhk; FNyhj;Jq;fd;
Mthh;.
ghz;bamuR“nry;tr;nropg;Gkpf;f>cyfpNyNakpfmw;GjkhdgFjpahFk;”vdkhh;f;Nf
hNghyhGfohuk; #l;Lfpwhh;. ,yq;ifNahLNrh;eJ
; cyfj;jpy; fhzg;gLk;
ngUk;ghyhdkhzpf;ff; fw;fisAk; Kj;Jf;fisAk; cw;gj;jpnra;fpwJvdNkYk;
$Wfpwhh;. jd;Dilagazf; Fwpg;Gfspy; ‘rjp’ (cld;fl;ilVWjy;)
epfo;TfisAk; murh;fspd; gyjhukzj;ijAk; gjpTnra;Js;shh;.
irtj; JwtpahdjpUQhdrk;ge;jh; mhpNfrhpiar;

rkzkjj;jpypUe;Jirtj;jpw;Fkhw;wpdhh;. kjk; khwpagpd;dh; mhpNfrhpRkhh; 8000
rkzh;fisf; fONtw;wpajhff; $wg;gLfpwJ. vz;zpf;ifkpifg;gLj;jpf;
$wg;gl;bUg;gpDk;>irtj;jpw;Fkhwpagpd;dh; mhpNfrhpapd; rkzvjph;gG
; g;
Nghf;Fre;Njfj;jpw;F ,lkpy;yhjJ.

myFIV nly;ypRy;jhdpak;
rpj;J}h; #iwahly; (1303)
rpj;J}hpy; uh[Gj;jpug; gilfismyhTjPdpd; gilfs; jpzwbj;jepiyapy;

Njhy;tpaile;JtpLNthk; vd;w #oypy; Nfhl;ilf;Fs; ,Ue;jMltUk;
ngz;bUk; jq;fsJgz;ilakugpd;gb“[t;`h;”vdg;gLk; rlq;ifelj;jpdh;.
,jd;gbMlth; Nfhl;iliatpl;LntspNawpg; Nghh;f;fsj;jpy; khs;th; ngz;fs;
jPg;GFe;Jjq;fiskha;j;Jf; nfhs;th;
nly;ypapypUe;Jnjsyjhghj; nry;yehw;gJehl;fs; ele;Njnry;yNtz;Lk;.

ngUk;ghyhdkf;fs; njsyjhghj; Gwg;gl;Lr; nrd;wdh;. rpyh; xspe;Jnfhz;ldh;.
mth;fs; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gLifapy; mth;fspy; xUth; ghh;itaw;wtuhf
,Ue;jNghJk; kw;nwhUth; gf;fthjNehahspahf ,Ue;jNghJk;
nfhûkhdjz;lidf;Fcs;shf;fg;gl;ldh;. vl;Lmy;yJgj;Jiky;
msTgutpapUe;jme;efiug; gw;wpxUtuyhw;wwpQh; “midj;Jk; mopf;fg;gl;ld.
efuj;jpd; muz;kidfspy;>fl;llq;fspy; Gwefh; gFjpfspy; vdvq;Fk;
xUehNah>G+idNah $l tpl;Litf;fg;gltpy;iyvDk; msTf;FKOikahfg;
ghohdJ”vdf; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;shh;.
myFI Gtpapd; cs;sikg;G
G+kpxUePyepwf; Nfhs;.71 % G+kpapd; gug;GePuhy; #og;gl;Ls;sJ.
Gtpapd; nfhs;sstpy; GtpNkNyhL1 % >ftrk; 84 %, kPjKs;s15 %

Gtpf;fUitAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ. Gtpapd; Rw;wsT 6371 fp.kPMFk;.

nkd; ghiwf;Nfhsk;
GtpNkNyhl;bw;Fk; ftrNkyLf;fpw;Fk; ,ilNacs;sgFjpNankd; ghiwf; Nfhsk;

MFk;
2.0 msitmy;yJmjw;FFiwthdMw;wy; nrwptpidczh;tJmhpJ.

5.0 Nky; mjph;Tmiyfs; Vw;gLk; NghJjhd; epyk; gpse;JtPo;tJVw;gLfpd;wJ. 6.0
my;yJmjw;FNkw;gl;lmsTmjpftypikahdJvdTk;> 7.0 f;FNky; mjph;Tmiyfs;
Vw;gLk;NghJngUk; Nrjk; tpistpf;Fk; epyeLf;fk; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
%d;W tifahd epw miyfs;
1. P miyfs; (my;yJ) mOj;jmiyfs;

2. S miyfs; (my;yJ) KwpTmiyfs;
3. L miyfs; (my;yJ) Nkw;gug;Gmiyfs;
,e;jpag; ngUq;flypy; 26 brk;gh; 2004 md;WVw;gl;lRdhkp>

,e;NjhNd~pah> ,e;jpah> ,yq;if>jha;yhe;JMfpaehLfspd; flNyhug;
gFjpfismopj;JflYf;Fs; nfhz;Lnrd;wJ. ,JkdpjcapUf;Fk; clikfSf;Fk;
kpfg;ngUj;j Nrjj;ijcz;lhf;fpaJ.

jfty; Fwpg;G
vhpkiyfs; gw;wpamwptpay; G+h;tkhdMa;TfisvhpkiyMa;tpay;

(Volcanology) vdmiof;fpd;wdh;. Ma;TNkw;nfhs;Sk; ty;Yeh;fs;
vhpkiyMa;tpayhsh;fs; (Volcanologist) vdmiof;fg;gLfpd;wdh;.
me;jkhdpYs;sNgnud;jPT(Barren Island) mjd; jiyefhpypUe;J 135

fp.kPl;lh; fpof;Nfmike;Js;sJ. Rkj;uhtpypUe;Jkpahd;kh;
tiucs;sneUg;Gtisaj;jpDs; ,Uf;Fk; xUnray;gLk; vhpkiy ,JNtMFk;.
filrpahf 2017 Mk; Mz;by; ,J vhpkiyFok;igntbj;JntspNaw;wpaJ
];l;uhk;Nghyp vhpkiy kj;jpajiuf;flypd; fyq;fiu tpsf;fk; vd

miof;fg;gLfpwJ
myFII epyj;Njhw;wq;fs;
JizahW–xUKjd;ik Mw;Wld; ,izAk; my;yJ Mw;wpDs; ghAk; Xh; ePNuhil

my;yJ Xh; MW.
fpisahW–xUKjd;ik Mw;wpypUe;J gphpe;J kw;Wk; tpyfpr; nry;Yk; Xh; MW
Mrpahikdh; (JUf;fp) vd;w ,lj;jpy; cs;skpahz;lh; Mw;wpd; ngahpd;

mbg;gilapy; Mw;W tisT vd;w nrhy; Vw;gl;lJ. fhuzk; ,e;j MW
mjpfjpUg;gq;fSlDk; kw;Wk; mjpftisTfSlDk; XLfpd;wJ.

njd; mnkhpf;fhtpy; cs;sntdpRyhehl;by; fhzg;gLk; VQ;ry;

ePh;tPo;r;rpcaukhdePh;toP ;r;rpMFk;. tlmnkhpf;fhtpy; fdlhkw;Wk;
mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehLfspd; vy;iyapy; cs;seahfuhePh;tPo;r;rpkw;Wk; Mg;gphpf;fhtpy;
[hkpahkw;Wk; [pk;ghg;NtehLfspd; vy;iyapy; cs;stpf;NlhhpahePh;tPo;r;rp Mfpad
Kf;fpaePh;tPo;r;rpahFk;
cyfpNyNakpfePskhdflw;fiumnkhpf;fhtpYs;sGNshhplhkhepyj;jpy;
njw;fpy; fhzg;gLk; kpahkpflw;fiuMFk;. ,uz;lhtJePz;lflw;fiunrd;idapy;
mike;Js;snkhpdhflw;fiuMFk;.
tlf;FrPdhtpy; gbe;Js;sfhw;wbtz;ly; gbTfs; Nfhgpghiytdj;jpy;

,Ue;Jflj;jg;gl;litMFk;.
myFIII kf;fs;
njhifAk;>FbapUg;GfSk;
kdpjg; Gtpapay; vd;gJkdpjd; kw;Wk; mtdpd; Rw;Wg;Gwj;ij ,aw;ifr; #oNyhL

gbg;gNjMFk;.
ahj;jpiuf; FbapUg;G
ahj;jpiuf; FbapUg;Gtopghl;Lj; jyq;fisr; Rw;wpAk; (my;yJ) kjKf;fpaj;Jtk;

tha;e;j ,lq;fspYk; mikAk;. (v.fh) jkpo; ehl;by; cs;sgodp–KUfd; Nfhtpy;

kjk; topghl;Lj;jyk; Njjp epfo;Tfs;

Gj;jkjk; tp`huh [{iy 11 cyfkf;fs; njhifehs;
fpwp];Jtkjk; Njthyak; gpg;uthp 21 gd;dhl;Ljha;nkhopjpdk;
,e;Jkjk; Nfhtpy; xt;nthUMz;Lk; cyfkjey;ypzf;fehs;
,];yhk; k#jp [dthpapy; tUk; 3
rkzk; grhjp tJQhapw;Wf;fpoi
[{lha;]k; rpdfhf; k
n[huh];bhpak; mfpahhp Nk– 21 cyffyhr;rhugy;tifeh
s;
fpuhkk; efuk;
fpuhkj;jpy; tptrhak; Kjd;ikj; efh;g;Gwj;jpy; ,uz;lhk; %d;whk; epiyj;
njhopyhFk; njhopy;fshdnjhopw;rhiyfs;
Ml;nfhz;bUf;Fk;
kf;fslh;j;jpFiwT kf;fslh;j;jpmjpfk;
fpuhkq;fs; kw;Wk; Fbirfs; ngUefuq;fs; kw;Wk; efuq;fs;
tptrhaNtiyfs; tptrhak; my;yhjgpwNtiyfs;
vspjhd>mikjpahdtho;f;if Ntfkhd>rpf;fy; epiwe;jtho;f;if
myFI rkj;Jtk;
rl;lj;jpd; Ml;rpvd;wgjj;ij>V.tp.ilrpvd;wgphpl;b~; rl;lty;Yeh; thJiuj;jhh;.
 rl;lg;gphpT 14 rl;lj;jpd; Kd; midtUk; rkk; vdcj;juthjk; mspf;fpwJ

 rl;lg;gphpT 15 ghFghl;iljilnra;fpwJ
 rl;lg;gphpT 16 nghJNtiytha;gg
; py; midtUf;Fk; rktha;g;Gmspf;fpwJ
 rl;lg;gphpT 17 jPz;lhikiaxopf;fpwJ
 rl;lg;gphpT 18 gl;lq;fs; mspj;JNtWgLj;Jjiyjilnra;fpwJ
gj;njhd;gjhk; E}w;whz;bypUe;J gy;NtW Kaw;rpfs; ngz;fspd; Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;fhf

Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;L tUfpd;wd. uh[huhk; Nkhfd;
uha;><];ture;jputpj;ahrhfh;>jahde;jru];tjp>kfhNjt; Nfhtpe;juhdNl>jhuhgha;
~pz;Nl>Ngfk; UNfahrfhtj; cNrd; MfpNahh; ngz;fs; rk me;j];J ngWtjw;F
fbdkhf gzpahw;wpath;fspy; Fwpg;gplj;jFe;jth;fs; Mth;.

myFII murpay; fl;rpfs;
fl;rpapd; Njh;jy; mwpf;if
Njh;jYf;FKd;ghdgug;Giuapy; Ntl;ghsh;fs; jq;fsJfl;rpMl;rpf;Fte;jhy;

Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; jpl;lq;fs;>nfhs;iffismwptpg;ghh;fs;
Njh;jy; FO rpd;dq;fs;
1968 Mk; Mz;bd; Njh;jy; rpd;dq;fs; Mizapd;gb>xJf;fg;gl;lrpd;dq;fs; kw;Wk;

xJf;fg;glhjrpd;dq;fs; vd;W ,uz;Ltifcs;sJ.
 xJf;fg;gl;lrpd;dk; vd;gJmq;fPfhpf;fg;gl;lmurpay;
fl;rpf;Fkl;LkhdJvdnghUs;gLk;.
 xJf;fg;glhjrpd;dk; vd;gJmq;fPfhpf;fg;glhjfl;rpfSf;FxJf;fg;gLk; rpd;dk;
MFk;.
Njh;jy; Mizak; - rl;lg;G+h;tmikg;G
,e;jpaNjh;jy; Mizak; Njh;jy;fiselj;Jtjw;Fmjpfhuk;

nfhz;lxURje;jpukhdrl;lg;gbahdmurpayikg;GMFk;. ,jd; jiyik ,lk;
GJjpy;ypapy; mike;Js;sJ.

Njrpaf;fl;rp gpuhe;jpa / khepyf; fl;rp

 Njrpaf; fl;rpvd;gJ ,e;jpahKOtJk;  khepyf; fl;rpfs; vd;gitxUkhepyj;jpw;Fs;
eilngWk; Njh;jy;fspy; Nghl;bapLk; eilngWk; gy;NtWNjh;jy;fspy; Nghl;bapLk;
murpay; fl;rpahFk; murpay; fl;rpahFk;
 Njrpaf; fl;rpFiwe;jgl;rk;  ,Jxd;Wmy;yJ ,uz;Lkhepyq;fspy;
ehd;Fkhepyq;fspy; typikcilajhf typiknfhz;ljhf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;
,Uf;fNtz;Lk;
 ,Jjdf;nfdgpuj;jpNafkhdrpd;dj;ijeh  ,jw;Fmq;ff P hpf;fg;gl;lxUrpd;dk;
L KOtjw;Fk; nfhz;bUf;Fk; xJf;fL
P nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. Mdhy; khepyj;jpy;
,j;jifarpd;dk; NtWkhepyj;jpy;
cs;sfl;rpf;Fk; xJf;fPLnra;ag;glyhk;.
 ,Jkhepy>Njrpakw;Wk;  ,Jgpuhe;jpakw;Wk;khepyeyd;fistypAWj;Jfp
rh;tNjrtptfhuq;fisj; wJ.
jPh;j;Jitf;fpwJ
myFI cw;gj;jp
ek; ,e;jpahtpy; fyg;GnghUshjhuepiyfhzg;gLfpwJmjhtJ>nghUshjhj;jpy; jdpahh;

JiwepWtdq;fSk; nghJj; JiwepWtdq;fSk; xd;whf ,ize;Jnray;gLfpd;wd
vLj;Jf;fhl;L
Kjd;ikkw;Wk; ,uz;lhk; epiycw;gj;jp
 gUj;jp (Kjd;ikj; Jiw) -gUj;jpj; njhopy; (,uz;lhk; epiycw;gj;jp) = Mil cw;gj;jp

 ,Uk;Gj;jhJ (Kjd;ikj; Jiw) - ,Uk;Gj; njhopy; (,uz;ljk; epiycw;gj;jp) = nghUs;
jahhpg;G
 NfhJikkhT (Kjd;ikj; Jiw) –nuhl;bj; njhopw;rhiy= czTcw;gj;jp (,uz;lhk;
epiycw;gj;jp)
Fwpg;gpl;lepyg;gFjpmike;Js;s ,lj;jpy; fpilf;Fk; tsq;fisg; nghUj;J>epyj;jpd; tbtk;

khw;wkilfpwJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf>Ntshz;iknra;Ak;NghJ>tpisepykhfTk;
kiztpw;gisnra;Ak;NghJ>tPlL ; epykhfTk; khWfpwJ.
ekJehl;bd; nkhj;jcs;ehl;Lcw;gj;jpapy;>ngUk;gq;Ftfpg;git %d;whk;

epiymy;yJNritj; Jiwcw;gj;jpfNs

Mlk;];kpj; “nghUspaypd; je;ij”vd miof;fg;gLfpwhh;. ,tuJ

Nfhl;ghL>nry;tj;ijmbg;gilahff; nfhz;l‘nry;t ,yf;fzk; MFk;’. ed;ndwp fUj;J
czh;Tf; nfhs;if ehLfspd; “nry;tKk;>mtw;iw cUthf;Ffpd;w fhuzpfSk; Xh; Ma;T”
(1776) vd;gd>mthpd; rpwe;j ,U gilg;G E}y;fs;
myF1 tp[aefu>ghkpdpmuRfs;
Kjyhk;Gf;fUilakfdhdFkhufk;gzhkJiuRy;jhdpaj;jpw;FKw;Wg;Gs;spitj;jNjhLmq;FxUeha
f;f muir epWTtjpYk; ntw;wpngw;whh;. Fkhufk;gzhtpd; kidtpfq;fhNjtpahy;
vOjg;ngw;wkJiutp[ak; vd;Dk; E}ypy; tp[aefug; Nguurhy; kJiuifg;gw;wg;gl;lijj;
njspthftpsf;FfpwJ.
fpof;Ffh;ehlfj;jpy;>Jq;fgj;uhejpapd; fiuapy; cs;stp[aefuk; ,Ue;j ,lk;

jw;NghJ‘`k;gp’vdmiof;fg;gLfpwJ. `k;gprPh;Fiye;J ,bghLfshff; fzg;gLfpwJ. And];Nfh
`k;gpiaghuk;ghpar; rpd;dkhfmwptpj;Js;sJ.
‘mKf;jkhy;ajh’njYq;F ,yf;fpaj;jpd; jiyrpwe;jgilg;ghff; fUjg;gLfpwJ. ,Jnghpaho;thhpd;

kfshdNfhijNjtpiag; gw;wpajhFk;. flTs; uq;fehjUf;Fmzptpg;gjw;fhfj;
njhLf;fg;gl;lkhiyfismtUf;Fr; #Ltjw;F Kd;ghf ,t;tk;ikahh; #bf;nfhs;thh;.
mKf;jkhyajhvd;gjw;Fjhd; mzpe;jgpd;dh; nfhLg;gth; vdg;nghUs;.
gr;irfye;jePytz;zf; fy;yhdJtpiyAh;e;jmzpfyd;fspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; fy;yhFk;.

ghurPfmurh;fspd; mzpfyd;fshy; myq;fhpf;fg;gl;lrpk;khrdq;fspy; ,j;jifatz;zf;fy;yhy;
Md mhpaizAk; xd;whFnkdg; gph;njsrpjd;Dila ~h ehkhvDk; E}ypy; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;shh;.
Nfhy;nfhz;lh Nfhl;ilahdJ i`juhghj;jpypUe;J 11 fp.kP njhiytpy;>xU Fd;wpd; kPJ 120

kPl;lh; cauj;jpy; mike;Js;sJ. Xyp njhlh;ghd fl;llf;fiy mk;rq;fSf;F ,f;Nfhl;ilngah;
ngw;wjhFk;. Nfhl;ilapd; kpf caukhd ,lk; ghy `prhh; MFk;. jh;ghh; kz;lgj;jpypUe;J
Fd;wpd; fPNo mike;Js;s muz;kidf;Fr; Ruq;fg;ghij ,Ug;gjhfr; nrhy;yg;gLfpwJ.

ghkpdpmurpd; vl;Lmikr;rh;fs;
1. tf;fPy; - c]; - Ry;jhdhmy;yJmurpd; gpujkmy;yJKjyikr;rh;

murUf;FmLj;jepiyapy; Jizajpfhhpahfr; nray;gl;lth;.
2. Ng~;thehl;bd; gpujkke;jphpNahL ,ize;Jnray;gl;lth;.
3. t]php –Fy; Vida mikr;rh;fspd; gzpfisNkw;ghh;itapl;lth;
4. mkph; - , - [{kyhepjpaikr;rh;
5. e~Ph; - cjtpepjpaikr;rh;
6. t~ph; - , - mrhug; - ntspAwTj;Jiwmikr;rh;
7. nfhj;jthy; - fhty;Jiwj; jiyth; kw;Wk; efuFw;wtpay; eLth;
8. rjhh; - , - [fhd; jiyikePjpgjp>rkak; kw;Wk; mwf;nfhilfspd; mikr;rh;
myF2 Kfyhag; NguuR
1526 - 1530 1526 - 1530 1526 - 1530 1526 - 1530 1526 - 1530 1526 - 1530
ghgh; `{khA+d; mf;gh; [`hq;fPh; ~h[fhd; xsuq;frPg;
nrq;Nfhl;il : yhy; Fa;yhvd;Wmiof;fg;gLk; nly;ypapYss“nrq;Nfhl;il”Kfyhag;

Nguurh;fspd; tho;tplkhFk;. ,J 1639 ,y; Nguurh; ~h[fdhy; kjpy;fshy; #og;ngw;w
jdJjiyefh; ~h[fhdhghj;jpy; fl;lg;gl;l muz;kidahFk;. ,f;Nfhl;ilrptg;Gepwf; fw;fshy;
fl;lg;gl;Ls;sjhy; ,J nrq;Nfhl;ilvdmiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
myF3 kuhj;jpah;fs; kw;Wk; Ng~;thf;fspd; vOr;rp
rj;u (Fil) gjp (jiytd; my;yJgpuG) vDk; rk];fpUjr; nrhy; murd; my;yJ Nguurd;
vd;gjw;F ,izahdJ. ,r;nrhy;iykuhj;jpah;fs; Fwpg;ghfrpth[p gad;gLj;jpdhh;.
Kf;fpakuhj;jpaf; FLk;gq;fs;
 nfa;f;thl; - gNuhlh
 ghd;];Ny–ehf;G+h;
 N`hy;fhh; - ,e;J}h;
 rpe;jpmy;yJrpe;jpah–Fthypah;
 Ng~;th - GNd

rhk;gh[p>jk;KilaFLk;gmh;rr ; fuhdftpfyh~; vd;gthpd;

xOf;ff;Nflhdnry;thf;fpw;FMl;gl;bUe;jhh;. rpth[p Mf;uhtpypUe;Jjg;gpaNghJthuzhrpapy;
ftpfyh~; rhk;gh[papd; ghJfhtyuha; ,Ue;jhh;. gpd;dh; rhk;gh[piag;
gj;jpukhfnua;fhh;f;Fmioj;Jte;jhh;. midj;Jtplaq;fSf;Fk; rhk;gh[p mthpd;
topfhl;Ljiyvjph;ghh;j;jjhy; murrigapy; mthpd; KOikahdNkyhjpf;fk; epytpaJ. ftpfyh~;
Gfo;ngw;wmwpQUk; ftpQUkhthh;>Mdhy; mth; khe;jhPfk; nra;gtuhfTkpUe;jhh;. ,jdhy;
muritapy; ,Ue;jitjPf ,e;Jf;fs; mth;kPJMokhdntWg;igf; nfhz;bUe;jdh;. Kfyhag;
gilfs; rhk;gh[piaf; ifJnra;jNghJftpfNy~{k; cldpUe;jhh;.
myF1 tsq;fs;
t.vz; fhw;whiyg; gz;izfs; khtl;lk; khepyk; epWtg;gl;ljpwd;

(nkfhthl;)
1 Kg;ge;jy; fd;dpahFkhp jkpo;ehL 1,500
2 n[a;rhy;kh; n[a;rhy;kh; uh[];jhd; 1,064
3 gpukd;Nty; JNy k`huh~;buh 528
4 jhy;fhd; rq;yp k`huh~;buh 278
5 jhkd;N[hjp jhkd;N[hjp xbrh 99
t.vz; ePh; kpd;rf;jpjpl;lk; khepyk; epWtg;gl;ljpwd; (nkfhthl;)

1 njfphpmiz cj;ufhz;l; 2,400
2 =iryk; miz Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; 1,670
3 ehfh;[{drhfh; miz Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; 960
4 rh;jhh; rNuhth; miz F[uhj; 1,450
5 gf;uheq;fy; miz gQ;rhg; 1,325
6 nfha;dhmiz kfhuh~;buh 1,960
7 Nkl;^h; miz jkpo;ehL 120
8 ,Lf;fpmiz Nfhush 780
,aw;iftsq;fspd; tiffs;
cUthFk; tpjj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; GJgpf;Fk; jd;ikapd;

mbg;gilapy;
capUs;stsq;fs;
GJg;gpf;f ,aYk; tsq;fs;
capuw;wtsq;fs;
GJg;gpf;f ,ayhtsq;fs;
t.vz; jpl;lj;jpd; ngah; ehL ejp epWtg;gl;ljpwd;
(nkfhthl;)
1 j;hpfhh;[]; miz rPdh ahq;l;]p 22,500
2 ,l;ilg;Gmiz gpNurpy; kw;Wk; guhdh 14,000
guhFNt
3 [pYLmiz rPdh [pd;~h 13,860
4 Fhpmiz ntdpRyh fNuhzp 10,235
5 Jf;FUapmiz gpNurpy; nlfhd;bd;]; 8,370
rPdhtpy; cs;sj;hf
P hh;]; mizePh; kpd; rf;jpjpl;lk;>cyfpd; kpfg;nghpaePh; kpd; rf;jpjpl;lk; MFk;.
,jd; fl;Lkhdg;gzp 1994 y; Muk;gpf;fg;gl;L 2012 ,y; KbTw;wJ. ,jpy; epWtg;gl;ljpwdhdJ
22>500 nkfhthl;
jw;NghJehk; gad;gLj;Jk; epyf;fhpahdJ 300 Mz;LfSf;FKd; Njhd;wpagbTMFk;. G+kpapd;

ngUk;gFjpePuhtprJg;Gepyq;fshy; epuk;gpAs;sJ. jhtuk; kw;Wk; tpyq;Ffs; ,we;jgpd;ghdvr;rq;fs;
rJg;Gepyq;fspy; mbapy; Gijf;fg;gl;ld. ,Wjpapy; mitGtpf;fbapy; mjpfg;gbahdntg;gk;
kw;Wk; mOj;jj;jpd; fhuzkhfepyf;fhpahfkhw;wg;gl;ld.
myF2 Rw;Wyh
’fh];l;Nuhdkp’vd;gJfyhr;rhur; Rw;Wyhtpd; mk;rj;ij Fwpf;fpd;wJ
cs;tUk; Rw;Wyh–nrhe;jehl;bw;Fs; nry;Yk; Rw;Wyh
ntspr;nry;Yk; Rw;Wyh–ntspehLfSf;Fnry;Yk; Rw;Wyh
tdtpyq;FghJfhg;Gr; ruzhyak; fhl;Ltpyq;Ffspd; ghJfhg;gpw;FxJf;fg;gl;lepyg;gFjp
 tprh(VISA) –xUegUf;Ftoq;fg;gLk; Mtzk; (my;yJ) ntspehLnry;ytpUk;Gk;

xUtuJflTr;rl
P ;by; Fwpf;fg;gLk; Kj;jpiu
 Rw;Wyhtprh(Tourist VISA) –Nfspf;iff;fhfr; Rw;wpg; ghh;j;jy;
 khzth; tprh(Student VISA) –Nkw;gbg;gpw;fhfr; nry;Yjy;
 njhopy; tprh(Employment VISA) –xUehl;by; Ntiyghh;j;jy;
 kUj;Jttprh(Medical VISA) –xUehl;bYs;sGfo;ngw;wkUj;Jtkidapy;
kUj;Jtrpfpr;irngWtjw;fhfr; nry;Yjy;

nfhilf;fhdy;> Cl;b - jkpo;ehL

iedplhy; - cj;jpufhz;l;
lhh;[;ypq; - Nkw;F tq;fhsk;
=efh; - [k;K fh~;kPh;
~py;yhq; - Nkfhyah
rpk;yh - ,khr;ryg;gpuNjrk;
%zhW - Nfush
fhq;lhf; - rpf;fpk;
ITC - epWtdq;fSf;fhdcs;slf;fpa FO Rw;Wyh(Inclusive Tours by charter)

IATA - gd;dhl;Lthd;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;Jr; rq;fk; (International Air Transport
Association)
IATO - ,e;jpag; gazmikg;ghsh;fs; rq;fk; (Indian Association of Tour
Operators)
TAAI - ,e;jpagazKfth;fs; rq;fk; (Travel Agent Association of India)
TTTHA - jkpo;ehLRw;Wyhgazk; kw;Wk; tpUe;Njhk;gy; rq;fk; (TamilNadu
Tour
Travel and Hospitality Association)
TTDC - jkpo;ehLRw;Wyhtsh;r;rpfofk; (TamilNadu Tourism Development

Corporation)
Rw;Wyhg; gazpfisntspNaw;Wk; fhuzp–nfsutk;
Rw;Wyhgazpfisf; fth;e;J ,Of;Fk; fhuzp–Nrittrjpfs;
t.vz; gwitfs; ruzhyak; khepyk;

1 $e;jd; Fsk; gwitruzhyak; jkpo;ehL
2 Fkufk; gwitruzhyak; Nfush
3 guj;G+h; gwitruzhyak; ,uh[];jhd;
4 kahdpgwitruzhyak; kfhuh~;buh
5 cg;gsg;ghLgwitruzhyak; Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
6 ey;rNuhth; gwitruzhyak; F[uhj;
7 ethg;fQ;r; gwitruzhyak; cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;

t.vz; ePh;tPo;r;rpfs; Gtpapay; ,Ug;gplk;

1 jhioahh; ePh;tPo;r;rp jkpo;ehl;by; jpz;Lf;fy; khtl;lj;jpYs;s ,e;jePh;tPo;r;rpapd;
mikg;G>Fjpiuthy; Nghd;Wmike;Js;sJ
2 N[hf; ePh;tPo;r;rp gphpTePh;tPo;r;rp (uh[h uhzpkw;Wk; ,b) fh;ehlfhtpy; cs;s
~pNkhNfhkhtl;lj;jpy; mike;Js;sJ
3 Nehfhsp fha; ePh;tPo;r;rp Nkfhyahtpy; fpof;Ff; fhrpkhtl;lj;jpy;
mike;Js;scaukhd>Neubahfj; jilapd;wpePh; tpOk;
ePh;tPo;r;rp
4 jyf;Nfhzk; ePh;tPo;r;rp Me;jpuhtpYs;scaukhd ,e;jePh;tPo;r;rpapy; kUj;JtFzk;
epiwe;j %ypifr; nrbnfhbfspy; ,Ue;JePh;
tpOtJrpwg;Gmk;rkhFk;
5 mjpug;gs;spePh;tPo;r;rp Nfushtpy; jphpr;#h; khtl;lj;jpy; ,e;jePh;tPo;r;rpmike;Js;sJ
,J ,e;jpahtpd; eafuhMFk;.
t.vz; tpyq;Ffs; ruzhyak; khepyk; tpyq;Ffs;

1 KJkiytdtpyq;Fr; ruzhyak; jkpo;ehL Gyp>ahid>fhl;nlUik>khd;
2 fhrpuq;fhNjrpaG+q;fh mrhk; Gyp>khd;>vUik
3 uhe;jk;gh; NjrpaG+q;fh ,uh[];jhd; Gyp
4 fhd;`h NjrpaG+q;fh kj;jpag;gpuNjrk; rJg;Gepykhd;fs;
5 Re;jutdNjrpaG+q;fh Nkw;Ftq;fhsk; tq;fhsg; Gyp
6 fph; NjrpaG+q;fh F[uhj; rpq;fk;
7 gj;uh td ruzhyak; fh;ehlfh fhl;nlUik>rpWj;ij>fhl;nlUJ
8 nghpahh; NjrpaG+q;fh Nfush ahid>khd;
9 fhh;ngl; NjrpaG+q;fh cj;jpufhz;l; Gyp
t.vz; flw;fiu khepyk; Gtpapay; fhuzpfs;

1 jD~;Nfhb jkpo;ehL ePyuj;jpdepwj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; fly;ePh;
2 tw;fiyflw;fiu Nfush #hpad; kiwAk; fhl;rpiaf; fhzVJthd
fly; Xq;fy; ghiw
3 jh;fhh;ypflw;fiu kfhuh~;buh gtsg; ghiwfs; epiwe;j fly;
rhfrtpisahl;LfSf;FVw;wflw;fiu
4 Xk; flw;fiu fh;ehlfh ,uz;Lmiutl;lf; Fiffs; ,ize;JXk;
vd;wvOj;jpd; jiyfPo; tbtj;jpy; mikag;
ngw;wflw;fiu
5 mFjhflw;fiu Nfhth flw;fiuapd; njd;gFjpapy;
nghpaFd;whdJFwpg;gplj;jf;fmk;rkhFk;
6 kuhhpflw;fiu Nfush ,uz;Lkzy; jpl;Lfs; ,ilNanjhl;by;
Nghd;wmikg;gpy; mike;Js;sflw;fiu

t.vz; tdtpyq;Fr; ruzhyak; khtl;lk;

1 KJkiytdtpyq;Fr; ruzhyak; ePyfphp
2 Kz;le;Jiwtdtpyq;Fr; ruzhyak; jpUney;Ntyp
3 Nfhbaf;fiutdtpyq;Fr; ruzhyak; ehfg;gl;bdk;
4 ,e;jpuhfhe;jptdtpyq;Fr; ruzhyak; Nfhak;Gj;J}h;
5 fsf;fhLtdtpyq;Fr; ruzhyak; jpUney;Ntyp
t.vz; gwitfs; ruzhyak; khtl;lk;

1 Ntl;lq;Fbgwitfs; ruzhyak; rptfq;if
2 fhiuntl;bgwitfs; ruzhyak; mhpaY}h;
3 nty;Nyhl; gwitfs; ruzhyak; <NuhL
4 Ntle;jhq;fy; gwitfs; ruzhyak; fhQ;rpGuk;
ePh;tPo;r;rpfs; Gtpapay; jymiktplk;

t.vz;
1 xNfdf;fy; jUkGhpkhtl;lj;jpy; mike;Js;s Xh; mofhd ePh;tPo;r;rp

ePh;tPo;r;rp
2 Fk;gf;fiuePh;tPo;r;rp ghk;ghh; Mw;wpy; rpw;wUtpfshf cUthfp>nfhilf;fhdy;
kiymbthuj;jpy; ,e;ePh;tPo;r;rp tPo;fpd;wJ. ,J Njdp khtl;lj;jpy;
mike;Js;sJ.
3 Fuq;FePh;tPo;r;rp gRikkhwhf; fhLfs; #o;e;j ,e;ePh ;tPo;r;rp Nfhak;Gj;J}h; khtl;lj;jpy;
Midkiyg; gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ
4 fpspA+h; ePh;tPo;r;rp fpof;Fj; njhlh;r;rpkiyahd Nrh;tuhad; Fd;Wg; gFjpapy;
mike;Js;sJ.
5 Fw;whyk; jpUney;Ntyp khtl;lj;jpy; mike;Js;s Fw;why mUtp kUj;Jtk;
MNuhf;fpaj;jpw;Fg; ngah; ngw;wJ
6 Mfhafq;if fpof;Fj; njhlh;r;rpkiyapYs;s nfhy;ypkiyapy; GspaQ;Nrhiy
vd;Dkplj;jpy; ,e;ePh;tPo;r;rp tPo;fpd;wJ. ,J ehkf;fy; khtl;lj;jpy;
mike;Jss;J
7 RUspePh;tPo;r;rp ,e;j ePh;tPo;r;rp epy ePh;tPo;r;rp my;yJ Nkfkiy ePh;tPo;r;rp vd
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J Njdp khtl;lj;jpy; mike;Js;sJ.
t.vz; NjrpaG+q;fhf;fs; khtl;lq;fs;

1 fpz;bNjrpaG+q;fh nrd;id
2 kd;dhh; tisFlhflw;G+q;fh ,uhkehjGuk;
3 ,e;jpuhfhe;jpNjrpaG+q;fh Nfhak;Gj;J}h;
4 Kf;$h;j;jpNjrpaG+q;fh ePyfphp
5 KJkiyNjrpaG+q;fh ePyfphp

t.vz; flw;fiufs; Gtpapay; fhuzpfs;

1 Nfhtsk; flw;fiu–fhQ;rpGuk; rpwpakPdg
; pbfpuhkk;
2 nkhpdhflw;fiu–nrd;id ,uz;lhtJkpfmofpaePzl ; flw;fiu
3 fd;dpahFkhpflw;fiu gytz;zkzy;fisf; nfhz;lJ
4 ,uhNk];tuk; flw;fiu miyaw;wflw;fiu
5 vypal; flw;fiu–nrd;id ,uTk;>gfYk; kdpjh;fshy;
epiwe;jmofhdflw;fiu
6 kfhgypGuk; flw;fiu–fhQ;rpGuk; fl;llf;fiykw;Wk; njhy; nghUs; flw;fiu
7 rpy;th; flw;fiu–flY}h; ePh; tpisahl;LnghOJNghf;fpw;fhdflw;fiu
8 Kl;LfhLflw;fiu–fhQ;rpGuk; mikjpahdkw;Wk; Mokw;wflw;fiu
kiythoplq;fs; - Gidngah;fs;
Cl;b - kiyfspd; uhzp
Vw;fhL - Vhpf; fhLfs; (Viofspd; Cl;b)
Vyfphp - 14 nfhz;ilCrptisTfiscilaJ
nfhilf;fhdy; - kiyfspd; ,sturp
Nfhj;jfphp - gr;irkiy
nts;saq;fphpkiy - njw;fpd; ifyh~;
nfhy;ypkiy - 70 nfhz;ilCrptisTfSld; $bathfdg;
Nghf;Ftuj;Jg; myF 2 ClfKk; [dehafKk;
gFjp
Mid kiy - cah; tpspk;G
Nkf kiy - cah;e;jNkfq;fs; FtpAk; gFjp
[t;thJ - ,aw;ifapd; nrhh;f;fk;
mr;R ,ae;jpuk; N[h`d;d]; Fl;ld;ngh;f; vd;gtuhy; 1453 ,y; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ
kf;fshl;rpapd; Nfhl;ghL : kf;fshl;rpvd;why; kf;fshy; Ml;rpnra;ag;gLjy; vd;gjhFk;. ,J

,uz;LfpNuf;fnrhw;fshy; MdJ. nlNkh]; (Demos) kf;fisf; Fwpf;fpwJ. f;uhNlh]; (Kratos)
mjpfhuk; my;yJMl;rpvd;WnghUs;
mfpy ,e;jpathndhyp
1956 Mk; Mz;bypUe;JMfhrthdp (thdpypUe;JtUk; xyp) vs;wngahpy;
thndhypxypgug;ignra;JtUfpwJ. ,J 1936 Mk; Mz;LMuk;gpf;fg;gl;lJ
cq;fs; gFjpapd; cs;@h; Clfq;fs; rpytw;wpd; ngahpidFwpg;gpLf

Clfj;jpd; tifg;ghL
FWfpanjhlh;GClfk; Nfgps; njhiyf;fhl;rp>NeubmQ;ry;>fUj;juq;F
njhiyj;njhlh;GClfk; jpiug;glq;fs;>njhiyf;fhl;rp>thndhyp
mr;RClfk; nra;jpj;jhs;fs;>
,jo;fs;>gj;jphpf;iffs;>Gj;jfq;fs;>Rtnuhl;bfs;>mwpf;iffs;
,izaClfk; $Fs; ,izajsq;fs; kw;Wk; tiyg;gjpTfs;
r%fClfk; fPr;rfk;>KfE}y;>Gydk; / fl;nrtpmQ;ry; kw;Wk; glthp
myF1 Gjparkaf; fUj;Jf;fSk; ,af;fq;fSk;
itztmbahh;fs; (12 Mo;thh;fs;)

Kjy; %d;WMo;thh;fs; : ngha;ifMo;thh;>G+jj;jho;thh;>Ngaho;thh;
Vida Mo;thh;fs; :
jpUkopiraho;thh;>nghpaho;thh;>njhz;lubg;nghbMo;thh;>jpUkq;ifMo;thh;>jpUg;gz;
Mo;thh;>FyNrfuMo;thh;>ek;kho;thh;>kJuf;ftpMo;thh;>Mz;lhs;
irtmbahh;fs; (63 ehad;khh;fs;) : kuGtopf; fijapd;gbehad;khh;fs; 63 Nguhth;. mth;fspy;

Qhdrk;ge;jh;>mg;gh;>Re;juh; (Kk;%h;j;jpfs; vdmiof;fg;gLgth;fs;) MfpNahh; njd;dpe;jpaf;
Nfhtpy;fspy; rpiytopghLnra;ag;gLfpd;wdh;. ehad;khh;fspd; ghly;fismidj;ijAk;
ek;gpMz;lhh; ek;gp (fp.gp.1000) vd;ghh; njhFj;jjhff; $wg;gLfpwJ. mJNtirtg;Gdpj
E}y;fshdjpUKiwapd; mbg;gilahfcs;sJ. jpUKiw 12 E}y;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. mtw;wpy;
11 E}y;fs; ek;gpMz;lhh; ek;gpahy; njhFf;fg;gl;litahFk;. Nrf;fpohhpd; nghpaGuhzk; 12 tJ
E}yhFk;.
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(mgq;fhmy;yJfPh;j;jidfs;) mth; ed;Fmwpag;gl;bUe;jhh;. kfhuh~;buhtpy; Nrhyg;G+h;
khtl;lj;jpYs;sge;jh;G+h; my;yJgz;lhpGuj;jpy; tpNjhgh/ ghz;Luq;fhNfhtpy; cs;sJ.
tq;fhsj;jpw;Firjd;aNjthvt;tpjNkhmijg;Nghd;Nwkfhuh~;buhTf;FJf;fhuhk; tpsq;Ffpwhh;
#gpap]k; #gp vDk; nrhy; ‘Rg;’vDk; nrhy;ypy; ,Ue;JNjhd;wpajhFk;. mjd; nghUs;

fk;gspMFk;. #gpf;fs; nrhunrhug;ghdKul;Lf; fk;gspahyhdcilfismzpe;jjhy; #gpf;fs;
vdmiof;fg;gl;ldh;. #gpap]k; mbg;gilapy; ,];yhkpaj;ijr; Nrh;e;jjhf ,Ue;jhYk; mjd; kPJ
,e;J>ngsj;j (kfhahd) rkaf; fUj;Jf;fspd; jhf;fj;ijg; ngw;wpUe;jJ. cNykhf;fspd;
fLikahdxOf;ftpjpfis #gpap]k; kWj;jJ. klhyatho;f;ifiaxj;jJwTtho;itNkw;nfhz;l
#gpf;fs; rKjhaj;jpw;FntspNanray;gl;ldh;.

myF 2 jkpo;ehl;by; fiyAk; fl;llf;fiyAk;
1984 ,y; flw;fiuf; Nfhtpy; tshfk; cl;glkhky;yGuj;jpYs;sepidTr; rpd;dq;fSk;

Nfhtpy;fSk; nkhj;jkhfcyfg; ghuk;ghpa ,lnkd And];Nfhthy; (UNESCO) mq;ff P hpf;fg;gl;lJ.
myF 3 jkpofj;jpy; rkzk;>ngsj;jk;>MrPtfj; jj;Jtq;fs;
rkzj;jpd; Ik;ngUk; cWjpnkhopfs; : 1. ve;jcaphpdj;ijAk; Jd;GWj;jhkypUg;gJ–mfpk;ir>

2. cz;ik–rj;ah> 3. jpUlhik–mnrsh;ah> 4. jpUkzk; nra;Jnfhs;shik–gpuk;kr;rhpah> 5.
gzk;>nghUs;>nrhj;Jf;fs; kPJ Mir nfhs;shik–mghpf;fpufh
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tho;f;iftuyhWfiscs;slf;fkhff; nfhz;Ls;sJ. Fwpg;ghfrkzrkaj;ijepWtpatUk; Kjy;
jPh;j;jq;fuUkhdghh;rtehjh;>filrpAk; 24 tJjPhj
; ;jq;fuUkhdkfhtPuh; MfpNahhpd; tuyhWfs; ,jpy;
,lk; ngw;Ws;sd. ,e;E}ypd; Mrphpauhff; fUjg;gLk; gj;ughF>re;jpuFg;jnkshpaNuhLik#Uf;Fg;
Gyk;ngah;e;J (Vwj;jhofp.K 296) gpd; mq;NfNaFbakh;e;jhh;.
tpfhuhvDk; rk];fpUjr; nrhy;Yf;F‘tho;tplk;’my;yJ‘,y;yk;’vd;WnghUs;. njhlf;fj;jpy;

Rw;wpaiye;JjphpAk; Jwtpfs; ,tw;iwkiof;fhyq;fspd; NghJjq;Fkplq;fshfg; gad;gLj;jpdh;.
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fy;tpikaq;fshfkhw;wk; ngw;wd. murh;fs; mspj;jMjutpdhy; ,];yhkpaMl;rpf;FKe;ija
,e;jpah>gytpfhiufisf; nfhz;lehlhftpsq;fpaJ. mitgy;fiyf;foff;
fy;tpiatoq;fpaNjhL>Gdpj E}y;fspd; fUT+yr; Nrfuq;fshfTk; jpfo;e;jd. ehse;jhitg;
Nghd;Nwgytpfhiufs; cyfg;Gfo; ngw;witahFk;.
2011 Mk; Mz;Lkf;fs;njhiff; fzf;nfLg;gpd;gbjkpo;ehl;by; rkzh;fspd; vz;zpf;if 83>359

MFk;. nkhj;jkf;fs; njhifapy; ,J 0.12 tpOf;fhlhFk;.
epyr;re;jp : ,uz;Lkpfg; nghpaepyg;gFjpfis ,izf;Fk; rpwpaJz;L.

ePh;r;re;jp : ,uz;LnghpaePh; gug;Gfis ,izf;Fk; rpwpaePh; gug;G

myF 1 fz;lq;fisMuha;jy; - tlmnkhpf;fhkw;Wk; njd; mnkhpf;fh
gy ,aq;Fk; vhpkiyfisnfhz;Ls;sjhy; fhh;by; nyuh];>grpgpf; neUg;Gtisaj;jpd; xu;

gFjpahffUjg;gLfpwJ. ,g;gFjpepymjph;TfisAk; mbf;fbvjph; nfhs;fpwJ.
z;lq;fSk; mjd; caukhdrpfuq;fSk;

Mrpah : vtnu];l; rpfuk; (8848 kP) INuhg;gh : vy;gu]; rpfuk; (5642
kP)
njd; mnkhpf;fh : mfhd;fhFth (6961 kP) mz;lhh;bfh : tpd;rd;
khrpg;rpfuk;(4892 kP)
tlmnkhpf;fh : nkf;nfd;yr
P pfuk; (6194 kP M];jpNuypah : fh];fpA+];Nfhrpfuk;(2228kP)
Mg;gphpf;fh : fpskQ;rhNuh (5895 kP)
fpuhz;l; Nfd;ahd; (Grand Canyon) vd;gJmnkhpf;fhtpd; mhpNrdhkhfhzj;jpy;

nfhyuhNlhMw;wpdhy; cUthf;fg;gl;lnrq;Fj;jhdgf;fq;fisf;
nfhz;lkpfMokhdgs;sj;jhf;FMFk;.;
“nghpaNrw;W MW”vd;w Gidg; ngaUld; kp]p]pg;gp MW miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

,Jkiyfspd; fPNogha;e;JtUk; NghJkz;izAk; Nrw;iwAk; jd;NdhL ,Oj;JtUtjhy; ,jw;F
,g;ngah; toq;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Nkw;fj;jpafhw;Wfs; my;yJvjph; th;f;ffhw;Wfs; 300Kjy;

600tiuapyhdkj;jpaml;rf;Nfhl;Lg; gFjpapy; Nkw;fpypUe;Jfpof;fhftPRk; epiyahdfhw;Wfs; MFk;.
fpuhz;l; Ngq;f; : cyfpd; Kf;fpanghpakw;Wk; tskhd

,aw;iftsq;fisnfhz;lJfpuhz;l; Ngq;f;. ,q;FkPd; kw;Wk; ngl;NuhypagbTfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

t.vz; ehL kf;fs;njhif mlh;j;jp

(kpy;ypadpy;)
1 mnkhpf;fh 327.16 30 egh;fs;
2 fdlh 36.95 3 egh;fs;
3 nkf;]pNfh 123.00 51 egh;fs;
fdpkk; fpilf;Fk; ,lk;

,Uk;Gj;jhJ fdbad; ~Py;l;>fpNul; VhpgFjp>mg;gNy~pad; cah; epyq;fs;>kj;jpamyghkhkw;Wk;
kpdNrl;lh
jhkpuk; fpNul;
VhpgFjp>mhpNrhdh>cjh>Gjpankf;rpNfh>eptlh>Nkhd;lhdh>uhf;fpkiyfs;>xd;lhhpNahkw;Wk;
gphpl;b~; nfhyk;gpah
nts;sp eptlh>cjh>gphpl;b~;>nfhyk;gpah>xd;lhhpNahkw;Wk; fpA+ngf;
jq;fk; fdlh–xd;lhhpNah>fpA+ngf;>mnkhpf;fh>fypNghh;dpah>nfhyuhNlh>cjh>eptlh
epyf;fhp mg;gNy~pad;>ngd;rpy;Ntdpah>x`pNah>myghkh>my;gh;lhkw;Wk; nfhyk;gpah
ngl;Nuhypak; mnkhpf;fh–myh];fhtpypUe;Jnlf;rh]; tiufdlhkw;Wk; nkf;]pNfh
vz;nza; kj;jpajho; epyq;fs;>tisFlhflw;fiugFjpfs;>uhf;fpkiyfs;>mg;gNy~pad; kw;Wk;
kw;Wk; myh];fh
,aw;ifvhpthA
v];fpNkhf;fs; fLk; Fsph; kw;Wk; tho;tjw;FfbdkhdgFjpfspy; vq;FkPdf

; s; mjpfk;
fpilf;fpwNjh>mq;Ftho;fpwhh;fs;. tpyq;Ffspd; nkd;ikahdKbfshy; Md cilfiscLj;jp
,/Y}f;fspy; tho;fpwhh;fs;. Rw;Wr;#oiynghpJk; khw;wpmikf;f ,ayhjepiyapy; ,th;fs;
vspatho;f;ifiatho;fpwhh;fs;. gdpf;fl;bfisnfhz;L ,th;fs; fl;Lk; tPLfSf;F ,/f;Y}
vd;Wngah;.
gdhkhfhy;tha; : 1914 y; gdhkhepyr;re;jpapd; FWf;Nf 80 fpNyhkPl;lh;

ePsj;jpw;Fml;yhz;bf; ngUq;fliyAk; grpgpf; ngUq;fliyAk; ,izf;Fk; tpjkhfgdhkhfhy;tha;
ntl;lg;gl;lJ.
mNkrhd; njd; mnkhpf;fhtpd; kpfg;nghpaepykhFk;. mjpy; ghAk; ePhpd; msTkw;Wk;

mjd; tbepygug;GMfpatw;iwf; nfhz;Lcyfpd; kpfg;nghpatbfhy; mikg;ghftpsq;FfpwJ
njd; mnkhpf;fehLfspy; gy;NtWtifahd ,irfs; cs;sd. mh;n[d;bdhitr;

Nrh;e;jNlq;Nfhkw;Wk; cUFNtkw;Wk; nfhyk;gpahitr; Nrh;e;jFk;gpahMfpaitkpfTk;
gpugykhdtiffspy; mlq;Fk;.

v];lhd;rpah]; : fhy;eilfs; tsUk; ngUk; Gy;ntspgug;Gfs; v];l;nld;~d;

vdmiof;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,it rpwpaGy;ntspjsq;fshfgphpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,it NkYk;
guhkhpg;Gjsq;fshfgphpf;fg;gl;L ,q;Ffhy;eilfs; juk; gphpj;JKj;jpiu ,lg;gLfpd;wd.
‘v];lhd;rpahNu’vdg;gLk; v];lhd;rpahguhkhpg;ghshpd; fPo; ‘ft;Nrh’vdg;gLk; Ntiyahl;fs;
Ntiynra;fpd;wdh;.
myF 2 epytiuglj;ijfw;wwpjy;
Muk;gfhyq;fspy; fhfpjj;Njhy; (tpyq;Ffspd; Njhy;)>ghg;gpu]; (Papyrus),

Jzpfs;><uepyk; kw;Wk; fspkz; gytiffs; epytiuglk; jahhpf;fgad;gLj;jg;gl;ld.
epytiuglq;fs;
msitapd; mbg;gilapy; fUj;jpd; mbg;gilapy;
nghpamsitt rpwpamsitti ,aw;ifmikg;G fyhr;rhumikg;

iuglk; uglk; G
epytiuglj;ijcUthf;Fk; mwptpay; vd;gJfhh;lN ; lhfpuh/gp vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

fhh;Nl(Carte) vd;gJepytiuglk;>fpuhgpf; (Gaphic) vd;gJtiujy;
epytiuglj;ijtiue;JcUthf;Fgth; fhh;Nlhfpuh/gh; (Cartographer) Mth;.

kpd;dDtiuglq;fs; (Digital Maps) vd;gJcyfk; KOtJk; mike;Js;sGtpapay;

gFjpfs; kw;Wk; jyq;fisf; Fwpj;Jmjpfg;gbahdjfty;fistoq;Fk; tiyjsNritg;gFjpMFk;.
myF3 ,aw;if ,lh;fs; - Nghplh;

Nyhz;ikeltbf;iffisGhpe;Jnfhs;Sjy;
t.vz; Nghplhpd; tif Mjhuk; epfo;Tfs;

1 ,aw;ifg; Gtpcl;gFjpapy; epyeLf;fk;>Rdhkpkw;Wk; vhpkiyntbg;Gfs;
Nghplh; GtpNkw;gug;gpy; epyr;rhpTkw;Wk; gdpr;rhpT
thdpiyMa;T / Gay;fhw;W> #whtsp>gdpkiokw;Wk; nts;sk;
ePh; tsk;
Rfhjhuk; njhw;WNeha;fs;
2 r%fnjhopy;El;gk; njhopy;El;g>Nghf;Ftuj;JNguopTfs;>fl;likg;GrhpTkw;Wk;
cw;gj;jptPo;r;rpfs;
Nghh; Njrpakw;Wk; rh;tNjrmstpy;
Rdhkpvd;wnrhy; [g;ghdpanrhy;ypypUe;Jngwg;gl;lJMFk;. R (Tsu) vd;gJJiwKfk;

vd;Wk; dhkp(name) vd;gJmiyfs; vdTk; nghUs;gLk;.
myF 1 ngz;fs; Nkk;ghL
ekJvjph;fhyk; ngz;fiscjhrPdg;gLj;JNthh; ifapypy;iy. mJekJkfd;fisg; Nghy;

gs;spf;Ff; fy;tpfw;fr;nry;Yk; ekJkfs;fspd; fdTfspy; cs;sJ. mth;fNs ,t;Tyfpy;
jhq;fpepw;Fk; ty;yikf; nfhz;lth; vdKd;dhs; mnkhpf;f [dhjpgjpguhf; xghkhIf;fpaehLfspd;
nghJrigapy;> 2012 Mk; Mz;Lciuahw;Wk; NghJ $wpdhh;.
rhtpj;hpgha; GNyghuk;ghpaj;ijcilj;jKjy; ngz;fs; gs;spapd; Kjy; ngz; Mrphpah; Mthh;.

ngz;fs; fy;tpiagw;wpNgRk;Nghnjy;yhk; epidtpy; tUgth;. ,e;jpahtpy; ngz;
fy;tpianray;tbtkhff;pa N[hjpuht;GNy>rhtpj;hpghapd; fzth; Mthh;. ,th;fs; ,UtUk;
ngz;fSf;fhdKjy; gs;spia 1848 Mk; Mz;Lnjhlq;fpdh;.

Nkk;ghl;bw;fhdKf;fpafhuzpfs; :
1. fy;tp : xUtUf;FmwpTG+h;tkhfr; rpe;jpf;Fk; jpwd; kw;Wk;
jdpj;jd;iktha;e;jKbTfisvLf;fcjTfpwJ.
2. ghypdg;ghFghL : ghypdg;ghFghLghh;f;Fk; r%fk; vf;fhyj;jpYk;
Kd;NdWtjw;fhdtha;g;GmhpJ.
3. rhjp> ,d>rkaghFghLfismbg;gilahff; nfhz;lr%fk; Kd;Ndw;wk; milahJ.
Kjy; ngz; ngah; ehL

gpujkke;jphp rpwpkhNthgz;lhuehaf; ,yq;if
tpz;ntsp thnyz;bdhnjNu~;Nfhth Nrhtpaj; xd;wpak;
vtnu];l; rpfuj;ijmstpl;lth; [d;NfhjNg [g;ghd;
xypk;gpf;fpy; jq;fk; ntd;wth; rhh;Nyhl; $g;gh; ,q;fpyhe;J
t.vz; kf;fs; egh;fs; Mz;fs; ngz;fs; Mz;/ngz;

njhiffzf;nfLg;GMz;L fy;tpawpT
,ilntsptPjk;
1 1951 18.33 27.16 8.86 18.30
2 1961 28.3 40.4 15.35 25.05
3 1971 34.45 45.96 21.97 23.98
4 1981 43.57 56.38 29.76 26.62
5 1991 52.21 64.13 39.29 24.84
6 2001 64.83 75.26 53.67 21.59
7 2011 74.04 82.14 65.46 16.68
myF– 2 re;ijkw;Wk; Efh;Nthh; ghJfhg;G
“tpw;gidnra;ag;gl;lnghUs; jpUk;gg; ngwg;glkhl;lhJ” (my;yJ) “nghUl;fiskhw;w

,ayhJ” (my;yJ) “ve;jr; #oypYk; gzk; jpUg;gpj;juglkhl;lhJ” ,J
Kiwaw;wtzpfeltbf;ifkw;Wk; rl;lhPjpahdeltbf;iff;FVw;wjy;y.
vl;Lmbg;gilahdEfh;Nthh; chpikfs;
1. mbg;gilj; NjitfSf;fhdchpik 2. ghJfhg;Gf;fhdchpik
3. jfty; mwpAk; chpik 4. Njh;e;njLf;Fk; chpik 5. gpujpepjpj;Jtchpik
6. FiwjPh;f;Fk; chpik 7. Efh;Nthh; fy;tpkw;Wk; chpik
8. J}a;ikahdRW;Wg;Gwr; #oiyg; ngWtjw;fhdchpik

Kf;fpakhdrl;lq;fs; :
1. Efh;Nthh; ghJfhg;Grl;lk;> 1986 2. rl;lmstPl;Lrl;lk;> 2009
3. ,e;jpajueph;zagzpafk;> 1986 4. mj;jpahtrpanghUl;fs; rl;lk;> 1955
5. fWg;Gre;ijg;gLj;Jjy; jLg;Gkw;Wk; mj;jpahtrpag; nghUl;fspd; guhkhpg;G
6. nghUl;fspd; rl;lk;> 1980
myF– 3 rhiyg; ghJfhg;G
fhh;G+ypq; xt;nthUtUk; xU,lj;jpw;Ftof;fkhfkfpOe;jpy; nry;Yk;NghJme;j

,lj;jpw;FmjpfkhdkfpOe;JnrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,ijjtph;f;fkfpOe;jpy; gazg;
gfph;TNkw;nfhz;LxUFwpg;gpl;l ,lj;jpw;FmjpfkfpOe;Jnry;tijjLj;jy;.
xNugFjpapypUe;Njhmy;yJxNutopj;jlj;jpy; jpde;NjhWk; kfpOe;Jmy;yJ
,Urf;futhfdj;jpy; nry;gth;fs; mNj ,lj;jpw;Nfhmy;yJmNjjlj;jpy; nry;gth;fiscld;
mioj;Jr; nry;tNjfhh;G+ypq; MFk;.
uf;~h ghJfhg;ghdthfd ,af;fk; : uf;~h xUjhdpaq;fpfUtp. ,Jthfdj;jpy;

nghUj;jg;gl;Lthfdk; jw;NghJvq;Fcs;sJvd;gijAk;>thfdj;jpd; ,ae;jpuj;jpd;
nray;ghl;bidfz;fhzpf;fTk;>thfdj;jpd; gjl;lepiyiaAk; cldbahfntspg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
myF– 1 thpkw;Wk; mjd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
Mlk; ];kpj;jpd; ehy;tifahdthptpjpg;Gf; Nfhl;ghLfs;

1. rkj;Jtg; gFjp 2. cWjpg;ghl;Ltpjp 3. trjptpjp 4. rpf;fdtpjp
kj;jpatUkhdr; rl;lk; 1963 ,d; fPo; ‘Neh;KfthpfSf;fhdkj;jpatUtha;

thhpak;’vd;Dk; ngahpy; jdpthhpak; (CBDT) xd;WepWtg;gl;Ls;sJ.

thpapd; tiffs;
muRf;FNeubahfr; nrYj;jg;gLk; thp cw;gj;jpmy;yJtpw;gidf;fhfg; nghUs;

kw;Wk; NritkPJtpjpf;fg;gLk; thp
Neh;Kfthp kiwKfthp
 tUkhdthp  nghOJNghf;Fthp
 gj;jpughpth;j;jdthp
 nry;tthp
 Rq;fthp
 epWtdthp  kjpg;G $l;Lthp
 %yjdMjhathp  fyhy; thp
 gj;jpughpth;j;jdthp  tpw;gidthp
 Mlk;guthp
Neh;Kfthp kiwKfthp
thpnrYj;JNthh; xUth;>jkf;Ftpjpf;fg;gl;lthpr;RikiakpfvspjhfNtnwhUtUf;Fkhw;w
jkf;Ftpjpf;fg;gl;lthpr;Rikiag; ,aYk;
gpwUf;Fkhw;w ,ayhJ
jdpahs; kw;Wk; epWtdq;fs; gy;ntWnghUs; kw;Wk; Nritfspd; kPJthptpjpf;fg;gLfpwJ
ngWk; tUkhdq;fs;
kPJthptpjpf;fg;gLfpwJ
gztPf;fmOj;jk; ,y;iy gztPf;fmOj;jk; cz;L
thpj; jhf;fKk; thpepfo;Tk; thpj; jhf;fKk; thpepfo;Tk; ntt;Ntwhfcs;sd
rkkhfcs;sd
nefpo;Tj; jd;ikFiwT nefpo;Tj; jd;ikmjpfk;
Rq;fthpAk; rhiythpAk; : murhy; Nkk;gLj;jg;gl;lcs;fl;likg;Gtrjpfisehk;

mbf;fbgad;gLj;JfpNwhk;. mjw;fhftpjpf;fg;gLk; thp>Rq;fk; kw;Wk; rhiythpfshFk;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhfehk; gad;Lgj;Jk; rhiyfs; kw;Wk; ghyq;fs; Nghd;wtw;iwf; $wyhk;. rhiy/ ghyk;
trjpfspd; guhkhpg;Gg; gzpf;fhfTk; Fwpg;gpl;ljpl;lq;fisr; nray;gLj;Jtjw;fhfTk; ,t;thpfs;
nghJkf;fsplkpUe;Jt#ypf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
J}a;ikghujthp : ,e;jpamurhy; ,t;thptpjpf;fg;gLfpwJ. J}a;ikghujj;jpd; ngauhy; t#ypf;fg;gLk;
,t;thp> 2015 Mk; Mz;L>etk;gh; khjk 15 Mk; ehs; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. ,/J
midj;Jtifahdthpr; NritfSf;Fk; nghUe;Jk;. ,jd; thptpfpjk; 0.5% MFk;. jw;NghJ14 %
f;Fk; Nkw;gl;lNritthpeilKiwapy; cs;sJ.

8k;tFg;
G
c q;
fS f;
F njup
Akh ?
jfty;Ngio
rp
WJsp
ml;
ltiz fs;
kdtiug;
glq;
fs;
;
NkYk;mwp
e;
J nfhs;
Nthk;
myF– 1 tuyhW–INuhg;gpah;fspdtUif
1690 y; GdpjNltpl; Nfhl;ilMq;fpNyauhy; flY}hpy; fl;lg;gl;lJ
[hh;[; tpy;ypak; ghu];l; vd;gth; ,e;jpaNjrpaMtzf;fhg;gfj;jpd; je;ijvdmiof;fg;gLfpwhh;.
juq;fk;ghbiaNldpah;fs; lhd;];ngh;f; vdmioj;jdh;.

rPfd;ghy;Fvd;gtiunld;khh;f;fpd; murh; ,e;jpahtpw;FmDg;gpdhh;. mth; juq;fk;ghbapy; xUmr;Rf;
$lj;ijepWtpdhh;.
J}uf;fpof;FehLfSld; tzpfk; nra;Ak; Nehf;fpy; 1731 y; N[hjd;gh;f; vd;gth;

RtPld; fpof;fpe;jpafk;ngdpiaepWtpdhh;. lr;Rfpof;fpe;jpafk;ngdpMq;fpyfpof;fpe;jpafk;ngdpapd;
ntw;wpRtPld; fpof;fpe;jpafk;ngdpapd; Njhw;wj;jpw;FCf;Ftpg;ghf ,Ue;jJ.

myF– 2 th;j;jfj;jpypUe;JNguuRtiu
Mq;fpNya–ik#h; Nghh;fs;
Kjy; ,uz;lhk; %d;whk; ehd;fhk;

Mq;fpNya– Mq;fpNya–ik#H; Mq;fpNya– Mq;fpNya–
ik#H; Nghh; Nghh; ik#H; Nghh; ik#H; Nghh;
1790 - 1792 1799

1767 - 1769 1780 - 1784
fh;ehlfg; Nghh;fs;
,uz;lhk;
Kjy; fh;ehlfg; %d;whk;
fh;ehlfg; Nghh;
Nghh; fh;ehlfg; Nghh;
1749 - 1754 1756 - 1763

1746 - 1748
,Ul;liw Jaur; rk;gtk; (1756) : rpuh[; - cj; - njsyhtpd; tPuuh;fs; 146

Mq;fpNyah;fisrpiwg;gpbj;Jfy;fj;jhtpd; tpy;ypak; Nfhl;ilapy; fhw;WGfhjxUrpwpa ,Ul;liwapy;
Xh; ,uTKOtJk; milj;Jitj;jpUe;jdh;. kWehs; fhiymiwiajpwe;jNghJmth;fSs; 123 Ngh;
%r;Rjpzwp ,we;jpUe;jdh;. ,Jtuyhw;wpy;; ‘,Ul;liw Jaur; rk;gtk;’vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.

Mq;fpNyakuhj;jpag; Nghh;fs;
,uz;lhk;
Kjy; %d;whk;
Mq;fpNyakuhj;jpag;
Mq;fpNyakuhj;jp Mq;fpNyakuhj;jpag;
Nghh;
ag; Nghh; Nghh;
1803 - 1805 1817 - 1818

1775 - 1782
1863 y; Irpv]; Njh;tpy; Njh;r;rpngw;wKjy; ,e;jpah; rj;jpNae;jpuehj; jh$h;. ,th;

ftpQh; ,ugPe;juehj; jh$hpd; %j;jrNfhjuh; Mthh;.
Jizg;gilj;jjpl;lj;ijVw;Wf; nfhz;lKjy; ehLi`juhghj; (1798). mjidnjhlh;e;JVw;Wf;

nfhz;l ,e;jpamuRfs; jQ;rhT+h; (1799)>mNahj;jp (1801)> Ng~;th (1802)>Nghd;]N ; y
(1803)>Fthypah; (1804)> ,e;J}h; (1817)> n[a;G+h;>cja;G+h; kw;Wk; N[hj;G+h; (1818)
Mq;fpy ,uhZtj;jpd; typik
 gpshrpg;Nghh; 1757>INuhg;gpafhyhl;gil (1950)>INuhg;gpagPuq;fpgil (100)>Mq;fpNyakhYkpfs;

(50)> ,e;jparpg;gha;fs; (2100)>tq;fhsj;jpy; ,Ue;jMq;fpy ,uhZtk; (6000)
 1857 y; ,e;jpa ,uhZtj;jpy; 3>11>400 tPuh;fspy; 2>65>900 tPuh;fs; ,e;jpah;fshf ,Ue;jdh;.
cah; gjtpmYtyh;fs; midtUk; Mq;fpNyah;fs; Mth;.
thhpR ,og;Gf; nfhs;ifapd; %yk; ly;n`srpgpuG ,izj;Jf; nfhz;lgFjpfs; : rjhuh (1848)>

n[a;j;G+h;>rk;gy;G+h; (1849)>gfj; (1850)>cja;G+h; (1852)> [hd;rp (1853) kw;Wk; ehf;G+h; (1854)
tq;fhsj;jpd; tpy;ypak; Nfhl;ilapy; Kjy; cr;rePjpkd;w rh; vyp[h ,k;NgMthh;.

kjuh]; cah;ePjpkd;wj;jpd; Kjy; ,e;jpajiyikePjpgjp rh; jpUth&h; Kj;JrhkpMthh;.

myF– 3 fpuhkr%fKk; tho;f;if KiwAk;
Mq;fpyMl;rpapd; fPo; epytUtha; jpl;lq;fs;
epiyahdepytUtha; jpl;lk; ,uaj; thhpKiw kfy;thhpKiw
tpy;ypak; ngz;bq;
fhud;thyp]; gpuG jhk];kd;Nwh
gpuG
myF– 4 kf;fspd; Gul;rp
kj;jpa ,e;jpahtpy; Gul;rp [hd;rpia ,uhzp ,yl;Rkpgha; mth;fshy; topelj;jg;gl;lJ.

,e;jpahtpd; khngUk; Njrgf;jh;fSs; mtUk; xUth;. rh; `f;Nuh]; [hd;rpiaMf;fpukpj;jhh;.
[hd;rpapypUe;Jjg;gpa ,uhzpyl;Rkpgha; Fthypahpy; gilia
jiyikNaw;Wtopelj;jpajhe;jpahNjhNgTld; ,ize;jhh;. Mdhy; Mq;fpyg; gil [{d; 1858 y;
Fthypaiuifg;gw;wpaJ. Nghhpy; uhzpyl;Rkpgha; nfhy;yg;gl;lhh;.
jg;gpajhe;jpahNjhNgifJnra;ag;gl;L J}f;fpyplg;gl;lhh;. Mq;fpytuyhw;whrphpah;fspd; $w;Wg;gb
1857 Gul;rpapy; fye;Jnfhz;ljiyth;fspy; kpfTk; Jzpr;ryhdth; ,uhzpyl;Rkpgha; Mthh;.
fyfk; eilngw;w ,e;jpajiyth;fs; fyfj;ijmlf;fpaMq;fpNyamjpfhhpfs;

,lq;fs;
nly;yp ,uz;lhk; gfJ}h;~h [hd; epf;fy;rd;
yf;Ndh Ngfk; `];uj; kfhy; n`d;wpyhud;];
fhd;G+h; ehdhrhfpg; rh; fhypd; Nfk;ngy;
[hd;rp&Fthypah; uhzpyl;Rkpgha;>jhe;jpahNjhNg n[duy; `f;Nuh];
gnua;yp fhd; gfJ}h; fhd; rh; fhypd; Nfk;ngy;
gPfhh; fd;th; rpq; tpy;ypak; ilyh;
myF– 1 Gtpapay; - ghiwkw;Wk; kz;
,f;dpa]; (Igneous) vd;wnrhy; ,yj;jPd; nkhopapypUe;Jngwg;gl;lJ. ,f;dpa]; vd;why;

“jP”vd;WnghUs;gLk;.

ghiwapay; vd;gJ‘Gtpkz;zpaypd;’xUgphpTMFk;. ,Jghiwfs; Ma;Tld;

njhlh;GilaJ. ghiwapay; (Petrology) vd;wnrhy; fpNuf;fnkhopapypUe;Jngwg;gl;lJ.
“ngl;u];”(Petrus) vd;gJghiwfisAk; Logos “NyhNfh];”vd;gJmijg;ggw;wpgbg;GMFk;.
ghiwfs;
jPg; ghiwfs; gbTg; ghiwfs; cUkhwpag; ghiwfs;
CLUtpajPg; ntspg;Gwj; fhpkgbTg; fdpk/ ntg;gcUkh ,af;fcUkhw

ghiwfs; jPg;ghiwfs; ghiwfs; ,urhaz/ wpag; pag; ghiwfs;
ngsjPfgb ghiwfs;
Tg;
ghiwfs;
,j;jhypapy; cs;skTz;l; nt#tpa];>kTz;l; ];l;uhk;Nghypkw;Wk; kTz;l; vl;dh `tha;

jPTfspy; cs;skTdhNyhthkw;Wk; nksdhf;fpahMfpaitcyfpd; Kf;fpakhdnray;gLk;
vhpkiyfshFk;.
Fthh;li; rl; kw;Wk; ryitf; fw;fs; nghJthffl;Lkhdk; kw;Wk;

rpw;gNtiyghLfSf;Fgad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. ryitf; fw;fs;
gutyhfmofhdrpiyfs;>myq;fhunghUs;fs;>Ftis>rpwpaghpRnghUs;fs; jahhpf;fg;
gad;gLfpd;wd. ryitf;fw;fspd; Jfs;fspypUe;Jnefpop(Plastic)>fhfpjk; Nghd;wnghUs;fs;
cw;gj;jpnra;ag; gad;gLfpwJ.
xt;nthUMz;Lk; brk;gh; 5 Mk; ehs; cyfkz; ehshfnfhz;lhlg;gLfpwJ.

cyfpd; kpfg; goikahdgbTg; ghiwfs; fphPd;yhe;jpy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;ld. ,tw;wpd;

taJ 3.9 gpy;ypad; Mz;Lfs; vdkjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
gbTg; ghiwfs; epyf;fhp>vz;nza; kw;Wk; ,aw;if thA Nghd;w ,aw;iftsq;fs;

cUthf Kf;fpa MjhukhFk;.
myF– 2 thdpiyAk;>fhyepiyAk;
tspapay; vd;gJ thdpiyapd; mwptpay; gphpthFk;. Fhy epiyapay; vd;gJ fhy

epiyapd; mwptpay; gphpthFk;.
Gtpapd; tsp kz;lykhdJthAf;fshy; Md gymLf;Ffisf; nfhz;ljhFk;. ,JGtpiar;

#o;e;Js;sJ. Gtpapd; <h;gG
; tpirapdhy; thAf;fisg; Gtpapy; jf;fitj;Jf; nfhs;fpwJ. ,jpy;
78 % iel;u[Dk;>21 % Mf;]p[Dk;>0.97 % Mh;fhDk;>0.03 % fhh;gd; il Mf;i]Lk; 0.04 %
kw;wthAf;fSk; kw;Wk; ePuhtpAk; cs;sd.
epytiuglq;fspy; thdpiyf; $Wfspd; gutiyr; rkmsTf; Nfhl;Ltiuglk; %yk;

fhz;gpf;fg;gLfpwJ. rkmsTf;NfhLvd;gJrkmsTs;s ,lq;fis ,izg;gjhFk;. ,f;NfhLfs;
thdpiyf; $Wfspd; mbg;giliaf; nfhz;LmsTf;NfhLfs; ntt;NtWngah;fspy;
miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
INrhnjh;k; (Isotherm) rkntg;gf; NfhL

INrhf;iuk; (Isocryme) ruhrhprkntg;gepiyf;NfhL
INrhnfy; (Isohel) rk #hpa ntspr;rf;NfhL
Inry;Nyhghh; (Isollobar) rkfhw;wOj;jkhWghl;Lf; NfhL
INrhghh; (Isobar) rkfhw;wOj;jf; NfhL
INrhi`l;]; (Isohytes) rkkioasTf; NfhL

cyfpNyNaKjd; Kjyhffhyepiytiuglq;fspd; njhFg;ig my; -

gyh`pvd;wmNugpaehl;LGtpapay; ty;Yeh; mNugpahehl;LgazpfsplkpUt;Jfhyepiyg;
gw;wpatptuq;fisr; Nrfhpj;Jntspal;lhh;.
gpNurpypd; ngUk;gFjpapy; fhw;wpd; Ntfk; Fiwthfcs;sJ. Mg;hpf;fhtpd;

fhghd;>fhq;Nfhkw;Wk; DR fhq;Nfh>Rkj;uh> ,e;NjhNdrpah>kNyrpahMfpaitG+kpapy;
Fiwe;jfhw;WtPRk; gFjpahFk;.
fhw;wpd; mOj;jk; Fiwtjdhy; fhw;wpy; Rthrpg;gjw;fhdMf;]p[dpd; msTk;

FiwfpwJ. kpfcaukhd ,lq;fspy; fhw;wpy; Mf;]p[dpd; msTk; fhw;wpd; mOj;jKk; kpfTk;
Fiwthfcs;sJ. (mjdhy; kdpjh;fs; mq;F ,wf;ff; $Lk;). kiyNaWgth;fs;
cah;e;jrpfuq;fspy; VWk;nghOJMf;]p[id cUisapy; milj;JvLj;Jr; nry;fpd;wdh;. mth;fs;
rpwpJfhymtfhrk; vLj;Jf; nfhz;Lmjpfcauq;fSf;Fj; jk;ikgof;fg;gLj;jpf; nfhs;fpd;wdh;.
Vnddpy; mOj;jk; mjpfkhd ,lq;fspypUe;JmOj;jk; Fiwthd ,lq;fSf;Fr; nry;Yk;
nghOJ %r;Rj; jpzwy; Vw;gLk;. tpkhdq;fspy;
nraw;ifmOj;jj;ijcUthf;fpgazpfistrjpahfRthrpf;Fk;gbmikj;Js;sdh;.
cyfpy; ,Jtiugjpthdkpfmjpfgl;rmOj;jk; 1083 mb, 1968 Mk; Mz;Lbrk;gh; 31 Mk;

Njjp u~;ahtpy; cs;s“mfhl;”vd;w ,lj;jpy; fly; kl;lj;jpy; gjpthdJ. cyfpd;
,Jtiugjpthdkpff; Fiwe;jmOj;jk; 870 mb, 1929 brk;gh; 12 Mk; Njjpgrpgpf; ngUq;flypy;
cs;skhpahdhjPtpw;FmUfpy; cs;s“Fthk;”vd;w fly; gFjpapy; cUthdilG+dpd; fz; gFjpapy;
gjpthdjhFk;.
mjpfgl;rntg;gepiy/ Fiwthdntg;gepiy
Gtpapy; ,Jtiu gjpthd kpf mjpf gl;r ntg;gepiy 56.70C (1340 F) . ,J 1913 Mk;
Mz;L [{iy 10 Mk; ehs; mnkhpf;f If;fpaehl;bd; fypNghh;dpahtpYs;s
fphPdy
; he;Jkiyj;njhlh; (kuzg; gs;sj;jhf;F) vd;w ,lj;jpy; gjpthfpAs;sJ.
,JtiugjpthdFiwe;jgl;rntg;gepiy(-89.20C) (-128.60F 184.0K) ,J 1983 Mk; Mz;L

[{iy 21 Mk; ehs; mz;lhh;bfhtpy; cs;sNrhtpaj; Nth];lf; epiyaj;jpy; gjpthfpAs;sJ.

myF– 3 ePhpay; Row;rp
ePh; Mjhuk; ePhpd; fdmsT nkhj;jePhpy; rjtPjk;

(Cubic miles)
Nguhopfs;>fly;fs; kw;Wk; Flhf;fs; 321>000>000 96.54
gdpkiyfs;>gdpahWfs;>epiyahdciwgdp 8>773>000 1.74
epyj;jbePh; 5>614>000 1.69
kz;zpd; <ug;gjk; 3>959 0.001
epyg;gFjpapy; fhzg;Lk; epue;jugdpf;fl;b 71>970 0.022
Vhpfs; 42>320 0.013
tspkz;lyk; 3>095 0.001
rJg;GepyePh; 2>752 0.0008
MWfs; 509 0.0002
caphpay; ePh; 269 0.000
1. ePh; RUq;Fjy; vd;gJePuhtpfhw;wpy; nrwpe;JG+hpjepiyiamiltJ.

2. ntg;gf;fhw;WFsph;e;jfhw;iwtplmjpfePuhtpiaj; jf;fitj;Jf; nfhs;Sk;
3. ntg;gepiyFiwAk; nghOJfhw;WG+HpjepiyiamilfpwJ.
Mtpahjy; tpfpjk; mjpfhpj;jyhdJ

1. fhw;wpd; Ntfk; mjpfhpf;Fk; nghOJ 2. ntg;gepiyFiwAk; nghOJ
3. <ug;gjk; FiwAk; nghOJ 4. G+kpapy; ePh; epiyfs; mjpfhpf;Fk; nghOJ
myF– 1 Fbikapay; -
khepymuRvt;thWnray;gLfpwJ
FbauRj; jiyth; khepyMSeiuepakpf;Fk; NghJkj;jpamikr;ruitapd;

MNyhridapd;gbnray;gLfpwhh;. NkYk; njhlh;GilakhepymuirAk; fye;jhNyhrpf;fpwhh;.
nghJthfxUth; MSeuhfmtuJnrhe;jkhepyj;jpy; epakpf;fg;gLtJ ,y;iy.

myF– 2 Fbkf;fSk; FbAhpikAk;
,e;jpaf; FbAhpikr; rl;lk; 1955 : ,e;jpaf; Fbkfd;

jd;DilaFbAhpikiangWjiyAk;>ePf;FjiyAk; gw;wpatpjpfis ,r;rl;lk; $WfpwJ
ehl;Lhpikkw;Wk; FbAhpik : G+h;tPfk;>gpwg;Gkw;Wk; ,dk; Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy;

xUFwpg;gpl;lehl;bdh; ,ay;ghfngWk; epiyehl;Lhpikvdg;GLk;.
rl;leilKiwfSf;Fcl;gl;LxUehl;bd; murhq;fj;jhy;
jdpxUtUf;Ftoq;fg;gLtJFbAhpikvdg;gLk;.
xUth; jdJehl;Lhpikiakhw;wKbahJ. Mdhy; jdJFbAhpikiakhw;wKbAk;.
Kd;Dhpikthpirg;gbFBauRjiyth; ehl;bd; Kjy; Fbkfd; Mthh;.
xUehl;bd; Fbkf;fs; my;yhjth;fis ,uz;Ltifapduhfehk; miof;fpd;Nwhk; mit
1. me;epah; (Alien) : xUehl;by; trpf;Fk; Fbkfdhfmyy;hjmidtUk; me;epah; vdg;gLth;.

cjhuzk; :ntspehl;LRw;Wyhg; gazpfs;>ntspehl;Lkhzth;fs;
2. FbNawpath;(Immigrant) :xUehl;by; vt;tpjjilAk; ,d;wpepue;jukhftrpg;gjw;Fk;>gzp
Ghptjw;Fk; chpikngWk; me;epah; FbNawpath; vdg;gLfpwhh;.
ntspehl;Ltho; ,e;jpah; jpdk; (gputhrpghujpajpdk;) : ,e;jpamurpd; ntspAwTk;

Jiwmikr;rfj;jhy; ,uz;LMz;LfSf;FxUKiwgputhrpghujpajpdk; nfhz;lhlg;gLfpwJ.
,e;jjpdk; ,e;jpahtpd; tsh;rr
; pf;fhfntspehl;by; trpf;Fk; ,e;jpah;fspd; gq;fspg;gpidngWk;
tifapy; nfhz;lhlg;gLfpwJ. ,Jkfhj;khfhe;jpnjd; Mg;gphpf;fhtpypUe;J
,e;jpahtpw;FtUifGhpe;jjpdkhd [dthp 9 Mk; ehs; nfhz;lhlg;gLfpwJ.

myF– 1 nghUspay; - gzk;>Nrkpg;Gkw;Wk; KjyPLfs;
cNyhfgzj;jpd; tuyhW : jq;fk;>nts;sp>ntz;fyk; Nghd;w tpiy kjpg;gw;w cNyhfq;fs;

cNyhf gzkhf gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld. cNyhfj;jpd; epiyahd vil kw;Wk; Jy;ypak; Fwpg;ghf
jq;fk;>nts;sp Mfpait Kj;jpiuAld; ghpkhw;w fUtpahf nray;gl;lJ. mitfs;
ntt;NtWgphpTfshf>vspjhfgphpg;gjw;Fk;>vLj;Jnry;tjw;Fk;>nrYj;Jtjw;Fk; trjpahf ,Ue;jd.
gz;ilatuyhw;WMrphpauhdn`NuhNlhl]; fp.K 8 Mk; E}w;whz;by; ypbahtpd; Nguurh; kplh];
cNyhfehzaj;ijfz;Lgpbj;jhh;. Mdhy; ypbahittplgyE}w;whz;Lfshf ,e;jpahtpy;
jq;fehzaq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;ld. cyfehzaq;fs; ntspaPl;lhh;fspy; rPdhkw;Wk;
kj;jpafpof;FypbahTld; gz;ila ,e;jpahTk; cs;sd. ,e;jpahtpy; fp.K 6 Mk; E}w;whz;by;
Kjd; Kiwahfk`h[dgjq;fs; Ml;rpapy; G+uzh];>fh;~gzk;>gdh]; Nghd;wehzaq;fs;
mr;rbf;fg;gl;ld.
jq;fk;>nts;sp>jhkpuk; my;yJ<ak; Nghd;wehzaq;fisnksphpah;fs; Jisapl;Lntspapl;ldh;.

,e;jpafpNuf;fF~hzmurh;fs; fpNuf;fkuGg;gbrpj;jpuq;fs;
nghwpf;fg;gl;lehzaq;fismwpKfg;gLj;jpdh;. 12 tJE}w;whz;by; nly;ypJUf;fpRy;jhd;fs;
jq;fs; ehzaq;fspy; ,e;jpamurh;fspd; cUtj;ijePf;fp
,];yhkpavOj;Jf;fisnghwpj;Jntspapl;ldh;. jq;fk;>nts;spkw;Wk; jhkpuj;jhy; Md
ehzaq;fislhq;fhvd;Wk;>kjpg;GFiwe;jehzaq;fis [pl;lhy; vd;Wk; mioj;jdh;.
1526 y; ,Ue;jKfyharhk;uh[;ak; KO rhk;uh[;aj;jpw;fhdgztpay;
KiwiaxUq;fpizj;Jk;> ,e;jrfhg;jghpzhkgztsh;r;rpapy; nrh;~h #hp>
`PkhA+idNjhw;fbj;JMl;rpapy; ,Ue;jNghJ 178 fpuhk;
vilAs;snts;spehzaj;ijgpugyg;gLj;jpaJ. Mdhy; 1717 y; Kfyhag; Nguurh;
ghUf;~hah;>Mq;fpNyah;fSf;FKfyhagzehzaj;ijgk;gha; mr;rfj;jpy;
mr;rbf;fmDkjpmspj;jdh;. Mq;fpyjq;f ehzaq;fs; fNuhypdh vd;Wk;>nts;spehzaq;fis
VQ;rypdh vd;Wk;>nrk;G ehzaq;fisf g;&d; vd;Wk; kw;Wk; ntz;fyehzaj;ij bd;dp vdTk;
mioj;jdh;.
gzj;jpd; (&gha;) FwpaPL : ,e;jpa&gha; FwpaPLjkpo;ehl;by; cs;stpOg;Guk; khtl;lj;ijr;

Nrh;e;jjpU. cjaFkhh; vd;gtuhy; tbtikf;fg;gl;lJ. ,J 15 [{iy 2010 md;W ,e;jpamurhy;
mq;ff P hpf;fg;gl;lJ
gztPf;fk; kw;Wk; gzthl;lk; :
 gztPf;fk; vd;gJtpiyfs; cah;e;J>gzj;jpd; kjpg;GtPo;r;rpailtijFwpf;Fk;.

 gzthl;lk; vd;gJtpiyfs; Fiwe;Jgzj;jpd; kjpg;Gcah;tijf; Fwpf;Fk;
gzk; kjpg;gpog;G : 2016 etk;gh; 8 Mk; Njjp ,e;jpahtpy; ,e;jpamurhq;fk;

fUg;Ggzj;jpw;Fvjpuhfmidj;J&. 500 kw;Wk; &. 1000
Nehl;Lf;fisgzkjpg;gpog;Gnra;tjhfmwptpj;jJ.

Nrkpg;Gkw;Wk; KjyPLfs; - xg;gPL

xg;gPlb
; d; Nrkpg;G KjyPL
mbg;gil
nghUs; Nrkpg;Gvd;gJjdpegh; tUkhdj;jpy; KjyPLvd;gJ %yjdnrhj;Jf;fspy;
Efh;tpw;fhfgad;gLj;jg;glhjxUgFjpNa epjpKjyPLnra;Ak;
ahFk;. nray;KiwiaFwpf;fpwJ
Nehf;fk; Nrkpg;GFWfpafhymy;yJmtrufhyNji %yjdcUthf;fj;jpw;Fk;>tUtha;fF; k;
tfisepiwNtw;Wk; KjyPLcjTfpwJ.
,lh;ghL Fiwe;jmy;yJGwf;fzpf;fg;gl;lmsT kpfmjpfk;
tUtha; ,y;iymy;yJFiwT xg;gPll
; stpy; mjpfk;
ePh;ikjd;i mjpfePh;ik Fiwe;jePh;ik
k
myF–1 ,e;jpahtpy; fy;tptsh;r;rp
gz;ila ,e;jpaefukhf ,Ue;jjl;rrPyk; jw;NghJtlNkw;Fghfp];jhdpy; cs;sJ.

,JxUKf;fpakhdnjhy;nghUs; Muha;rr ; pg; gFjpahFk;. ,jid 1980 ,y;
And];Nfh>cyfghuk;ghpaj; jskhfmwptpj;jJ. rhzf;fpah; jdJmh;j;jrh];jpuj;ij
,g;gy;fiyf;fofj;jpy; jq;fpapUe;JnjhFj;jjhf $wg;gLtJ ,jd; rpwg;ghFk;. 19 Mk;
E}w;whz;bd; kj;jpapy; ,g;gy;fiyf;fofj;jpd; ,bghLfisnjhy;nghUs; Muha;rr; pahsh;
mnyf;]hz;lh; fd;dpq;fhk; fz;Lgpbj;jhh;.
gz;ilafhyj;jpy; ehse;jhgy;fiyf;fofk; fp.gp (ngh.M) 5 Mk; E}w;whz;LKjy; fp.gp

(ngh.M) 12 Mk; E}w;whz;Ltiufw;wypd; ikakhf ,Ue;jJ. jw;NghijagPfhhpy; cs;s
uh[fpUfj;jpy; mike;Js;sehse;jhgy;fiyf;fofk; cyfpd; goikahdgy;fiyf;fofq;fspy;
xd;whFk;. ehse;jhkfhtpfhuhtpd; ,bghLfis I.eh rigapd; And];Nfh(UNESCO) epWtdk;
cyfghuk;ghpajskhfmwptpj;Js;sJ. jw;NghJGJg;gpf;fg;gl;Ls;sehse;jhgy;fiyf;fofk;
ehfhpfq;fSf;fpilapyhdnjhlh;GikakhffUjg;gLfpwJ.
1813 ,y; fpof;fpe;jpaepWtdk; ,e;jpah;fspd;

fy;tpf;fhdnghWg;igcWjpg;gLj;jeph;ge;jpf;fg;gl;lJ. 1813 Mk; Mz;bd; gl;lar; rl;lk;>
,e;jpahtpy; fy;tpiaNkk;gLj;Jtjw;fhfMz;LNjhWk; 1 ,yl;rk; &gha;
njhifiatoq;Ftjw;fhdVw;ghl;ilr; nra;jJ.

,ilf;fhyj;jpy; gyrkaklq;fSk; klhyaq;fSk; fy;tptsh;r;rpf;fhfepWtg;gl;ld.

=uq;fj;jpy; cs;smN`hgpyklk; mtw;Ws; xd;whFk;. mq;F =uhkhD[h;
fy;tpf;fhfjd;DilaFwpg;gplj;jf;fgq;fspg;igtoq;fpAs;shh;. klhyaf; fy;tpjtpurkzg;
gs;spfSk; kw;Wk; ngsj;jtpfhuq;fSk; kf;fSf;Ffy;tptoq;Ftjpy; Kf;fpagq;fhw;wpd.
midj;JJiwfisr; rhh;e;jGj;jfq;fs; nfhz;l E}yfj;jpidmitfs; ngw;wpUe;jd.
thh;jhfy;tpj; jpl;lk; (1937) : 1937 Mk; Mz;Lgpugykhdmbg;gilf; fy;tpj;

jpl;lkhdthh;jhfy;tpj; jpl;lj;ijfhe;jpabfs; mbg;gilf; fy;tpj; jpl;lj;jpd;
mr;rhzpahfmfpk;irnfhs;if ,Ue;jJ. mf;fy;tpj; jpl;lj;jpd; %yk; mfpk;irf;
nfhs;ifiavjph;fhyFbkf;fspilNaNkk;gLj;jmth; tpUk;gpdhh;. mjd; %yk;
td;Kiwaw;wrKjhaj;ijcUthf;FtJmtrpankdfUjpdhh;. fhe;jpabfs; ,j;jpl;lj;jpd; %yk;
Ruz;liyAk;>r%fikag;gLj;JjiyAk;
ePf;fptpl;Ltd;Kiwaw;wr%fepiyiacUthf;ftpUk;gpdhh;.
cl;]; fy;tpmwpf;if (1854) ,e;jahtpy; Mq;fpyf; fy;tpapd; “kfhrhrdk;”vd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ.

Vnddpy; midj;Jepiyfspy; cs;skf;fSf;Fk; fy;tpiatoq;Fk;>Mq;fpyfy;tpf; nfhs;ifapd;
Kjy; mwpf;if ,JthFk;. Mdhy; ,J ,e;jpah;fspd; nfhs;iffisAk; fyhr;rhuj;ijAk;
tpyf;fpitj;Jkhepyf; fy;tpapd; kPJKOikahdfl;Lg;ghl;ilVw;gLj;jpaJ.
1976 Mk; Mz;Lbrk;gh; tiufy;tpj;Jiwkhepyg; gl;baypy; ,Ue;jJ. Mdhy;

jw;NghJfy;tpj;JiwnghJg; gl;baypy; ,lk; ngw;Ws;sJ.
myF–1 ,e;jpahtpy; njhopyfq;fspd; tsh;r;rp
lhf;fhtpd; k];ypd; Milfs; : fp.K (ngh.M.K) 2000 Mk; Mz;Lfs; goikahdkk;kpfs; kpfr;
rpwe;jjuk; tha;e;j ,e;jpa k];ypd; Milfs; nfhz;LRw;wg;gl;lbUe;jJfz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. 50
kPl;lh; msTnfhz;lnky;ypa ,e;j k];ypd; JzpiaxUjPg;ngl;bf;Fs; mlf;fptplyhk;.
jhjhgha; nesNuh[papd; nry;tr; Ruz;ly; Nfhl;ghL : Mq;fpNyah;fs; ,e;jpahtpd;

tsq;fisRuz;LtJk; ,e;jpahtpd; nry;tq;fisgphpl;lDf;Fnfhz;Lnry;tJNk ,e;jpakf;fspd;
tWikf;Ffhuzk; vd;gijKjypy; Vw;Wf; nfhz;lth; jhjhgha; nesNuh[p Mthh;

njhopyftifg;ghL
 %yg;nghUl;fs; mbg;gilapy; njhopy;fisNtshz; mbg;gilapyhditkw;Wk;

fdpkmbg;gilapyhditvdtifg;gLj;jyhk;.
 njhopyfq;fs; mitfspd; gq;fspg;gpd;gbmbg;gilnjhopy;fs; kw;Wk; Kf;fpanjhopy;fs;
vdTk; tifg;gLj;jyhk;.
 njhopy; chpkj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; nghJj;Jiw>jdpahh; Jiwkw;Wk; $l;LwTj;
Jiwvdnjhopyfq;fistifg;gLj;jyhk;.
myF–1 ,lk; ngah;jy; kw;Wk; efukakhjy;
,Ofhuzpfs; (Pull Factos) ce;Jfhuzpfs; (Push Factors)

,aw;iffhuzpfs;
,lh; Fiwthfcs;skz;lyq;fs; ,lh; ghjpf;Fk; kz;lyq;fs;
cfe;jfhyepiy fhyepiykhWghL (fLikahdfhyepiyepfo;Tfs;)
,aw;iftsq;fs; kw;Wk; fdpkq;fs; tpisr;ry; ngha;j;jy; kw;Wk; czTgw;whf;Fiw
kpFe;jgFjpfs; (vLj;Jf;fhl;L :
ePh;>vz;nza;>ANudpak;)
nghUshjhuf; fhuzpfs;
Ntiytha;g;gpw;Nfw;w #oy;fs; Ntiyapd;ik
r%fkw;Wk; gz;ghl;Lf; fhuzpfs;
xUq;fpizg;G FLk;gKuz;ghL (G+ry;fs;)
kf;fs; njhiffhuzpfs;
Fiwthdkf;fs; njhif kpifkf;fs; njhifngUf;fk;
murpay; fhuzpfs;
murpay; ghJfhg;G Nghh;>r%fchpikfs;>mikjpapd;ik
jdpj;Jtk; kw;Wk; Rje;jpukhfnray;gLk; ghJfhg;Grhh;e;jit - ,dk;>kjk; kw;Wk;
tha;g;G fyhr;rhuJd;GWj;jy;
Fiwe;jnryT>vspjpy; fpilf;Fk; Fiwthdmy;yJgw;whf;Fiwahdefh;g;GwNritfs;
efh;gG; wNritfs; kw;Wk; cs;fl;likg;Gtrjp
(Rfhjhuk;>fy;tp>gad;ghLfs;>Nghf;Ftuj;Jkw;Wk; (Rfhjhuk;>fy;tp>gad;ghLfs; kw;Wk; Nghf;Ftuj;J)
ePh;)
INuhg;gh>tlmnkhpf;fh> M];jpNuypah>yj;jPd>; mnkhpf;fh>fhPgpad; Nghd;wehLfspy; Gyk;

ngah;e;Njhhpy; Mz;fis tpl ngz;fNs mjpfk;. Mdhy; Mg;gphpf;fh kw;Wk; Mrpah Fwpg;ghf
Nkw;FMrpahtpy; ngz;fis tpl Mz;fs; mjpfkhf Gyk; ngah;fpwhh;fs;.
Mjhuk; : (rh;tNjr ,lk;ngah;jy; mwpf;if> 2017)

kz;lyj;jpd; ngah; nkhj;jkf;fs; cyfkf;fs; rh;tNjrmstpy; rh;tNjrGyk;

njhif njhifapy; Gyk; ngah;e;Njhh; ngah;e;Njhh;
rjtPjk; rjtPjk;
Mg;gphpf;fh 12,56,268 16.6 % 36,266 14.1 %
Mrpah 45,04,428 59.7 % 1,05,684 41 %
INuhg;gh 7,42,074 9.8 % 61,191 23.7 %
yj;jPd; 6,45,593 8.6 % 37,720 14.6 %
mnkhpf;fhkw;Wk;
fhPgpad;
tlmnkhpf;fh 3,61,208 4.8 % 4,413 1.7 %
Xrpahdpah 40,691 0.5 % 1,880 0.7 %
mwpag;glhjit ----- ---- 10,560 4.1 %
cyfk; 75,50,262 100 % 2,57,715 100 %
rkPgfhyq;fpy; rh;tNjr mstpy; Gyk;ngah;Nthh; vz;zpf;ifNtfkhfmjpfhpj;J

tUfpwJ. 2000 ,y; 17 kpy;ypad;fshf ,Ue;jGyk;ngah;e;Njhhpd; vz;zpf;if 2010 ,y; 220
kpy;ypad;fshfTk; 2017 ,y; 258 kpy;ypad;fshfTk; mjpfhpj;Js;sJ.
Mjhuk; : (rh;tNjrGyk; ngah;e;Njhh; mwpf;if> 2017)
1950 ,y; cyfpd; kf;fs; njhifapy; 30 rjtPjk; efukf;fs; njhifahFk;. 2050 ,y;
,it 68 rjtPjkhfcaUk; vdf; fzf;fplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Mjhuk; : (2018 cyfefukakhf;fy; tpsf;fFwpg;G)
2017 Mk; Mz;by; rh;tNjr Gyk;ngah;tpy; ,e;jpah kpfg; nghpaehlhfTk; (17 kpy;ypad;)
,ijj; njhlh;e;J nkf;rpNfhTk; (13 kpy;ypad;) cs;sd.
Mjhuk; : (rh;tNjrGyk; ngah;e;Njhh; mwpf;if> 2017)
2007 Mk; Mz;L tuyhw;wpy; Kjy; Kiwahf cyfshtpa efh;g;Gw kf;fs;njhif Cufkf;fs;
njhifia tpl mjpfkhdJ. mjd; gpwF efh; Gwkf;fspd; rjtPjk; njhlh;e;J mjpfhpj;j
tz;zk; cs;sJ.
Mjhuk; : (cyfefukakhf;fy; tpsf;ff; Fwpg;G> 2014)

,e;jpah>rPdhkw;Wk; ie[PhpahehLfspy; 2018 – 2050 Mk;

Mz;LfSf;fpilapyhdfhyj;jpy; cyfefh;g;Gwkf;fs; njhiftsh;rr ; papy; 35 rjtPjj;ijg;
ngw;wpUf;Fk; vdvjph;ghh;f;fg;gLfpwJ. ,f;;fhyj;jpy; ,e;jpah 416 kpy;ypad; efh;g;Gwkf;fs;
njhifiaAk;>rPdh 255 kpy;ypad; kf;fs; njhifiaAk;>ie[Phpah 159 kpy;ypad; kf;fs;
njhifiaAk; efh;g;Gwthrpfshfmjpfhpf;Fk; vdfzf;fplg;gLfpwJ.
Mjhuk; : (cyfefukakhf;fy; tpsf;ff; Fwpg;G> 2014)
cyfefukakhf;fy;
t.vz; fz;lq;fs; efukf;fs; mjpfkf;fs; njhifnfhz;lcyfpd; Kjy;
njhif (%) Ie;Jkhefuq;fs;
1 tlmnkhpf;fh 82 t.vz; khefuj;jpd; ngah; kf;fs;
2 ,yj;jPd; 81 njhif
mnkhpf;fhkw;Wk; (kpy;ypadpy;)
fhPgpad; jPTfs; 1 Nlhf;fpNah ([g;ghd;) 37
3 INuhg;gh 74 2 GJ by;yp (,e;jpah) 29
4 Xrpdpah 68 3 rhq;fha; (rPdh) 26
5 Mrpah 50 4 nkf;rpNfhefuk; 22
6 Mg;gphpf;fh 43 (nkf;rpNfh)
cyfruhrhp 55 5 rh ghNyh (gpNurpy;) 22
myF–2 ,lh;fs;
jfty; Ngio :ehl;bd; %d;wpy; xUgq;FgFjpfs; twl;rpapdhy; ghjpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,J Rkhh; 16

% epyg;gug;igAk; kf;fs; njhifapy; 12 % kf;fs; njhifiaAk; fLikahfghjpf;fpwJ.
Mz;Lkiog;nghopT 60 nrd;bkPl;lUf;Fk; FiwthdkiongWk; gFjpfs; ,e;jpahtpy;
twl;rpf;Fcs;shFk; gFjpfshFk;.
Rdhkpvd;wthh;j;ij [g;ghdpanrhy;yhd (R –JiwKfk;) (ehkp–miy) vd;gjpypUe;Jngwg;gl;lJ.

mjhtJ (JiwKfmiy)
kdpjcaph;fs; kw;Wk; cilikfSf;Fmr;RWj;jiycUthf;Fk; ,aw;ifahdepfo;Tfs; ,aw;if

,lh;fs; vdg;gLk;. Nghplh;fspd; vz;zpf;ifkw;Wk; jPtpuk; kdpjnray;ghLfs; my;yJepfo;Tfs;
kl;LNk ,aw;if ,lUf;fhdfhuzq;fs; my;y. kdpjh;fs; ,aw;ifiaifahSk; jd;ikiag;
nghUj;Jk; mikfpwJ. Nghplh; vd;gJtiuaWf;fg;gl;lgFjpapy; xUFwpg;gpl;lfhyj;jpy; epfOk;
xUmghafukhdepfo;thFk;. ,it caph; kw;Wk; mopittpistpg;gJld; kw;wth;fspd;
cjtpiaehlNtz;baNjitVw;gLfpwJ. NguopTvd;gJkpfg;nghpa ,og;gpidAk;
mjpfnrytpdj;ijAk; cz;lhf;FtNjhLmtw;wpypUe;JkPs;tjw;FePz;lfhyKk; Njitg;gLfpwJ.

NguopitcUthf;ff; $baGjpaMAjkhf ,aw;iftsh;e;JtUfpwJ. ePq;fs; xg;Gf;nfhs;fpwPh;fsh?

ngUk; Rw;Wr;#oy; NguopTfhuzkhf ,e;jpahtpy; 2017 Mk; Mz;Ltiuapyhd 10
Mz;Lfspy; Rkhh; 22>000 Ngh; ,we;Js;sdh;. fle;j 20 Mz;Lfspy; (1998 – 2017) cyfpy; Rkhh;
5 ,yl;rj;jpw;Fk; Nkw;gl;lkf;fs; Nkhrkhdthdpiyepfo;Tfshy; ,we;Js;sdh;. ,J n[h;kd; -
thl;r; vd;wjdpahh; mikg;Gntspapl;Ls;scyfshtpafhyepiy ,lh; FwpaPl;Lmwpf;ifapy; ,it
$wg;gl;Ls;sJ.
,e;jpangUq;fly; Rdhkp (2004) : 2004 ,y; ,e;jpag; ngUq;flypy; Vw;gl;lRdhkpbk;gh; 26> 2004
Mk; Mz;L cs;@h; Neuk; fhiy 7.59 kzpf;Fhpf;lh; msTNfhypy; 9.1 Mw;wy; nfhz;lepyeLf;fk;
,e;NjhNd~pahtpd; Rkj;uhflw;fiuiaj; jhf;fpaJ. ,jdhy; Vw;gl;lRdhkp 12 ehLfisj; jhf;fp
2>25>000 caph;fisg; gypthq;fpaJld; ,e;NjhNd~pah> ,yq;if>
,e;jpah>jha;yhe;J>Nrhkhypah>khyj;jPTNghd;wehLfspy; ngUj;jnghUl;Nrj;ijAk; tpistpj;jJ.
nrh;Ndhgpy; mZ NguopT ,lk; (gphpg;ghl; mUfpy;) mjpfhug;G+h;tkhdRw;WyhjykhFk;.

Kd;dh;
 nrh;Ndhgpy; (mg;NghijaNrhtpaj; A+dpad;) mZciytpgj;Jvg;uy; 26> 1986

md;Wepfo;e;jJ.
 1945 ,y; `pNuh~pkh ([g;ghd;) kPJtPrg;gl;lmZFz;iltpl 400
klq;Fmjpfkhdfjph;tPr;R ,jpypUe;Jntspg;gl;lJ. ,e;jtpgj;Jcyftuyhw;wpy;
kpfg;nghpamZtpgj;jhfgjpthfpAs;sJ.
 ,g;gFjpapypUe;J 3 yl;rj;J 50 Mapuj;jpw;Fk; mjpfkhdkf;fs;
mg;Gwg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sdh;. epue;jukdpjFbNaw;wj;jpw;FfLikahdfl;Lg;ghLfs; ,d;Wk;
me;j ,lj;jpy; gpd;gw;wg;gLfpwJ.
jw;nghOJ :
 jw;NghJcf;iud; kw;Wk; ngyhuirf; nfhz;l ,g;gFjpapy; tpgj;Jele;J 33

Mz;LfSf;FgpwFVuhskhdtpyq;Ffs; kw;Wk; ,UE}w;Wf;Fk; mjpfkhdgwit ,dq;fs;
trpf;fpd;wd.
 2016 Mk; Mz;Lcf;iud; ehL“fjph; ,af;ftpay; rhh; kw;Wk; Rw;Wr;#oy; caph;f;Nfhsg;
ngl;lfk;”vdme;ehl;Lmurhq;fj;jhy; mwptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

epymjph;Tkz;lyq; mghaj;jd;ik gFjpfs;

fs;
kz;lyk; 5 kpfmjpfk; tlfpof;F ,e;jpahKOikAk;> [k;Kfh~;kPhpd; rpygFjpfs;>
,khr;ryg; gpuNjrk;>cj;jufhz;l;> F[uhj;jpd; uhd; Mg;
fl;r;>tlgPfhh; kw;Wk; me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghh; jPTf; $l;lq;fs;
kz;lyk; 4 mjpfk; [k;K–fh~;kPhpd; gpwgFjpfs;> ,khr;ryg;gpuNjrk;
Njrpajiyefukhd GJ nly;yp>tlcj;jpug;
gpuNjrk;>gPfhh;>rpf;fpk;>Nkw;Ftq;fk;> F[uhj;jpd;
rpygFjpfs;>Nkw;Fflw;fiuiaxl;bcs;skfhuh~;buhtpd;
rpygFjpfs; kw;Wk; ,uh[];jhd;
kz;lyk; 3 kjkhdJ Nfush>Nfhth> ,yl;rj;jPTfs;>cj;jpug; gpuNjrj;jpd; rpygFjpfs;>
F[uhj; kw;Wk; Nkw;Ftq;fhsk;>gQ;rhgpd; rpygFjpfs;>
,uh[];jhd;>kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;>gPfhh;>
[hh;f;fz;l>; rl;B];fh;>kfhuh~;buh>xbrh>Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;>jkpo;eHLk
w;Wk; fh;ehlfh
kz;lyk; 2 FiwT ehl;bd; gpwgFjpfs;
myF– 1 rkar;rhh;gpd;ikia Ghpe;Jnfhs;Sjy;
1. rkar;rhh;gpd;ikvd;wnrhy; yj;jPd; thh;j;ijahdnrFyk; (Saeculum)

vd;gjpypUe;Jngwg;gl;lJ. ,jd; nghUs; fhyk; (an age) my;yJcs;Szh;Tfhyk; (the sprit of an
age) MFk;.
2. Mq;fpNyagj;jphpf;ifvOj;jhsuhd [hh;[; N[f;fg; N`y;Nghf; vd;gth; secularism

vd;wgjj;ijcUthf;fpdhh;.
Mj;jpfk; : flTs; my;yJflTs;fs; kPJek;gpf;ifaw;wpUj;jy;.

rkar;rhh;gpd;ik : muNrh>rkaNkhxd;Wkw;nwhd;wpd; tptfhuq;fspy; jiyaplhjpUj;jy;
mNrhfhpd; 12 tJghiwmurhiz :murhdJve;jxUkjj;ijr; rhh;e;jgphptpdUf;Fk; vjpuhfFw;wk;

rhl;lhJvd;Wfp.K (ngh.M.K) %d;whk; E}w;whz;bNyNamwptpj;jKjy; Nguurh; mNrhfh; Mthh;.
jdJ 12 tJghiwmurhizapy; midj;Jkjg;gphptpdUld; rfpg;Gjd;ikNahLkl;Lky;yhky;
mth;fs; kPJkpFe;jkhpahijf;Fhpakdepiyiatsh;j;Jf;nfhs;sTk; jk; kf;fSf;FNtz;LNfhs;
tpLj;Js;shh;.
rkar;rhh;gw;w ,e;jpaehlhdJmidj;Jrkatpohf;fSf;Fk; nghJtpLKiwmwptpf;fpwJ.
mf;ghpd; fy;yiw>rpf;fe;juh (Mf;uhmUfpy; - ,e;jpah) : ,];yhk;> ,e;Jrkak;

cs;spl;lgy;NtWrkaq;fisr; rhh;e;j $Wfs; mtuJfy;yiwapy; ,lk; ngwNtz;Lnkdmf;gh;
typAWj;jpdhh;.

f[{uhN`htpy; fhzg;gLk; 19 Mk; E}w;whz;ilr; rhh;e;j ,e;JNfhtpypy;>tof;fkhdrpfuj;jpw;Fg;

gjpyhf ,e;JghzpapyhdNfhGuk;>rkztpjhdk;>Gj;j ];J}gpkw;Wk; ,];yhkpaghzpapyhdFtpkhlk;
Mfpatw;iwf; nfhz;Lmikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
myF– 2 kdpjchpikfSk; If;fpaehLfs; rigAk;
kdpjchpikfSf;fhdcyfshtpamwptpg;G–KfTiu: kdpjh;fs; midtUk;

Rje;jpukhfNtgpwf;fpd;wdh;. mth;fs; kjpg;gpYk;>chpikfspYk; rkkhdth;fs;. mth;fs;
mwpthw;wiyAk; kdrhl;rpiaAk; ,aw;gz;ghff; nfhz;lth;fshfTk; vy;yhkf;fspilNaAk;
nghJthdrNfhjuj;Jtj;jpd; czh;ittsh;f;fflikg;gl;lth;fSk; Mth;.
xt;nthUMz;Lk; brk;gh; 10 Mk; ehs; cyfkdpjchpikfs; jpdkhff; nfhz;lhlg;gLfpwJ.

kdpjchpikfiscyfmstpy; mwptpj;jngUikIf;fpaehLfspd; nghJr; rigiaNarhUk;.
,e;jpamurpayikg;Gr; rl;lg; gphpTfs;
 gphpT 24 –Foe;ijj; njhopyhsh; Kiwiaj; jilnra;fpwJ.

 gphpT 39 (f) -MNuhf;fpakhfFoe;ijfs; tsutoptifnra;fpwJ
 gphpT 46 – 6 taJtiumidj;Jf; Foe;ijfSf;Fk; Muk;gfhyFoe;ijguhkhpg;Gkw;Wk;
fy;tpiatoq;fmuRKay;fpwJ.
iru]; rpypa;lh; fp.K (ngh.M.K) 539 : gz;ilaghurPfj;jpd; Kjy;

kd;duhdkfhiru];>mbikfistpLtpj;Jkf;fs; midtUk; jq;fs; nrhe;jkjj;ijNjh;e;njLf;Fk;
chpikcz;Lvd;Wmwptpj;jhh;. ,drkj;Jtj;ijepiyehl;bdhh;. Nkw;$wpaitfSk;>kw;wMizfSk;
fpA+dpghh;/k; vOj;Jf;fspy; mf;fhbahdnkhopapy; rpypz;lh; tbtpyhdRl;lfspkz;zpy;
gjpTnra;ag;gl;ld. ,J If;fpaehLfs; rigapd; MW mYty; nkhopfspYk;
nkhopngah;ff ; g;gl;Ls;sJ. ,itcyfkdpjchpikfs; gpufldj;jpd; Kjy; ehd;FtpjpfSf;F
,izahfcs;sd.
1978 –rh;tNjrngz;fs; Mz;L> 1979 –rh;tNjrFoe;ijfs; Mz;Lvd I.eh rig mwptpj;Js;sJ.
ngw;Nwhh; kw;Wk; %j;jFbkf;fspd; guhkhpg;Gkw;Wk; eytho;Tr; rl;lk; : ,e;jr; rl;lk;

%j;jFbkf;fSf;Fk; ngw;Nwhh;fSf;Fk; guhkhpg;igtoq;Ftjw;Fk; mth;fspd; Foe;ijfs; kw;Wk;
thhpRjhuh;fspd; rl;lg;G+h;tkhdflikahfpwJ. KJik fhyj;jpy; ghJfhg;Gk; MjuTk;
kdpjchpikfshffUjg;gLfpd;wd.
1098 Foe;ijfSf;fhdcjtpikavz; : ,J ,e;jpahtpy; Kjd; KjyhfmwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;l 24

kzpNeufl;lzkpy;yhmtruj; njhiyj; njhlh;GNritahFk;. Foe;ijj; njhopyhsh;fs;>Foe;ijj;
jpUkzk; kw;Wk; VNjDk; td;nfhLikMfpatw;why; ghjpf;fg;gl;l Foe;ijfSf;F rpwg;Gftdk;
nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ.

kdpjchpikfs; tho;tpay; (rptpy;) chpikfs;

kdpjchpikfshdJNjrpa ,dk;>ghypdk;> rptpy; chpikfs; vd;gJxUFwpg;gpl;lehl;by;
,d>kjk; kw;Wk; taJMfpatw;iwg; my;yJkhepyj;jpy; FbAhpikngWtjd; %yk;
nghUl;gLj;jhky; vy;yh ,lq;fspYk; xUth; mDgtpf;Fk; chpikfs; MFk;.
midtUf;Fk; chpj;jhdJ
kdpjchpikfs; cyfpy;
rptpy; chpikfs;
cs;smidj;Jkf;fSf;Fk; kw;Wk;
ehl;bw;FehLmy;yJmurhq;fj;jpw;Fmurhq;fk;
midj;JehLfSf;Fk; chpajhFk;. nghpJk; NtWgLfpd;wd. ,it murpayikg;Gr;
rl;lj;Jld; njhlh;ghdit
ve;jxUNjrKk; me;je;jehLfs; gy;NtWtifahdrptpy;
jdpegUf;fhdkdpjchpikfisgwpf;fKbahJ chpikfs; %yk;
Rje;jpuq;fistoq;fNthmy;yJkWf;fNthKbAk;.
kdpjchpikfs; gpwg;gpd; mbg;gilapy; rptpy; chpikfs; r%fj;jpdhy;
,aw;ifahfmikag; ngw;wmbg;gilchpikfs; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd.s
MFk;.
jiyth; (Xa;Tngw;w
,e;jpacr;rePjpkd;wjiyikePjpgjp)
Xh; cWg;gpdh; Xh; cWg;gpdh; ,uz;LcWg;gpdh; NehpidcWg;gpdh;fs;;

(cr;rePjpkd;wePjp (cah; fs; (gpd;tUk;
gjp) ePjpkd;wePjpgjp) (kdpjchpikfs; NjrpaMizaq;fspd;
njhlh;ghdmwpT jiyth;fs;)
mDgtk;
ngw;wth;fs;)
rpWghd;ikapUf;fhdN gl;bay; goq;FbapdUf;fhd ngz;fSf;fhdN

jrpa Mizak; r%fj;jpw;fhdNj Njrpa Mizak; jrpa Mizak;
rpa Mizak;

rl;lq;fs; tpjpfs;
,e;JtpjitkWkzr; rl;lk;> 1856 tpjitfs; kWkzj;ijr; rl;lg;G+h;tkhf;fpaJ
,e;JjpUkzr; rl;lk;> 1955 ngz;fspd; jpUkztaJ 21 vd;Wrl;lg;G+h;tkhf;fpaJ
,e;JthhpRrl;lk;> 1956 ngz;fs; jq;fs; ngw;Nwhh;fspd;
nrhj;jpidkuGtopahfngWtijcWjpnra;fpwJ
tujl;rizj; jilr; rl;lk;> 1961 tujl;rizvd;wngahpy;
kUkfisNkhrkhfelj;Jtjw;FfLikahdjz;lidtoq;Ffpw
J
ngz;fisNfypnra;tjw;Fvjpuhdr; ngz;fSf;Fepthuzk; mspf;fpwJ
rl;lk;> 1997
mehfhpfkhfrpj;jhpj;jYf;nfjpuhdrl;lk; gj;jphpf;iffs;>nra;jpj;jhs;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpy;
> 1999 ngz;fismehfhpfkhfrpj;jhpj;jiyj; jilnra;fpwJ
njhopw;rhiyr; rl;lk; 1948>Njhl;lj; ngz; njhopyhsh;fisg; ghJfhf;fpwJ
njhopyhsh;fs; rl;lk; 1951>Ruq;fr;
rl;lk; 1952>kfg;NgWeyr; rl;lk; 1961
td;nfhLikjLg;Grl;lk; 2005 fzth; kw;Wk; FLk;gcWg;gpdh;fshy; ngz;fs;
Jd;GWj;jg;gLtjpypUe;JghJfhf;fpwJ
myF– 3 rhiyghJfhg;G tpjpfs; kw;Wk; newpKiwfs;
,utpy; tpsf;Ffs; : ,utpy; Nghf;Ftuj;Jnehpry; Fiwe;jpUf;Fk; NghJgyFWf;Fre;jpg;Gfspy;

cs;siriftpsf;Ffisfhtyh;fs; mizj;Jtplyhk;. Mdhy; mg;gFjpfisf; flj;Jk;
NghJkpfTk; vr;rhpf;ifAld; njhluyhk;. thfdq;fisepWj;jj; Njitapy;iy.
,e;jpajz;lidr; rl;lk; 304 A gphpT :fz;%bj;jdkhfXl;LtjhYk; Xl;Lehpd; myl;rpak;

fhuzkhfTk; Vw;gLk; ,wg;Gnjhlh;ghd Fw;wq;fSf;F Xl;Leh; kPJfhty; Jiw Nkw;$wpagphptpd; fPo;
fphpkpdy; Fw;wtof;FgjpTnra;aNehpLk;.
NrJghujk; :NjrpaneLQ;rhiyfspy; ghJfhg;ghf kw;Wk; jilaw;w gazk; nra;aghyq;fis

fl;Ltjw;fhdjpl;lk; 2016 ,y; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. mJ 2019 Mk; Mz;bw;Fs; midj;J
NjrpaneLQ;rhiyfisAk;> ,Ug;Gg;ghij FWf;fPL ,y;yhky; cUthf;Ftij Nehf;fkhf
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
myF– 1 Mq;fpNyah; Ml;rpapy; efh;g;Gwkhw;wq;fs;
xUefh;g;GwgFjpvd;gJmjpfkf;fs; njhifmlh;j;jpNahLczTcw;gj;jpay;yhjnjhopy;fspy;
<LgLtJk; ed;Ffl;likf;fg;gl;l #oypy; tho;tJk; MFk;.
Nfhl;ilf;Fs; fly; Eiothapy; topahfEioe;jhy; Kjypy; fhzg;gLk; fl;llk; jkpofmurpd;

,Uf;ifahFk;. ,e;jRtuhrpakhdfl;llk; 1694 kw;Wk; 1732 f;F ,ilapy; fl;lg;gl;lNjhL ,J
,e;jpahtpy; Mq;fpNyah;fshy; fl;lg;gl;lkpfg; goikahdfl;Lkhdq;fspy; xd;Wvd $wg;gLfpwJ.

fhydpj;Jtefutsh;r;rp
JiwKfefuq; ,uhZtFbapUg;G kiothoplq;fs; ,uapy;Ntefuq;f

fs; fs; s;
JiwKfq;fisr; ngUtopr; fhydpj;Jtr%fk; gilfs; kw;Wk;

Rw;wpAs;skhfzq;f rhiyfs; kw;Wk; Rfhjhuk; kw;Wk; nghUl;fspd;
spd; jiyefh; Nghh;j; jpwd; nghOJNghf;Ff;fh tpiuthdNghf;Ft
tsh;r;rp tha;e;jgFjpfsp fcUthf;fpaxUr uj;Jrkntspfs;
y; cs; %f ,lk; cUthf;fg;gl;lJ
khfhzq;fspd;
jiyefh;
fy;fj;jhtpy; cs;sly;n`srprJf;fk; kw;Wk; kjuh]py; cs;sGdpj [hh;[;

Nfhl;ilMfpaitkj;jpatzpfg; gFjpf;FmUfpy; ,Ue;jd. NkYk;
gpuk;khz;lkhdfl;llq;fisnfhz;bUe;jd. mitgphpl;b~; tifapyhdNuhkhdpaghzpfspy;
mike;jpUe;jd.
myF– 2 fhyq;fs; NjhWk; ,e;jpag; ngz;fspd; epiy
[tfhh; vd;gJme;epah;fshy; jhq;fs; ifg;gw;wg;gLtijAk;>mtkjpf;fg;gLtijAk;

jtph;g;gjw;fhfNjhw;fbf;fg;gl;l uh[Gj;jpuNghh; tPuh;fspd; kidtpfs; kw;Wk; kfs;fspd;
$l;Ljd;dhh;tjw;nfhiyeilKiwiaFwpg;gpLfpwJ.
mf;gh; Foe;ijjpUkzj;ijjLj;jJld; jpUkzj;jpw;FKd; kzkfd; kw;Wk; kzkfspd;

xg;Gjiyngw;Nwhh;fs; fl;lhakhfngw;Wf;nfhs;sNtz;Lk; vd;Wcj;jutpl;lhh;. mth;
ngz;zpw;fhdjpUkztaJ 14 vdTk; Mz;fSf;fhdjpUkztaJ 16 vdTk; eph;zapj;jhh;.
kjuh]; Njtjhrprl;lk; vd;gJmf;Nlhgh; 9> 1947 ,y; epiwNtw;wg;gl;lxUrl;lkhFk;. kjuh];

khfhzj;jpy; epiwNtw;wg;gl;l ,e;jrl;lk; NjtjhrpfSf;Frl;lg;gbjpUkzk; nra;Jnfhs;Sk;
chpikiatoq;fpaJld;> ,e;jpaNfhtpy;fSf;Fngz; Foe;ijfistoq;FtJrl;ltpNuhjk; vdTk;
mwptpj;jJ.

Kf;fparl;ltpjpfs; Kf;fpagphpTfs;
tq;fhsxOq;FKiwr; rl;lk; XXI, 1804 ngz;rpRf;nfhiyrl;ltpNuhjkhdJvdmwptpf;fg;gl;lJ
xOq;FKiw XVII, 1829 rjpvDk; gof;fk;
rl;ltpNuhjkhdJvd;Wmwptpf;fg;gl;lJ
,e;Jtpjitfs; kWkzr;rl;lk;> 1856 tpjitfiskWkzk; nra;amDkjpj;jJ
cs;ehl;LjpUkzr;rl;lk;> 1872 Foe;ijjpUkzk; jilnra;ag;gl;lJ
rhujhrl;lk;> 1930 rpWth;fs;
rpWkpfSf;fhdjpUkztaJcah;j;jg;gl;lJ
Njtjhrpxopg;Gr; rl;lk;> 1947 NjtjhrpKiwiaxopj;jJ
myF– 1 njhopyfq;fs;
,uz;lhk; Jiw
rhh;GJiw
Kjd;ikJiw
nghUshjhueltbf;iffspd;
tifg;ghL
ehd;fhk; Jiw
,e;jpahtpd; nll;uha;l; : mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehl;by; kpf;rpfd; khepyj;jpy;

cs;snll;uha;l; efuk; cyfghuk;ghpathfdnjhopy; ikakhfmwpag;gLfpwJ. mNjNghy;
,e;jpahtpy; cs;snrd;idkhefuk; ,e;jpahtpd; nll;uha;l; vd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ. Vnddpy;
cyfg; Gfo; ngw;wthfdnjhopyfq;fshd [p.vk;. Nghh;L>kNè;jpuh> `{z;lha;
Nghd;wnjhopyfq;fs; ,q;Fmike;Js;sd. ,tw;iwj; jtpu ,e;efuk; ehl;bd; thfdnjhopy;
Vw;Wkjpapy; 60 % gq;fpidf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
Nritj;Jiw ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpaJiwfspy; xd;whFk;. jw;NghJ ,e;jj;

JiwahdJ ,e;jpanghUshjhuj;jpd; KJnfYk;ghfcs;sJ. ,e;jpahtpd;
nkhj;jcs;ehl;Lcw;gj;jpapy; Rkhh; 53 rjtPjk; gq;fspg;gpidmspf;fpwJ.

,uz;lhk; Jiw
Kjd;ikJiw Kjd;ikJiw
Kjd;ikJiw rhh;GJiw
njhopyfmiktplfhuzpfs;
ehd;fhk; Jiw
Kjd;ikJiw
Ntshz; rhh;e;jnjhopyfq;fs;
fdpktsk; rhh;e;jnjhopyfq;fs;
%yg;nghUs;
rhh;e;jnjhopyfq;fs; fly;tsk; rhh;e;jnjhopyfq;fs;
tdtsk; rhh;e;jnjhopyfq;fs;
njhopyfq;fs; mstpd;
nghpamstpyhdnjhopyfq;fs;
mbg;gilapy;
njhopyfq;fs;
rpwpamstpyhdnjhopyfq;fs;
nghJj;Jiwnjhopyfq;fs;
cilikahsh;
mbg;gilapy; jdpahh;Jiwnjhopyfq;fs;
njhopyfq;fs;
$l;LwTj;Jiwnjhopyfq;fs;
$l;LwTnjhopyfq;fs;
myF– 2 fz;lq;fisMuha;jy; (Mg;gphpf;fh> M];jpNuypahkw;Wk; mz;lhh;bfh)
tlNkw;FMg;gphpf;fehLfshdnkhuhf;Nfh> my;[Phpah>ypgpah>Nkhhplhdpahkw;Wk;
JdprpahMfpaehLfspd; FO ‘Nkf; nug;’(Maghreb) vd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ. muGnkhopapy; ,jd;
nghUs; ‘Nkw;F’vd;gjhFk;.

Mg;gphpf;ffz;lcl;gFjpapd; ngUk;gFjpapd; jd;ikFwpj;JngUk;ghyhNdhh; mwpe;jpUf;ftpy;iy.

vdNtMg;gphpf;fhxU‘,Uz;lfz;lk;’vd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ. INuhg;gpaf; flw;gazMa;thsh;
n`d;wpvk;. ];lhd;ypvd;gth; ‘,Uz;lfz;lk;’ (1878) vd;wthh;j;ijiaKjd; Kjypy;
gad;gLj;jpdhh;.
fpspkQ;rhNuhtpd; kiycr;rpapYs;sgdpg;gbTfs; ,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;bypUe;Jkiwe;JtUfpd;wd.

,e;epiynjhlh;e;jhy; 2025 Mk; Mz;Lf;Fs; ,g;gFjpapy; gdpg;gbTfs; ,y;yhjepiycUthFk;.
njd; Mg;gphpf;fhtpd; miutwz;lgpuNjrq;fspy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; nrk;kwp ML

tsh;g;G‘fh&];’vd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
jfty; Ngio :ntg;gg; ghiytdq;fs; fz;lq;fspd; Nkw;Ftpspk;Gfspy; GtpeLf;Nfhl;bd;

tlf;Fkw;Wk; njd; gFjpfspy; (200Kjy; 300) ml;rq;fs; tiu mike;Js;sd. ,g;ghiytdq;fs;
tpahghuhf; fhw;WtPRk; kz;lyj;jpy; mike;Js;sd. ,t;tpahghuf; fhw;Wfs; tlNfhsj;jpy;
tlfpof;fpy; ,Ue;Jk; njd; Nfhsj;jpy; njd;fpof;fpypUe;Jk; tPRfpd;wd.
,f;fhw;whdJnghJthffpof;fpypUe;JNkw;FNehf;fptPRfpwJ. ,f;fhw;Wfz;lq;fspd;
fpof;Ftpspk;Gfspy; mjpfkiog; nghopitVw;gLj;jpNkw;FgFjpmilAk; nghOJ<ug;gjj;ij
,oe;Jtwz;lfhw;whfTk; tPRfpd;wJ. vdNtfz;lq;fspd; Nkw;FgFjpfs; ghiytdq;fshfcs;sd.
iey;ejpvfpg;jpd; tho;thjhukhftpsq;Ftjhy; ,e;ejp“vfpg;jpd; ed;nfhil”vdmiof;fg;gLfpwJ.

iey; ejpvfpg;jpy; ,y;iynadpy; ,e;ehLghiytdkhf ,Ue;jpUf;Fk;.
Mg;gphpf;fhtpy; cyfpd; kpfmjpfntg;gepiy (580bfphpnry;rpa];) ypgpahtpd; my; m]pahtpy;

gjpthfpAs;sJ. kpff; Fiwe;jntg;gepiy ( - 240bfphpnry;rpa];) nkhuhf;Nfhehl;bYs;s ,h;g;ghdpy;
gjpthfpAs;sJ.
 rfhuhghiytdj;jpy; ,Ue;J fpdpah flw;fiuia Nehf;fp tPRk; twz;l ntg;gGOjp

jyf;fhw;W‘`hh;khl;lhd;’vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 rfhuhghiytdj;jpypUe;J kj;jpajiuf;fly; Nehf;fptPRk; ntg;gjyf; fhw;W‘rpuhf;Nfh’vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 ntg;gkz;ly kiof;fhLfs; Gtpapd; mzpfyd; vd;Wk; cyfpd; ngUk; kUe;jfk; vd;Wk;
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
cyfpy; fhzg;gLk; Kf;fpagoq;Fb ,dkf;fs; mg;gpuNjrj;jpd; G+h;tPfFbkf;fs; Mthh;fs;.

G+h;tPfFbkf;fs; jq;fspd; G+h;tPfepyk;>nkhopfs; kw;Wk; fyhr;rhuq;fSld;
jdpj;Jtkhdmilahsj;ijf; nfhz;Ls;sdh;. mgh;>ghl;th> G~;kd;>bq;fh>krha;>gpf;kP]>; [{Y>Rthd;
kw;Wk; v/gpMfpNahh; Mg;gphpf;fhtpd; Kf;fpagoq;Fb ,dq;fshFk;.

M];jpNuypahtpy; cs;snrk;kwpMl;Lgz;izfspy; gzpGhpAk;

kf;fis‘[hfU];’vd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwhh;fs;. M];jpNuypahtpd; G+h;tFbkf;fs; mghhp[pd;fs;
Mth;.
M];jpNuypahtpy; cs;skpjntg;gkz;lyGy;ntspfs; ‘lTd;]’; vd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
M];jpNuypahfz;lj;ij 1770 ,y; Nfg;ld; N[k;]; Ff;

vd;wMq;fpykhYkpfz;Lgpbj;jhh;.
M];jpNuypahtpd; kj;jpajho; epyq;fspy; mike;Js;s ngsh;f;fp(Bourke) vd;Dk; ,lj;jpy;

,f;fz;lj;jpd; mjpfgl;rkhf 530nry;rpa]; ntg;gepiy gjpthfpAs;sJ. M];jpNuypahtpd;
jiyefuhd fhd;nguhtpy; Fiwe;jgl;r ntg;gepiyahf– 220nry;rpa]; gjpthfpAs;sJ.
ML tsh;g;Gj; njhopy; M];jpNuypahtpy; ed;Ftsh;r;rpaile;Js;sJ. Ml;LcNuhkk;

“M];jpNuypahtpd; gzg;gaph;”vdmiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
cyfpd; ve;jxUehl;bd; kf;fSk; mz;lhh;bfhtpy; Ma;Tfs; Nkw;nfhs;sTk;>juTfs;

Nrfhpf;fTk; mDkjpf;fg;gLfpwhh;fs;. vdNt ,f;fz;lk; ‘mwptpay; fz;lk;’vdmiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
mz;lhh;bfhGtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; fhzg;gLk; kpfg;nghpagdpj; njhFg;G MFk;. Gtpapy; fhzg;gLk;

ed;dhP py; 70% ,f;fz;lj;jpy; gdpf; Fkpo;fshf cs;sJ. Gtpapy; gjpthfpAs;s Fiwe;j
gl;rntg;gepiy>mz;lhh;bfhtpy; u~;ahthy; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;s Nth];lhf; Muha;rr ; pepiyaj;jpy;
[{iy 21> 1983 ,y; - 89.70bfphpnry;rpa]; ( - 128.60ghud;fPl;) MfgjpthfpAs;sJ.
1. mz;lhh;bfhtpYs;s cs;s kpfg;nghpa Muha;rr

; pepiyakhd nkf;Kh;Nlh MFk;. ,J
mnkhpf;f If;fpaehLfshy; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
2. mz;lhh;bfhtpy; mikf;fg;ngw;wKjy; ,e;jpamwptpay; Muha;rr
; pepiyak; jl;rpd;
fq;Nfhj;hpMFk;

myF– 3 Gtpg;glq;fisf;
fw;wwpjy;
“nfl];l;uy;”vDk; thh;j;ij /gpnuQ;r; nkhopapYs;s“nfl];lh;”vDk; nrhy;ypypUe;Jngwg;gl;lJ.

,jd; nghUs; “gpuhe;jpanrhj;Jf;fspd; gjpNtL”vd;gjhFk;.
myF– 1 ghJfhg;Gkw;Wk; ntspAwTf; nfhs;if
,e;jpaMAjg; gilfisnfsutpg;gjw;fhf ,e;jpamurhy; Njrpag; Nghh; epidTr; rpd;dk; (National

War Memorial) fl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,e;epidTr; rpd;dk; GJ nly;ypapy; cs;s ,e;jpaNfl; mUfpy; 40
Vf;fh; gug;gstpy; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. Nghhpd; NghJehl;bw;fhf caph; jpahfk; nra;j ,e;jpa
,uhZttPuh;fspd; ngah;fs; epidTr; rpd;dj;jpd; Rth;fspy; fy;ntl;by; nghwpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
fp.gp (ngh.M) 1025 ,y; jkpo;ehl;by; ,Ue;JNrhokd;dh; Kjyhk; ,uhN[e;jpud;

njd;fpof;FMrpahtpd; fly; rhh; gFjpahd = tp[ak; kPJjd; flw;gilnaLg;ignjhlq;fpdhh;.
NkYk; jw;NghJNfjhvd;wiof;fg;gLk; flhuk; gFjpiantd;whh;. Kjyhk; ,uhN[e;jpuNrhodpd;
=tp[aj;Jf;Fvjpuhd ,e;j fly; fle;jgilnaLg;G ,e;jpatuyhw;wpy;
rpwg;ghdepfo;thffUjg;gLfpwJ.
gPy;Lkhh;~y; (Field marshal) - ,J Ie;J el;r

; j;jpume;j];J nfhz;l nghJ mjpfhhp gjtp. ,J
,e;jpa ,uhZtj;jpd; cah;e;jgjtp MFk;. rhk; khdf;~h vd;gth; ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; gPy;L
khh;~y; Mthh;. Nf.vk;.fhpag;gh ,uz;lhtJ gPy;Lkhh;~y; Mthh;. ,e;jpa tpkhdg;gilapy; Ie;J
el;rj;jpu me;j];J nfhz;lkhh;~y; gjtpf;Fcah;Tngw;wKjy; kw;Wk; xNumjpfhhp mh;[{d; rpq;
Mthh;.
1756 Mk; Mz;L Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;l‘nkl;uh]; nu[pnkd;l;’(The Madras Regiment) ,e;jpa

,uhZtj;jpd; kpfg;goikahdfhyhl;gilgphpTfspy; xd;whFk;. ,e;j‘nu[pnkd;l;’jkpo;ehl;bd;
cjfkz;lyj;jpy; cs;snty;ypq;ld; vDkplj;jpy; mike;Js;sJ. 1962 ,y; ele;jrPd -
,e;jpaNghuhdJ ,uhZt mjpfhhpfspd; vz;zpf;ifia mjpfhpf;f Ntz;bajpd; mtrpaj;ij
czh;j;jpaJ. ,e;jpa ,uhZtj;jpd; mtru Mizaj;jpw;fhd mjpfhhpfSf;F gapw;rpaspf;fG+dh
kw;Wk; nrd;id Mfpa ,lq;fspy; ‘mjpfhhpfs; gapw;rpg; gs;spfs;’(Officers Training Schools –
OTS) epWtg;gl;lJ. 1998 [dthp 1 Kjy; mjpfhhpfs; gapw;rpg; gs;spahdJ‘mjpfhhpfs;
gapw;rpmfhlkp’(Officers Training Academy – OTA0 vdngah; khw;wk; nra;ag;gl;lJ.
Njrpakhzth; gil(National Cadet Corps – NCC) :Njrpakhzth; gil vd;gJ

,uhZtg;gil>flw;gilkw;Wk; tpkhdg;gilMfpatw;iwcs;slf;fpa xU Kj;jug;G Nrit
mikg;ghFk;. ,e;j mikg;G ehl;bd; ,isQh;fis xOf;fkhd kw;Wk; Njrgf;jp kpf;f
Fbkf;fshf cUthf;Ftjpy; <Lgl;Ls;sJ. Njrpakhzth; gil vd;gJ xU jd;dhh;t
mikg;ghFk;. ,J ,e;jpa KOtJk; cs;scah; epiyg;gs;spfs;>fy;Y}hpfs; kw;Wk;
gy;fiyf;fofq;fspypUe;J khzth;fis Njh;e;njLf;fpwJ. NkYk; khzth;fSf;F rpwpa
MAjq;fs; kw;Wk; mzptFg;Gfspy; mbg;gil ,uhZtg; gapw;rpAk; mspf;fpwJ.

[dthp 12 - ,uhZtjpdk;
gpg;uthp 1 - flNyhuf; fhty;giljpdk;
khh;r; 10 - kj;jpanjhopyfghJfhg;Gg; giljpdk;
mf;Nlhgh; 7 - tpiuTmjpubg;giljpdk;
mf;Nlhgh; 8 - tpkhdg;giljpdk;
brk;gh; 4 - flw;giljpdk;
brk;gh; 7 - MAjg;gilfs; nfhbjpdk;
 tlNkw;fpy; - ghfp];jhd; kw;Wk; Mg;fhdp];jhd;

 tlf;fpy; - rPdh>Neghsk;>G+lhd;
 fpof;fpy; - tq;fhsNjrk;
 J}ufpof;fpy; - kpahd;kh;
 njd;fpof;fpy; - ,yq;if
 njd;Nkw;fpy; - khyj;jPT
ney;rd; kz;Nlyh - ,th; Mg;gphpf;f Njrpafhq;fpu]pd; (njd; Mg;gphpf;fh) jiytuhf

nray;gl;lhh;. ,th; ,dntwpf;F vjpuhd Xh; cWjpahd Nghuhsp Mthh;. epwntwpf; nfhs;if
vd;gJ ,dg;ghF ghl;bd; xU Nkhrkhd tbtk; MFk;. ,J kdpjhgpkhdj;jpw;Fk;>kf;fshl;rpf;Fk;
vjpuhdJ ,dntwpf; nfhs;if kw;Wk; midj;Jtifahd ,dg;ghFghl;bw;Fk; vjpuhf ,e;jpah
NghuhbaJ. 1990 Mk; Mz;L njd; Mg;gphpf;fhtpy; ,dntwpf; nfhs;ifia KbTf;F
nfhz;Lte;jJ ,e;jpa ntspAwTf; nfhs;ifapd; kpfr;rpwe;jntw;wpahFk;.
myF– 2 ePjpj;Jiw
];kpUjp ,yf;fpaq;fs; : gz;ila ,e;jpahtpy; ];kpUjpfs; jdpkdpjdpd; r%ff;

flikfistiuaWj;jd. mitkD];kpUjp>ehuj];kpUjp>af;Qty;fpa ];kpUjpNghd;witahFk;.
fy;fj;jhcah; ePjpkd;wk; ehl;bd; kpfg;goikahd cah;ePjpkd;wkhFk;. ,J 1862 Mk;

Mz;LepWtg;gl;lJ. mNjrkak; myfhghj; cah; ePjpkd;wk; ehl;bd; kpfg;nghpaePjpkd;wkhFk;.
xU Rje;jpukhd ePjpj;Jiw vd;w fUj;ij Kd;nkhope;j Kjy; murpay; jj;Jt Qhdp

khz;nl];fpA+ Mthh;. ,th; Gfo;ngw;w gpnuQ;R jj;JtQhdpMthh;. rl;lkd;wk;>eph;thfk; kw;Wk;
ePjpj;Jiw Mfpa %d;W gphpTfshf murhq;fk; nray;glNtz;Lk; vd;w mjpfhug;gphpT
Nfhl;ghl;by; mth; ek;gpf;if nfhz;bUe;jhh;.

,e;jpacr;rePjpkd;wk;
 ,jd; KbTfs; midj;JePjpkd;wq;fisAk; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ

 cah;ePjpkd;wePjpgjpfis ,lkhw;wk; nra;ayhk;
 ve;jnthUePjpkd;wj;jpd; tof;FfisAk; jd; fl;Lghl;bw;Fs; nfhz;LtuKbAk;
 tof;FfisxUcah;ePjpkd;wj;jpypUe;Jkw;nwhUcah;ePjpkd;wj;jpw;Fkhw;wyhk;
cah;ePjpkd;wk;
 fPo; ePjpkd;wq;fspypUe;JtUk; Nky;KiwaPLfistprhhpj;jy;

 mbg;gilchpikfisngWtjw;fhfePjpg;Nguhizfs; toq;Fk; mjpfhuk;
 khepyj;jpd; vy;iyf;Fs; cs;stof;Ffistprhhpf;Fk; mjpfhuk;
 fPo; ePjpkd;wq;fisf; fz;fhzpf;Fk; kw;Wk; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; mjpfhuk;
khtl;lePjpkd;wk;
 khtl;lvy;iyf;Fs; vOk; tof;Ffisf; ifahSfpwJ

 fPo; ePjpkd;wq;fs; toq;fpajPh;g;gpd; Nky;KiwaPLfistprhhpf;fpwJ
 fLikahdFw;wtpay; njhlh;ghdtof;FfisjPh;khdpf;fpwJ
JizePjpkd;wq;fs;
 chpikapay; kw;Wk; Fw;wtpay; tof;FfisghprPypf;fpwJ

chpikapay; rl;lq;fs; Fw;wtpay; rl;lq;fs;

 ,Jgzk;>nrhj;Jkw;Wk; r%fk;  Fw;wk; vdrl;lk; tiuaWf;Fk; elj;ijfs;
njhlh;ghdgpur;ridfisf; my;yJnray;fis ,J tprhhpf;fpwJ. v.fh.
ifahSfpwJ. v.fh. epyk; jpUl;L>nfhiy>ngz;fisj; Jd;GWj;Jjy;
njhlh;ghdgpur;rpidfs;>thlif>jpUk Mfpad
zk; njhlh;ghdgpur;ridfs;  ,Jtof;fkhffhty;JiwtprhuizAld;
 chpikapay; ePjpkd;wj;jpy; Kjy; jfty; mwpf;if (FIR)
ghjpf;fg;gl;lth;fshy; xUGfhh; gjpTnra;tjd; %yk; njhlq;FfpwJ. mjd;
jhf;fy; nra;ag;glNtz;Lk; gpwFePjpkd;wj;jpy;
 kDjhuhpd; Nfhhpf;ifapd;gbgzk; tof;FgjpTnra;ag;gLfpwJ.
nrYj;Jk;gbahdjz;lidfs;  Fw;wthspvdep&gpf;fg;gl;lhy;
toq;fg;gLfpwJ jz;lidtoq;fg;gl;LFw;wk; rhl;lg;gl;lth;
rpiwf;FmDg;gg;gLthh;
jfuhWfisj; jPh;Tnra;jy; gpd;tUtdtw;wpw;F ,ilNagpur;ridfSf;Fj;

jPh;Tfhz;gjw;fhdxU
,af;fKiwiaePjpkd;wmikg;Gtoq;FfpwJ
 Fbkf;fs;
 Fbkf;fs; kw;Wk; murhq;fk;
 ,uz;Lkhepymurhq;fq;fs;
 kj;jpa>khepymurhq;fq;fs;
ePjpkd;w kW Ma;Tmjpfhuk; ehlhSkd;wj;jpy; ,aw;wg;gl;lrl;lk; murpayikg;Gr;
rl;lj;jpd; mbg;gilmikg;gpidkPWfpwJvdePjpj;Jiwek;Gk;
gl;rj;jpy; mr;rl;lj;jpidmurpayikg;Gr;
rl;lj;jpw;FKuzhdJvdmwptpf;Fk; mjpfhuk;
ePjpj;Jiwf;Fcs;sJ.
rl;lj;ijepiyepWj;Jjy; kw;Wk; xt;nthU ,e;jpaf; FbkfDk; jdf;Fmbg;gilchpikfs;
mbg;gilchpikfisnray;gLj;Jjy; kWf;fg;gl;ljha; ek;Gk; gl;rj;jpy; mth;
cr;rePjpkd;wj;ijNahmy;yJcah;
ePjpkd;wj;ijNahmZfyhk;
Njrparl;lNritfs; mjpfhuk; (NALSA) : ,J 1987 Mk; Mz;Lrl;l Nritfs; mjpfhurl;lj;jpd;

fPo; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,JrKjhaj;jpd; eype;j gphptpdUf;F ,ytr rl;lcjtpfs; toq;FtNjhL
gpur;ridfSf;F ,zf;fkhd jPh;Tfhz Nyhf; mjhyj;ij Vw;ghLnra;fpwJ.
nghJeytof;F(Public Interest Litigation) : ,J nghJeyidg; ghJfhg;gjw;fhf ePjpkd;wj;jpy;

jhf;fy; nra;Ak; tof;FMFk;. cr;rePjpkd;wk; ,e;jKiwiamwpKfg;gLj;jpaJ. ,JxUegh; jdJ
tof;Fnjhlh;ghd ePjpkd;wj;ij mZf mDkjpf;fpwJ. mbg;gil kdpj chpikfs;
kPwy;>rkachpikfs;>khRghLkw;Wk; rhiyghJfhg;G Mfpatw;wpw;fhf nghJeytof;ifvtUk;
jhf;fy; nra;ayhk;. ,J njhlh;ghd vOjg;gl;lGfhh; fbjk; %yk; ,t;tof;fpidg; gjpayhk;.
nghJeytof;Fvd;wfUj;J ,e;jpaePjpj;Jiwf;FGjpjhdxd;whFk;.
fyg;GnghUshjhuk; vd;gJKjyhspj;Jtk; kw;Wk; nghJTlikapd; fyitahFk;.

myF– 1 nghJkw;Wk; jdpahh; Jiwfs;
Jiwrhh; gzpfs;
nghJj;Jiw rl;lg;G+h;tepWtd
q;fs;
muRepWtdq;fs;
jdpg;gl;lchpik
,e;jpag; ahsh;
nghUshjhuk;
$l;LepWtdq;fs;
$l;L
jdpahh; Jiw ,e;JFLk;gnjhopy;
fs;
$l;LwTepWtdq; nghJ
fs; (tiuaWf;fg;gl;lJ)
)
epWtdq;fs;
jdpahh;
gd;dhl;LepWtdq;f
(tiuaWf;fg;gl;lJ)
s;
njhopy;fistifg;gLj;Jjy; :
 ,e;jpa nghJj;Jiw epWtdq;fs; ,e;jpamurpd; 1956 Mk; Mz;Lnjhopw;

nfhs;ifjPh;khdj;jpd; thapyhfmjd; Njhw;wj;ijfz;ld. ,e;j 1956
jPh;khdkhdJnjhopy;fis %d;W gphpTfshf tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. muRf;Nf chpa
nrhe;jkhd njhopy;fs; ml;ltiz–A vd Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wd.
 jdpahh; Jiwnjhopy;fs;>khepyk; jd; KOg; nghWg;gpy; njhlq;Fk; GjpamyFfs; kw;Wk;
Kaw;rpfSf;F JizGhpaf; $banjhopy;fs; ml;ltiz–B vdFwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wd.
 jdpahh; njhopy;fs; jdpahh; Jiwapy; ml;ltiz–C vdFwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wd.

nghJj;JiwepWtdq;fs; : ,uz;LtifahdepWtdq;fs; cs;sd. mjhtJmurhq;fj;jpd; t#y;

thp>flikfs;>fl;lzq;fs; Nghd;wtw;why; mth;fs; jpul;Lk; tUthapd; %yk; murhq;fk;
mth;fSf;FKOikahfepjpaspf;fpwJ. epWtdj;jpd; nkhj;jgq;F %yjdj;jpy; 51 % f;Fk;
mjpfkhfcs;sJ. ,Jgy;NtWmikr;rfq;fspd; fPo; nray;gl;LtUfpwJ. epWtdq;fs;
NritNehf;fj;Jld; epWtg;gl;Ls;sd. ,J kpfg;nghpaJiwahFk;> ,J kf;fSf;Fgpd;tUk;
Nritfistoq;Ftjd; %yk; kf;fspd; Nkk;ghl;bw;fhfnray;gLfpwJ. mQ;ry; Nritfs;>
,uapy;NtNritfs;>ghJfhg;G>fy;tpkw;Wk; RfhjhutrjpfisFiwe;jnrytpy; toq;Fjy; kw;Wk;
Ntiytha;g;GfiscUthf;Fjy; Nghd;wit.
nghJj;Jiwapd; cWg;Gfs; :
1. muRj;Jiwfshy; eph;thfk; nra;ag;gLk; epWtdq;fs; : xUmurhq;fJiwapd; eph;thfk;
vd;gJngUk;ghYk; midj;JehLfspYk; nghJthdjhFk;. v.fh :jghy; kw;Wk; je;jp>
,uapy;Nt>JiwKfmwf;fl;lis> ,e;jpahtpYs;sePh;g;ghrdj; jpl;lq;fs; Nghd;wit
2. $l;Lj; JiwepWdq;fs; : ,J xUepWtdrl;lj;jhy; eph;tfpf;fg;gLfpwJkw;Wk; murhq;fk;
xUgpujhdgq;Fjhuuhf ,Ue;Jfl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. v.fh : ,e;jpad; Mapy; ngl;Nuhdh];
jdpahh; epWtdk;> ,e;jpad; Mapy; ];if Nlq;fpq; epWtdk;>uj;dfphpNf]; mz;l; gth;
jdpahh; epWtdk;> ,e;jpad; nraw;ifug;gh; epWtdk;.
3. nghJf;fofk; : nghJf; fofmikg;ghdJ ghuhSkd;wj;jpy; epiwNtw;wg;gLk; rl;lj;jpdhy;
nghJf; fofj;jpid epWTtNj MFk;. v. fh : MAs; fhg;gPlL ; epWtdk; (LIC), Vh;
,e;jpah> ,e;jpahprh;t; tq;fp>kpd;rhuthhpak;
epjpMNahf;
 epjpMNahf; vd;gJ 65 Mz;Lfs; goikahdjpl;lf; FOTf;Fkhw;whfmikf;fg;gl;lFOthFk;.

mikr;rfq;fSf;Fk;>khepyq;fSf;Fk; epjpxJf;fjpl;lf; FOtpw;Fmjpfhuk;
jw;NghJepjpmikr;rfj;jpd; fPo; cs;sJ.
 epjpMNahf; mbg;gilapy; xUkjpAiuaff; FOthfTk; cz;ikahdMNyhridf;
FOthfTk; 2015 [dthp 1 Mk; NjjpapypUe;Jnray;glJtq;fpAs;sJ.
,e;jpa ,uapy;NtahdJmjpfmstpy; gzpahsh;fisf; nfhz;lnghJj;JiwepWtdkhFk;.
Kf;fpajdpahh; epWtdq;fs;
 ,d;Nghrp]; epWtdk;
 Mjpj;ahgph;yhepWtdk;
 hpiyad;]; ,z;l];l;hpay; epWtdq;fs;
 lhl;lh FOk epWtdq;fs;
 tpg;NuhepWtdk;
 ,e;J];jhd; A+dpyPth; epWtdk;
 IrpIrpItq;fpepWtdk;

nghJj;JiwepWtdq;fspd; gl;bay; : ,e;jpahtpy; 2017 MNk; Mz;ilg; nghWj;jtiu 8

kfhuj;dhnjhopy;fs;> 16 etuj;dhnjhopy;fs; kw;Wk; 74 kpdpuj;dhnjhopy;fs; cs;sd.
fpl;lj;jl;l 300 kj;jpanghJj;JiwepWtdq;fs; (CPSEs) cs;sd.
kfhuj;dhnjhopy;fs; (Maharatna Industries) : ruhrhpahfMz;Lf;Fepfuyhgk; &. 2500

Nfhbmy;yJruhrhpMz;Lepfukjpg;G 3 Mz;LfSf;F&. 10>000 Nfhbmy;yJruhrhpMz;LtUtha;
3 Mz;LfSf;F&. 20>000 Nfhb (Kd;dh; ghpe;Jiuf;fg;gl;l&. 25>000 Nfhbf;Fkhw;whf)
nfhz;Ls;snjhopy;fs; kfhuj;dhnjhopy;fs; vd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
 Njrpamstpyhdfofk; (NIPC)
 vz;nza; kw;Wk; ,aw;ifvhpthA Mizak; (ONGC)
 ,e;jpa ,Uk;GMiy Mizak; (SAIL)
 ghujkpFkpd; epWtdk; (BHEL)
 ,e;jpavz;nza; epWtdk; (IOCL)
 ,e;jpaepyf;fhpepWtdk; (CIL)
 nfapy; (,e;jpah) epWtdk; (GAIL)
 ghujngl;NuhypaepWtdk; (BPCL)
etuj;dhnjhopy;fs; (Navratna Industries) : mWgJvd;w (E}w;Wf;Fvd;wmstpy;) MW

mstPLfs; ,jpy; epfuyhgk;>epfukjpg;G>nkhj;jkdpjtsnryT>nkhj;jcw;gj;jpnryT>Nritfspy;
nryT>PBDIT (Profit Before Depreciation Interest and taxes) Nja;khdj;jpw;FKd;
yhgk;>tl;bkw;Wk; thpfs;> %yjdk; gzpakh;j;jy; Nghd;witkw;Wk; xUepWtdk; Kjypy;
xUkpdpuj;dhthf ,Ue;Jmjw;FKd; mjd; FOtpy; 4 Rje;jpukhd ,af;Fdh;fs;
,Uf;fngw;why; mijxUetuj;dhepWtdkhfkhw;wKbAk;.
 ghujkpFkpd; epWtdk; (BHEL)

 ,e;jpanfhs;fyd; epWtdk; (CONCOR)
 ,e;jpanghwpahsh;fs; epWtdk; (EIL)
 ,e;J];jhd; ,e;jpaepWtdk; (HIL)
 ,e;J];jhd; ngl;NuhypaepWtdk; (HPCL)

etuj;dh vd;wnrhy; xd;gJ tpiy kjpg;gw;w uj;jdq;fisf; Fwpf;fpwJ. ,Jgpd;dh;

Fg;jNguurh; tpf;ukhjpj;ad; kw;Wk; KfyhaNguurh; mf;gh; MfpNahhpd; mitapy; mr;nrhy;yhdJ
xd;gJ mwpQh;fis Fwpg;gpLtjhf mike;jJ.

t. nghJj;Jiw jdpahh;Jiw
vz;
1 njhopy;fspd; chpikahdJmurhq;fj;jplk; njhopy;fspd; chpikahdJjdpegh;fsplk;
cs;sJ cs;sJ
2 nghJtUtha;>tUkhdk; gz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; gq;Ffs; kw;Wk; fld;
gzpfspd; kPJtpjpf;Fk; thpianghUj;jJ gj;jpuq;fistoq;Fjy; my;yJfld;
thq;Ftijg; nghUj;jJ
3 nghJj;Jiwnjhopyhsh;fSf;FKiwahdCjp jdpahh;Jiwnjhopyhsh;fisRuz;LfpwJ
aj;ijcWjpnra;fpwJ
4 ,JxUrpyh; ,JxUrpyh; iffspy;
iffspNyhmy;yJgzf;fhuh;fsplk; ngUk; my;yJgzf;fhuh;fsplk; ngUk;
nry;tj;ijFtpf;fmDkjpf;fhJ nry;tj;ijFtpf;fmDkjpf;fpwJ
5 nghJj;JiwepWtdq;fSf;F NLC, SAIL, jdpahh; JiwepWtdq;fSf;F TVS Motors,
BSNL Nghd;witcjhuzkhFk; Ashok Leyland, TATA Steel
Nghd;witcjhuzkhFk;
6 thpVa;g;G ,y;iy thpVa;g;Gcz;L
7 ,JNritNehf;fKilajhFk; ,JKw;wpYk; ,yhgNehf;fk; cilaJ
8 r%fhPjpahfgpd;jq;fpakf;fSf;FKd;Dhpikm ,Jr%fhPjpahfgpd;jq;fpath;f;fkf;fisngh
spf;fg;gLfpwJ. Ul;gLj;jhJ. ,lxJf;fLP gpd;gw;wgLtjpy;iy
,lxJf;fPLeilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ
kpdpuj;dhnjhopy;fs; - 1 (Miniratna Industries – 1 ) : %d;wpy; xUtUlk; epfuyhghk; &. 30

Nfhbmy;yJmjw;FNky; my;yJnjhlh;r;rpahf %d;WtUlq;fs; yhgk; <l;banjhopw;rhiyahFk;.
rpykpdpuj;dhnjhopy;fs; - 1 mit
 ,e;jpatpkhdepiya Mizak; (AAI)

 ghuj ,af;ftpay; epWtdk; (BDL)
 ghuj; rQ;rhh; epfhk; epWtdk; (BSNL)
 nrd;idngl;NuhypaepWtdk; (CPCL)
 ,e;jpath;j;jfNkk;ghl;Lmikg;G(ITPO)
 ,e;jpakhepyth;j;jffofk; (STCI)
kpdpuj;dhnjhopy;fs; - 2 (Miniratna Industries – 2 )
%d;WMz;Lfshfnjhlh;rr ; pahfyhgk; <l;bAs;skw;Wk;

Neh;kiwahdepfukjpg;Gnfhz;lnjhopw;rhiyfshFk;. rpykpdpuj;dhnjhopy;fs; - 2 mit
 HMT gd;dhl;LepWtdk;
 ,e;jpakUe;Jkw;Wk; kUj;Jtcgfuzq;fs; epWtdk; (IMPCL)
 MECON epWtdk;
 fdpkMa;TepWtdk;
 Njrpajpiug;glNkk;ghl;Lf; fofk;
 ghujgk;Gfs; &mKf;fpfs; epWtdk;

nghJj;Jiwfs; gpd;tUk; 9 tiffshfgphpf;fg;gLfpd;wd

1. nghJj;JiwepWtdq;fs;>nghUshjhuNkk;ghl;Lf;Fmj;jpahtrpacs;fl;likg;igtoq;fNt
z;Lk;. ,itfs; Kjd;iknghJg; gad;ghLfs; vdmiof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
mitgpd;tUtdtw;iwcs;slf;Ffpd;wd. tpkhdepWtdq;fs;>fg;gy; Nghf;Ftuj;J>
,uapy;Nt>kpd; cw;gj;jp>njhiyj; njhlh;GNghd;witfshFk;.
2. nghJj;JiwepWtdq;fs; “fl;lisg; nghUshjhuj;jpd; mjpfhuq;fis”(Commanding
heights of the economy) jdJfl;Lg;ghl;by; itj;jpUf;fNtz;Lk;. v.fh
:ghJfhg;G>tq;fpfs;>epyf;fhpRuq;fq;fs;>vz;nza;> v/F Nghd;witfshFk;.
3. nghJj;JiwxUnjhopy;KidNthh; gq;fpidtfpf;fNtz;Lk; mjhtJNtWtpjkhf
$wpdhy; ,jid %yjdjPtpunjhopy;fs; vd;Wk; miof;fyhk;. v. fh :
,Uk;Gj;jhJ>ngl;Nuh–NtjpnghUs;>cuk;>Ruq;fk;>fg;gy; - fl;Lkhdk;>fdufnghwpapay;
Nghd;wit.
4. murpd; Kw;Whpikapd; fPo; cs;snghJj;JiwepWtdq;fs; ,jpy; mlq;Fk; :
njhiyj;njhlh;Gcgfuzq;fs;>ghJfhg;Gcw;gj;jp> ,uapy;Nt>Nuhypq; ];lhf; Nghd;wit.
5. cah; njhopy;El;gnjhopy;fSf;Fkl;LNkgpuj;jpNafkhf ,Uf;Fk;
nghJj;JiwepWtdq;fs;. v.fh :mZrf;jp
6. Efh;Nthh; rhh;e;jnghJj;JiwepWtdq;fs;. v.fh :kUe;J>fhfpjk;>cztfk; Nghd;wit
7. eyptile;jjdpahh;
epWtdq;fisifafg;gLj;Jtjw;Fmikf;fg;gl;lnghJj;JiwepWtdq;fs;. v.fh :
[Tsp>nghwpapay; Nghd;wit.
8. th;j;jffofkhfmikf;fg;gl;Ls;snghJj;JiwepWtdq;fs;. v.fh : ,e;jpaczTf;fofk;
(FCI), rp.rp.I(CCI) Kjypad.
9. MNyhridkwWk; nghwpapay; NritiatoqFk; nghJj;JiwepWtdq;fs;. v.fh
:nkf;fhd; epWtdk; (MECON)

9k;tFg;
G
c q;
fS f;
F njup
Akh ?
jfty;Ngio
rp
WJsp
ml;
ltiz fs;
kdtiug;
glq;
fs;
;
NkYk;mwp
e;
J nfhs;
Nthk;
myF– 2 gz;ilaehfhpfq;fs;
Ngg;gh; vd;wnrhy; “ghg;gpu];”(Papyrus) vd;wjhtuj;jpd; ngahpypUe;Jte;jJ. vfpg;jpah;fs;

fhfpjehzy; (ghg;gpu];) vd;wjhtujz;bypUe;Jjhs;fisj; jahhpj;jdh;. ,j;jhtuk; iey;
gs;sj;jhf;fpy; mjpfkhftsh;e;jJ.
rpe;JntspvOj;Jfs; - Ma;T
 ùg;ghkf;fs; vOJk; fiyiamwpe;jpUe;jdh;.

 ,e;jvOj;Jfs; ,yr;rpidfs;>RLkz; Kj;jpiufs;>kl;ghz;lq;fs; Mfpatw;wpy;
fhzg;gLfpd;wd
 nghwpg;Gfs; kpfTk; FWfpait. njhlh;fs; ruhrhpahfIe;Jf;Fk;
FiwthdFwpaPLfisNanfhz;Ls;sd.
 Nuhrl;lhfy;ypy; fhzg;gl;lJNghyKk;nkhopfs; gad;gLj;jg;gltpy;iy
 vOj;Jfs; tyg; gf;fj;jpypUe;J ,lg; gf;fkhfvOjg;gl;Ls;sd
 fzpdp %yk; gFg;gha;Tnra;j ,u~;a mwpQh; A+hpNehNuhNrht; rpe;JntspvOj;Jfs;
jpuhtplnkhopf; FLk;gk; Nghd;wthh;j;ijthpiriag; ngw;Ws;sdvd;fpwhh;.
 rpe;Jntspehfhpfk; Fwpj;JtphpthdMa;Tnra;Js;smwpQuhdIuhtjk; kfhNjtd;
“ùg;ghnkhopapd; %y Nth;fs; njd;dpe;jpajpuhtplnkhopfisxj;jpUg;gijehk;
fhzyhk;”vd;fpwhh;
 kapyhLJiwapy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sfw;Nfhlhhpapy; cs;sFwpaPLfs; rpe;Jntspapy;
fz;nlLf;fg;gl;litapy; cs;sFwpaPLfisxj;jpUf;fpd;wdvd;W $Wfpwhh; Iuhtjk;
kfhNjtd;
 Nk 2007 Mk; Mz;Ljkpo;ehLnjhy;ypay; Jiwahy; G+k;GfhUf;FmUfpy;
NkyngUk;gs;sk; vd;Dk; ,lj;jpy; fz;nlLf;fg;gl;lghidfspy;
cs;smk;GNghd;wFwpaPLfs; nkhfQ;rjhNuhtpy; fz;nlLf;fg;gl;l ,yr;rpidfisg;
Nghd;Wcs;sd.
Fwp milahsk; xypg;G nghUs; Fwp mila xypg;G nghUs;
aPL Kiw aPL hsk; Kiw
1. rhpghjpahfgF kPd; kPd; 1. kPd; gRkPd; gr;irtpz;kPd;
f;fg;gLk; kPd; tpz;kPd; Gjd;fpufk;
2. Nkw;$iu + Kk;kPd; %d;Wtpz; 2. 3 + Nka;i fUg;Gtpz;kPd;
kPd; kP d ; kPd; kkPd; rdpfpufk;
kpUfrPhp~
k;
3. ,ilg;gl;l + mWkPd; MW 3. 6 + nts;sp ntz;iktpz;kPd;n
gFjpkPd; tpz; kP df; kPd; kPd; ts;spfpufk;
s;
fhh;j;jpif
4. Gs;sp / vOkPd; VO 4. 7 + nghl;L rpfg;GkPd;
JspkPd; tpz;kPdf ; kPd; kPd; nfz;ilrpfg;Gtp
s; z;kPd; Nuhfpdp
rg;jhp~pk
z;lyk;
tuyhw;WmwpQh; gh;Nghyhtpd; fUj;Jg;gb>rpe;JntspvOj;Jf;fspd; FwpaPLfs;
jpuhtplxw;iwf; Fwpg;GNth;fSld; xj;Jg;Nghfpd;wd

myF– 3 njhlf;ffhyj; jkpo;r; r%fKk; gz;ghLk;
gj;Jg;ghl;L E}y;fshtd : vl;Lj;njhif E}y;fshtd :

(1) jpUKUfhw;Wg;gil (2) nghUeuhw;Wg;gil (1) ew;wpiz (2) FWe;njhif
(3) ngUk;ghzhw;Wg;gil (4) rpWghzhw;Wg;gil (3) ghpghly; (4) gjpw;Wg;gj;J
(5) Ky;iyg;ghl;L (6) neLey;thil (5) Iq;FWE}W (6) fypj;njhif
(7) kJiuf;fhQ;rp (8) FwpQ;rpg;ghl;L (7) mfehD}W (8) GwehD}W
(9) gl;bdg;ghiy (10) kiygLflhk;
fhyf;NfhL
Vwj;jhofp.K (fp.K (ngh.M.K) 1300 –fp.K ,Uk;Gf;fhyk; / ngUq;fw;fhyk;
(ngh.M.K) 300 tiu
Vwj;jhofp.K (ngh.M.K) 300 –ngh. M 300 gz;ilatuyhw;Wf; fhyk; / rq;ffhyk;
tiu ,jw;FKd;dUk; njhlq;fpapUf;fyhk;
Vwj;jhofp.K (ngh. M. K) 300 –ngh. M 300 rq;f ,yf;fpaq;fs;
tiu
Vwj;jho fp. K (ngh. M. K) 400 –fp.K jkpo; - gpuhkpvOj;JKiwapd; mwpKfk;
(ngh. M. K) 300 tiu
ngh. M Kjy; E}w;whz;L vhpj;jphpad; flypd; nghpg;s];
ngh. M Kjy; E}w;whz;L gpspdpapd; ,aw;iftuyhW
ngh. M ,uz;lhk; E}w;whz;L jhykpapd; Gtpapay;
ngh. M ,uz;lhk; E}w;whz;L tpad;dhghg;gpu];
Vwj;jhongh. M 300 –ngh. M 500 tiu rq;fk; kUtpafhyk;
Ik;ngUq;fhg;gpaq;fs; : fhg;gpaq;fs; vd;gitftpijeaKilanra;As; tbtpyhdePz;l ,yf;fpag;

gilg;GfshFk;. mit
(1) rpyg;gjpfhuk; (2) kzpNkfiy (3) rPtfrpe;jhkzp (4) tisahgjp
(5) Fz;lyNfrp
Gypkhd; Nfhk;igeLfw;fs; : Njdp khtl;lj;jpd; itifMw;Wg; gs;sj;jhf;fpy; cs;s Ch;

Gypkhd;Nfhk;ig (Gs;spkhd; Nfhk;ig) MFk;. 2006 Mk; Mz;by; ,e;jChpypUe;Jjkpo;
gpuhkpfy;ntl;LfSld; $bamhpaeLfw;fs; fz;nlLf;fg;gl;ld. Gypkhd;Nfhk;igapy;
fz;nlLf;fg;gl;lfy;ntl;Lfspy; xd;wpy; fPo;f;fz;lnra;jpfhzg;gLfpwJ. “$ly;Ch; MNfhs;
ngLjPad; me;jtd; fy;” ,jd; nghUs; : “$lY}hpy; Mepiufth;e;jNghJele;jG+rypy;
nfhy;yg;gl;ljPad; me;jtdpd; fy;”

myF– 1 murhq;fmikg;Gfs; kw;Wk; kf;fshl;rp
kf;fshl;rp(Democracy) vDk; nrhy; ‘DEMOS’ kw;Wk; ‘CRATIA’ vDk; ,U

fpNuf;fnrhw;fspypUe;Jngwg;gl;ljhFk;. nlkh]; vd;why; ‘kf;fs; fpu]p vd;why; mjpfhuk;’(Power
of the people) vd;WnghUs;gLk;.
“kf;fshy; kf;fSf;fhfkf;fNselj;Jk; Ml;rp”“kf;fshl;rp”vd;Wmnkhpf;fIf;fpaehLfspd; Nkds;

FbauRj; jiyth; Mgpufhk; ypq;fd; kf;fshl;rpf;Ftiuaiw $wpdhh;.
ngh.M.K 500 k; Mz;LNuhk; ehl;by; Kjd; Kjypy; “FbauR”(Republic) vDk; nrhy;

tbtikf;fg;gl;lJ. ,r;nrhy; “res publica” vDk; yj;jPd; nkhopr; nrhy;ypypUe;Jngwg;gl;lJ. ,jd;
nghUs; “nghJtptfhuk;”(public matter) vd;gjhFk;. ,e;jpamurpayikg;Getk;gh; 26> 1949 y; Vw;Wf;
nfhs;sg;gl;L [dthp 26> 1950 Mk; Mz;LeilKiwf;Fte;jJ. vdNt [dthpkhjk; 26 Mk; ehs;>
1950 Mk; Mz;L ,e;jpahFbauRehlhfkyh;e;jJ.
nghJNjh;jy;fs; - 1920 : ,k;gPhpay; fTd;rpy; vDk; kj;jparl;lrigf;Fk; khfhzrl;lrigf;Fk;

NjitahdcWg;gpdh;fisj; Njh;e;njLf;f 1920 Mk; Mz;Lgphpl;b~; ,e;jpahtpy; Kjy;
nghJj;Njh;jy; eilngw;wJ. ,JNt ,e;jpatuyhw;wpd; Kjy; nghJj;Njh;jy; MFk;.
kf;fshl;rpmurhq;fmikg;Gfs;
ehlhSkd;wmurhq;fKiw
mjpgh; murhq;fKiw (v.fh:
(v.fh : ,e;jpah> ,q;fpyhe;J)
mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehLfs;>gpuhd;]);
thf;fhsh;fs;
thf;fhsh;fs;
rl;lkd;wk;
eph;thfk; eph;thfk; rl;lkd;wk;

1912 – 13 Mk; Mz;L GJ jpy;ypapy; cs;s ,e;jpahtpd; ehlhSkd;wf; fl;blj;ijvl;tpd;

Yl;bad;]; kw;Wk; n`h;gh;l; Ngf;fh; vDk; gphpl;b~; fl;lblf;fiyQh;fs; tbtikj;jdh;.
,f;fl;blj;ij 1921 Mk; Mz;Lfl;lj; njhlq;fp> 1927 y; Kbj;jdh;.
ehlhSkd;wj;jpd; ,U mitfs;
 uh[;a rgh / Nky; mit / khepyq;fsit

 Nyhf; rggh / fPo; mit / kf;fsit
myF– 2 Njh;jy;>murpay; fl;tpfs; kw;Wk; mOj;jf; FOf;fs;
jkpo;ehl;by; Nrhoh;fs; fhyj;jpy; FlNthiyvd;Dk; tof;fg;gbfpuhkrigcWg;gpdh;fs;

Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;ldh;.
kpd;dZthf;Fg;gjpT ,ae;jpuq;fspy; Ntl;ghshpd; ngaUf;Fvjphpy;

cs;snghj;jhidmOj;jpthf;Fr; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. xUth; jhk; nrYj;jpathf;Fr;
rhpahdgbgjpthfpcs;sjhvd;gJnjhpe;Jnfhs;Sk; tha;g;ig 2014 k; Mz;LnghJj;
Njh;jypy; Njh;jy; Mizak; mwpKfg;gLj;jaJ. ,ijMq;fpyj;jpy; RUf;fkhf VVPAT
(Voters Verified Paper Audit Trial) vd;WFwpg;gpLfpwhh;fs;.
,e;jpahtpy; [dthp 25 Mk; ehspidNjrpathf;fhsh; jpdkhfnfhz;lhLfpNwhk;.
2014y; eilngw;wnghJj; Njh;jypy; Kjy; Kiwahf NOTA mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.

cyfpy; NOTA – it mwpKfg;gLj;jpa 14tJ ehL ,e;jpahMFk;.
,e;jpaFbauRj; jiyth; vg;gbNjh;e;njLf;fg;gLfpwhh;?
,e;jpaFbauRj; jiyth; gpd;tUk; cWg;gpdh;fs; nfhz;lNjh;jy; Fohk; (Electoral

College) %yk; Njh;e;njLf;fg;gLfpwhh;. mit
1. ghuhSkd;wj;jpd; ,U mitapd; Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;lcWg;gpdh;fs;

2. ,e;jpahtpy; cs;smidj;Jkhepyq;fs; kw;Wk; A+dpad; gpuNjrq;fspy;
cs;sNjh;e;njLf;fg;gl;lrl;lkd;wcWg;gpdh;fs;
Fwpg;G : ghuhSkd;w ,U mitfs; kw;Wk; khepyrl;lkd;wq;fspy; epakpf;fg;gLk;
epakdcWg;gpdh;fs; ,f;FOtpy; mq;fk; ,lk; ngwkhl;lhh;fs;.
murpay; fl;rpfs;
Njrpaf; fl;rpfs; khepyf; fl;rpfs;
MSk; fl;rpfs; vjph; fl;rpfs; MSk; fl;rpfs; vjph; fl;rpfs;
mOj;jf; FOf;fSf;fhdvLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs; :
1. ,e;jpatzpfk; kw;Wk; njhopw;Jiwrk;Nksj;jpd; $l;likg;G(FICCI)

2. mfpy ,e;jpaj; njhopw;rq;ffhq;fpu]; (AITUC)
3. mfpy ,e;jpatptrhapfs; rq;fk; (AIKS)
4. ,e;jpakUj;Jtr; rq;fk; (IMA)
5. mfpy ,e;jpakhzth; rk;Nksdk; (AISF)
6. mfpy ,e;jparPf;fpakhzth; Nguit
7. ,sk; gjhfhrq;fk; (YBA)
8. jkpo;r; rq;fk;
9. jkpo;ehLtptrhapfs; rq;fk;
10. eh;kjhgr;rhNthme;Njhyd;

myF 3 –kdpjchpikfs;
,Wjpf;Fte;j ,d xJf;fy; nfhs;if
,dxJf;fy; (Apartheid) njd;dhg;gphpf;fhtpy; fhzg;gl;l ,dg;ghFghLMFk;.

trpg;gplq;fSk; ,dj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; jPh;khdpf;fg;gl;ld.
Fiwe;jvz;zpf;ifapyhdnts;is ,dj;jth; mjpfvz;zpf;ifapyhdfWg;gpdj;jthpd;
kPJMjpf;fk; nrYj;jpa ,e;j ,dxJf;fy; nfhs;iff;Fvjpuhfnjd;dhg;gphpf;fkf;fs;
Nghuhbdh;.ney;rd; kz;Nlyh ,d xJf;fy; vdg;gLk; nfhs;iff;Fvjpuhfnjhlh;rr ; pahfg;
Nghuhbdhh;. muRf;FvjphhfNghuhl;lq;fs; elj;jpaNghJrpiwapy;
js;sg;gl;lhh;.cs;ehl;bYk;>cyfehLfspypUe;Jk; mtuJNghuhl;lj;jpw;FMjuTngUfpaNghJ>
,dhPjpahdcs;ehl;LNghh; Vw;gLNkhvd;wmr;rj;jpdhy; njd;dhg;gphpf;fjiyth; F.W.D.
fpshh;f; 1990 – y; mtiutpLjiynra;jhh;.kz;Nlyhkw;Wk; b.fpshh;f; MfpNahuJfLk;
Kaw;rpapdhy; ,d xJf;fy; nfhs;ifxUKbtpw;Fte;jJ. 1994 – y; gy;ypdg;nghJj;Njh;jy;
eilngw;wnghOJ>kz;Nlyhtpd; jiyikapyhdMg;gphpf;fNjrpafhq;fpu];
ntw;wpngw;Wme;ehl;bd; jiytuhdhh;.ePjpg;Nguhiz (Writ)
vd;gJxUnraiynra;aNthmy;yJmr;nraiyjLf;fNthePjpkd;wj;jhy;
my;yJNtWrl;lmikg;gpdhy; toq;fg;gLk; vOj;Jg;G+h;tkhdcj;juT.
%j;jFbkf;fs; kw;Wk; ngw;Nwhh; eyd;fs; guhkhpg;Gr; rl;lk; 2007 – Mk; Mz;by; rl;lkhf
,aw;wg;gl;lJ. ,e;jr; rl;lk; gps;isfSf;Fk; thhpRfSf;Fk; jq;fs; ngw;Nwhiu my;yJ
%j;jFbkf;fisg; ghJfhf;FkhW Nfl;Lf;nfhs;Sk; rl;lg;g+h;t Ntz;LNfhs; MFk;.
,ytrkw;Wk; fl;lhaf; fy;tpchpikr; rl;lk; (Right of children to free and compulsory education)
2009 xt;nthU Foe;ijAk; njhlf;ff; fy;tpgapychpikcs;sJvd;gijtypAWj;Jfpd;wJ.
,t;Thpik Foe;ijfs njhlf;ff; fy;tpKbAk; tiumUfhikapy; cs;sgs;spapy; ,ytr
kw;Wk; fl;lhaf; fy;tp mspf;f toptif nra;fpwJ. fy;tpgapYk; Foe;ij ve;jtifahd
fl;lzKk; nrYj;jNtz;bamtrpakpy;iy.
Mgj;Jfhyj;jpy; cjtplfhtyd; SOSnraypjkpo;ehLmurpdhy; nghJkf;fspd;

gad;ghl;bw;fhfmwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. ngz;fs; kl;Lkpd;wp>rpf;fyhdmy;yJneUf;fbahd
#oypy; ,Uf;Fk; midtUk; khepyfhty; fl;Lg;ghl;Lmiwapid ,r;nraypapd;
cjtpNahLvspjhfTk;>NeubahfTk; njhlh;Gnfhs;s ,aYk;.

kdpjchpikfs; kw;Wk; mbg;gilchpikfSf;F ,ilapyhdNtWghLfs;

kdpjchpikfs; mbg;gilchpikfs;
 kdpjd;  murpayikg;gpy; fhzg;gLk; Fbkf;fspd;
jd;khdj;NjhLk;>Rje;jpuj;NjhLk; Mjhuchpikfs; mbg;gilchpikfs;
thOfpd;wchpikfs; vdg;gLk;. ,itrl;lj;jpd; %yk;
eilKiwg;gLj;jg;glyhk;
 kdpjdpd; tho;tpy; mbg;gilj;  kf;fspd; ,ay;Gtho;f;iff;F Mjhukhf
NjitfSf;fhdchpikfs; ,jpy; cs;schpikfSk;>mbg;gilchpikfspy;
mlq;fpAs;sd. ,tw;iwg; gwpf;f mlq;Fk;
,ayhJ
 kdpjchpikfs; gd;dhLmstpy;  mbg;gilchpikfs; ekJehl;bd;
mq;fPfhpf;fg;gl;lit murpayikg;Gr; rl;lj;jpd; %yk;
cj;jputhjk; mspf;fg;gLfpd;wd
Foe;ijfs; Njrj;jpd; mbj;jskhftpsq;Ffpd;wdh;. rpWtajpNyNangz;

Foe;ijfSf;Fj; jpUkzk; nra;Jitf;fg;gLk;NghJFoe;ijg; gUtj;jpd;
kfpo;r;rpfs;>fy;tpawpT>MNuhf;fpakhdtho;TNghd;wgyrYiffismth;fs; ,oe;JtpLfpd;wdh;.
,jdhy; Foe;ijj; jpUkzq;fs; r%fj;ijg; ngUkstpy; ghjpf;fpd;wd. vdNtFoe;ijj;
jpUkzq;fs; midj;Jtpjj;jpYk; jLf;fg;glNtz;baxd;whFk;.
1098 –cjtpNjitg;gLk; Foe;ijfSf;fhdcjtpikavz; (Child Line) ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; 24

kzpNeufl;lkpy;yhmtruhnjhiynjhlh;GNritMFk;. Foe;ijj; njhopyhsh;>Foe;ijj;
jpUkzk; kw;Wk; VNjDk; td;nfhLikf;FMshFk; Foe;ijfSf;F rpwg;Gf; ftdk;
nrYj;jg;gLk;
gr;gd; gr;rht; me;Njhyd; (,sikiaf; fhg;ghw;W ,af;fk;) Nghd;wgyFoe;ijfs;

chpikmikg;Gfspd; epWtdh; ifyh~; rj;ahh;j;jp. mth; Foe;ijciog;G>nfhj;jbik>flj;jy;
Nghd;wgy Foe;ijfSf;F vjpuhdeltbf;ifapypUe;JRkhh; 86>000 j;jpw;Fk; mjpfkhd ,e;jpaf;
Foe;ijfs; ,tuhYk;> ,tuJ FO cWg;gpdh;fshYk; kPl;fg;gl;Ls;sdh;. 1998 y;
cyfkf;fspd; ftdj;ijFoe;ijciog;GKiwkPJjpirjpUg;g 80>000
fp.kPePsFoe;ijciog;Gf;FvjpuhdcyfshtpamzptFg;ig(Global march against child labour)
Kd;dpd;Welj;jpdhh;.

,e;jpamurpayikg;gpy; Foe;ijfs; chpik

gphpT24 :gjpdhd;FtaJf;Fl;gl;lve;jFoe;ijAk; Mgj;jhdNtiyfspy; <LgLj;jf;$lhJ.
gphpT45 :gjpdhd;FtaJepiwtilAk; tiu ,ytrkw;Wk; fl;lhaf;
fy;tpmidj;JFoe;ijfSf;Fk; mspf;fg;glNtz;Lk;.
gphpTfs; ,lxJf;fPL (rjtPjj;jpy;)

gpw;gLj;jg;gl;Nlhh; 26.5
gpw;gLj;jg;gl;ltFg;G K];ypk;fs; 3.5
kpfg;gpw;gLj;jg;gl;Nlhh; / rPh;kugpdh; 20
Mjpjpuhtplh; 18
goq;Fbapdh; 1
nkhj;jk; 69
ngz;fSf;F %jhijah; nrhj;Jhpik :

jkpo;ehL ,e;JthhpRchpik (jkpo;eHLjpUj;jr; rl;lk;) 1989 I epiwNtw;wp %jhijahpd;
nrhj;Jfspy; ngz;fSf;Fk; rkchpiktoq;fpAs;sJ. kj;jpamuR ,e;JthhpRhpikr; rl;lk; 2005
,y; jpUj;jq;fisNkw;nfhz;lJ. ,jpy; %jhijahpd; gphpf;fg;glhjnrhj;jpy; thhpRmbg;gilapy;
ngz;fSf;Frkchpikapidmspj;jJ.
ngz; njhopyhsh; eyDk; - lhf;lh; gp.Mh; mk;Ngj;fUk;

Ruq;fj; njhopyhsh; NgWfhyed;ikr; rl;lk;>ngz; njhopyhsh; eyepjp>ngz;fs; kw;Wk;
Foe;ijj; njhopyhsh; ghJfhg;Gr; rl;lk;>ngz;
njhopyhsh;fSf;fhdNgWfhyed;ikfs;>epyf;fhpr; Ruq;fq;fspy; Ruq;fg; gzpfspy;
ngz;fis<LgLj;jg;gLtjw;fhdjiliakPl;nlLj;jy; Nghd;wrl;lq;fs; lhf;lh; gp.Mh;. mk;Ngj;fh;
mth;fshy; ngz; njhopyhsh;fSf;fhf ,e;jpahtpy; ,aw;wg;gl;lJ.
gj;J Mz;Lfshf Nfushtpy; cs;sfilfs; kw;Wk; tzpf tshfq;fspy; Ntiy
nra;Ak; ngz;fs; xUehspy; Vwf;Fiwa 12 – 14 kzpNeuk; epd;Wnfhz;Nl Ntiy nra;J
nfhz;bUe;jdh;. filfspYk;>tzpftshfq;fspYk; Ntiynra;Ak; ngz; gzpahsh;
mkh;e;Njh>Rthpy; rha;e;jgbNah gzpahw;w mDkjpf;fg;gltpy;iy. xUehisf;F ,UKiw 5
epkplq;fs; kl;LNk Xa;T vLf;f mDkjpf;fg;gl;ldh;. ngz;fSf;F ,iof;fg;gLk;
,e;jkdpjjd;ikaw;w nraYf;fhf ePz;lehs;fshf ngUj;j fz;ldf; Fuy;fs; xypj;Jte;jd.
,g;gpur;ridiag; ghprPypj;J Fiwfis epth;j;jpnra;Ak; nghUl;LNfus muR tzpf
epWtdrl;lj;jpy; 2018 [{iykhjj;jpy; rl;ljpUj;jk; nfhz;Lte;jJ. ,jd; %yk; ngz;fs;
,j;Jah; ePq;fp ntw;wp fz;Ls;sdh;.

njhopyhsh; eydpy; lhf;lh; gp.Mh; mk;Ngj;fhpd; gq;fspg;Gfs;
 njhopw;rhiyapy; NtiyNeuk; Fiwg;G

 njhopw;rq;fq;fspd; fl;lhamq;fPfhuk;
 ,e;jpahtpy; Ntiytha;g;GmYtyfq;fs; mikj;jy;
 njhopyhsh; fhg;gl
P ;Lf;fofk; (ESI)
 njhopyhsh;fSf;fhdFiwe;jgl;rCjpak;
 epyf;fhpkw;Wk; ikfhRuq;fj;jpd; tUq;fhyitg;Gepjp
myF– 4 murhq;fq;fspd; tiffs;
murpd; cWg;Gfs;
rl;lkd;wk; eph;thfk; ePjpj;Jiw
murpayikg;gpd; tiffs;
vOjg;gl;l/ nefpOk; jd;ikAila/ nefpOk;

vOjg;glhjmurpayikg; jd;ikaw;wmurpayikg;G
G

xw;iwahl;rpKiw $l;lhl;rpKiw
xNunahUmuRmy;yJJizf; FOf;fs; ,uz;Lepiyapy; murhq;fk;
ngUk;ghYk; xNuFbAhpik ,ul;ilf; FbAhpik
Jizf; FOf;fs; jd;dpr;irahfr; nray;gl $l;lhl;rpapd; FOf;fs;
,ayhJ kj;jpamuRf;Fcl;gl;lit
mjpfhug; gphpT ,y;iy mjpfhug; gfph;T
ikag;gLj;jg;gl;lmjpfhuk; mjpfhug; guty;
ehLfs; ehlhSkd;wq;fspd; ngah;fs;

,];Nuy; nfnd]l;
n[h;kdp ge;nj];lhf;
nld;khh;f; Nghf;bq;
ehh;Nt ];lhh;bq;
If;fpamnkhpf;fehLfs; fhq;fpu];
[g;ghd; lal;
gphpl;ld; ghh;ypnkd;l;
mjpgh; kf;fshl;rpKiw ehlhSkd;wMl;rpKiw

FbauRj;jiyth; kf;fshy; Neubahfj; ngUk;ghd;ikngw;wfl;rpapd; jiyth;
Njh;e;njLf;fg;gLfpwhh;fs; gpujkke;jphpahthh;
mjpgNumjpfhuk; gilj;jth; kj;jparl;lkd;wk; mjpfhuk; gilj;jJ
mjpfhug; gphptpid mjpfhug; gphptpidikag;gLj;jg;glhky; ,Ug;gJ
Rje;jpukhfr; nray;gLk; gphpTfs; jdpj;jdpahdrhh;Gilanray;ghLfisf;
nfhz;lgphpTfs;
khfhzj;jpd; jiyth; mjpgh; Mthh; murpd; jiyth; - FbauRj; jiyth;
murhq;fj;jpd; jiytUk; mjpgNu murhq;fj;jpd; jiyth; - gpujkmikr;rh;
jdpegh; jiyik $l;Lj; jiyik
kfhrigapd; nray;fSf;Fmjpgh; $l;Lkw;Wk; jdpj;jdpahdnghWg;Gfs;
nghWg;igVw;fkhl;lhh;.
,e;jpakj;jpa>khepymuRfSf;F ,ilNacs;scwT :
,e;jpaehL> ,e;jpa murpayikg;gpy; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s top
KiwfSf;Fcl;gl;Lkj;jpa>khepymuRfSf;fpilNa mjpfhuq;fis gfph;e;Jnfhs;Sk;
khepyq;fspd; $l;likg;G MFk;. kj;jpa khepy muRfSf;F ,ilNa mjphuq;fs;
gfph;e;Jnfhs;sg;gl;lhYk; midj;J tptfhuq;fspYk; KbTntLg;gJ kj;jpamuNr MFk;.
kj;jpa khepy muRfSf;F ,ilNaahd cwT vd;gJ :
1. rl;lkd;wcwTfs; (gphpTfs; 245 Kjy; 256 tiu)
2. eph;thfcwTfs; (gphpTfs; 256 Kjy; 263 tiu)
3. epjpcwTfs; (gphpTfs; 268 Kjy; 294 tiu)

kj;jpa khepy muRfs; rl;lq;fs; ,aw;Wk; mjpfhuk; gilj;jit. MdhYk; mjpfhuq;fs;

NtWgLfpd;wd. Rpy Fwpg;gpl;l JiwfSf;F rl;lkpaw;Wk; mjpfhuk; kj;jpamurhq;fj;jplk;
cs;sJ. ,j;Jiwfs; kj;jpag; gl;baypy; ,lk; ngw;Ws;sd. rpyJiwfSf;Fkj;jpamuRk;
khepymuRk; rl;lk; ,aw;Wk; mjpfhuk; ngw;Ws;sd. ,it nghJg;gl;bay; vdg;gLfpwJ.
kj;jpagl;bay; : kj;jpagl;baypy; 100 Jiwfs; cs;slq;fpAs;sJ. ntspAwTj;
Jiwfs;>ghJfhg;G>MAjg;gilfs;>njhiyj;njhlh;G>jghy; kw;Wk;
je;jp>khepyq;fSf;fpilapyhdtpahghuk; kw;Wk; tzpfk;.
khepyg; gl;bay; : khepyg; gl;bay; 61 Jiwfisf; nfhz;Ls;sj. khepyj;jpd;
nghJxOq;F>fhty; Jiw>ePjpj;Jiweph;thfk;>rpiwj;Jiw>cs;shl;rpmikg;Gfs;>tptrhak;
Nghd;wit.
nghJg;gl;bay; : nghJg;gl;bay; 52 Jiwfshfcs;sd. Fw;wtpay; kw;Wk; rptpy;
eilKiwfs;>jpUkzk; kw;Wk; tpthfuj;J>nghUshjhuk; kw;Wk; rpwg;Gj;
jpl;lkply;>nra;jpj;jhs;>Gj;jfq;fs; kw;Wk; mr;rfq;fs;>kf;fs; njhiffl;Lg;ghL Mfpad.
nkhj;jNjrpakfpo;r;rp (Gross National Happiness - GNH) :

nkhj;jNjrpakfpo;r;rpvd;gJjw;NghJtsh;e;JtUk; Xh; jj;JtkhFk;. ,JxUFwpg;gpl;lehl;by;
cs;snkhj;jkfpo;r;rpiaf; Fwpf;Fk; xUFwpaPLMFk;. G+l;lhd; murpd; murikg;gpy; ,lk;
ngw;Ws;s ,f;fUj;J [{iy 18> 2008 y; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
nkhj;jNjrpakfpo;r;rpvd;Dk; gjj;ijg; G+l;lhdpd; ehd;fhk; muruhd [pf;Nkrpq;fpNathd;Rf;
mth;fshy; 1970 ,y; cUthf;fg;gl;lJ. nkhj;jNjrpakfpo;r;rpepiyahdkw;Wk;
rkkhdr%fnghUshjhutsh;r;rp>Rw;Wr;#oy; ghJfhg;Gkw;Wk; Cf;Ftpg;G>gz;ghLkw;Wk;
ey;yMl;rpMfpatw;iwikaf; fUj;jhff; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,aw;ifkw;Wk;
ghuk;ghpakjpg;GfSf;fpilNa ,irittypAWj;Jk; tifapy; kf;fspilNa
$l;Lkfpo;r;rpiaVw;gLj;JtJmurpd; ,yf;fhf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
myF– 5 cs;shl;rpmikg;Gfs;
cs;shl;rp mikg;Gfis eilKiwg;gLj;Jtjpy; ,Ue;j rpy jilfis 1882 Mk;

Mz;Lmth; ,aw;wpa jPh;khdj;jpd; %yk; mfw;wKad;whh;. fpuhkg;Gw kw;Wk; efh;g;Gwq;fspy;
cs;s mikg;GfSf;Fk; Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;l kf;fSf;Fk; mjpf
mjpfhuq;fisAilacs;shl;rpeph;thfchpikfis toq;Fk; tpjkhfhpg;gd; njhlh;r;rpahd
gy rl;lq;fis Vw;gLj;jpdhh;.

hpg;gd; gpuG : 1882 Mk; Mz;L cs;shl;rp mikg;Gfis mwpKfk; nra;jjd; %yk;
,e;jpah;fSf;FRje;jpuj;jpd; RitiamwpKfg;gLj;jpath; hpg;gd; gpuG Mthh;. ,e;jpahtpy;
eph;thfj;ijjhuhskak; Mf;Fk; rpyeltbf;iffishpg;gd; Nkw;nfhz;lhh;.
eph;thfj;ijgutyhf;fNtz;Lk; vd;gjw;fhfNtcs;shl;rpmikg;Gfismth; Kiwg;gLj;jpdhh;.
FOf;fSk; ghpe;JiufSk; :
gy;te;j;uha; Nkj;jh FO (1957) : %d;W mLf;F gQ;rhaj;J mikg;G–fpuhk mstpy; fpuhk

Cuhl;rpfs;> (Neubj; Njh;jy;) tl;lhumstpy; gQ;rhaj;Jrkpjp>khtl;lmstpy; [py;yhghp~j;J
(kiwKfNjh;jy;)
mNrhf; Nkj;jh FO (1977 – 1978) : ,uz;LmLf;FKiwkw;Wk; murpay; fl;rpfs;

midj;Jepiyj; Njh;jy;fspYk; gq;FngwNtz;Lk;.
vy;.vk;. rpq;tp FO (1986) : 73 kw;Wk; 74 tJmurikg;GjpUj;jr; rl;lk;> 1992
jkpo;ehl;by; cs;shl;rpmikg;Gfspy; tuyhw;Wj; njhlf;fk; kw;Wk; tsh;r;rp :

fhQ;rpGuk; khtl;lj;jpYs;s cj;jpuNk&h; fy;ntl;Lfspy; fhzg;gLfpd;w
Mjhuq;fspd;gb>cs;shl;rp mikg;Gfspy; jkpo;ehL xU ePz;l tuyhw;wpidf; nfhz;ljhf
mwpag;gLfpd;wJ. mf;fhyj;jpy;; jkpo;ehL gy fpuhkFbahl;rpiaf; nfhz;l epykhf
tpsq;fpaJ. gyr%ff; FOf;fs; jq;fsJgFjp Nkk;ghl;bw;fhf gy;NtWeltbf;iffspy;
<Lgl;ldh;. gj;Jkw;Wk; gjpNdhwhk; E}w;whz;Lfspy; eilngw;w Nrhoh;fsJ Ml;rpf;
fhyj;jpy; ,e;jKiw cr;repiyia mile;jJ>fpuhkrigfs;
thptpjpj;jd>r%ftho;tpidNkk;gLj;jpd>rigfs; Nrhomurh;fSld; typikahd
cwTfisf; nfhz;bUe;jdh;. fpuhkrigapd; cWg;gpdh;fisj;
Njh;e;njLf;f‘FlNthiyKiw’vd;w ,ufrpaNjh;jy; KiwGof;fj;jpy; ,Ue;jJ. Nrhoh;fspd;
tPo;r;rpf;Fg; gpwF fpuhk jd;dhl;rp Kiw NkhNyhq;fTk; njhlq;fpaJ. ,k;Kiw
Mq;fpNyafhydp Mjpf;fMl;rpcs;shl;rpmikg;Gfis mth;fSf;F VJthf ,Uf;Fk;
tpjkhf mwpKfk; nra;Ak; tiunjhlh;e;jJ. Rje;jpu ,e;jpahtpy; [dehaf
gutyhf;fj;jpd; Kjy; rl;lkhf> 1950 ,y; kjuh]; fpuhkgQ;rhaj;J rl;lk; ,aw;wg;gl;lJ.
1957 cs;@h; eph;thfrPh;jpUj;jq;fs; njhlh;ghfntspahdtptuq;fspd; njhlh;r;rpahf 1958 y;
kjuh]; gQ;rhaj;Jrl;lKk;>kjuh]; khtl;ltsh;r;rpfTd;rpy; rl;lKk; ,aw;wg;gl;ld.
1. [dthp 26 - FbauRjpdk;
2. Nk 1 - ciog;ghsh; jpdk;
3. Mf];l; 15 - Rje;jpujpdk;
4. mf;Nlhgh; 2 - fhe;jpgpwe;jjpdk;

efh;gG
; wcs;shl;rp
 Ng&uhl;rp
 efuhl;rp
 khefuhl;rp
jkpo;ehl;by; 15 khefuhl;rpfs; cs;sd.

mitnrd;id>Nfhit>kJiu>jpUr;rp>jpUney;Ntyp>Nryk;><NuhL>NtY}h;>
J}j;Jf;Fb>jpUg;G+h;>jQ;rhT+h;>jpz;Lf;fy;>Mtb>x#h; kw;Wk; ehfh;Nfhtpy;
fhe;jpapd; fpuhk Rauh[;ak; : fhe;jpabfs; fpuhkg;Gwq;fspd; gpujpepjpfisf; kf;fshff;

nfhz;lfpuhk Rauh[;[paj;ij tpUk;gpdhh;. ,e;jpahtpd; Md;khfpuhkq;fspy; tho;fpwJ
vd;gij czh;e;jhh; fhe;jpabfs;. Rje;jpu ,e;jpahtpy; fpuhkFbauRvDk;
gQ;rhaj;Jf;fisfdTfz;lhh;. fhe;jpabfs; gQ;rhaj;J uh[; xUmjpfhugfph;Tnfhz;lmurhf
,Uf;fmwpTWj;jpdhh;. ,e;jpamurpayikg;gpd; mbg;gilahfjpfOk; fpuhkq;fs; jq;fspd;
NjitfSf;Fjhq;fNsnghWg;ghth;. Vspikahd nrhw;fspy; nrhy;tnjd;why; fhe;jpapd;
Rauh[;a fpuhkk;>mbg;gilapy; Rarhh;Gilajhf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;. tho;f;iff;Fj; Njitahd
czT> J}a;ikahd ePh;>Rfhjhuk;>tPl;Ltrjp>fy;tp kw;Wk; gpwNjitfSf;F vd midj;J
NjitfisAk; Vw;Fk; murhq;fk; kw;Wk; Ra ghJfhg;Gcs;spl;lmidj;ijAk;
toq;fNtz;Lk;.
efuhl;rpjiytuhfnghpahh; : nghpahh; <.Nt. ,uhkrhkpmth;fs; 1917 Mk; Mz;by; ,Ue;J gy

Mz;Lfs; <NuhLefuhl;rpapd; ngUe;jiytuhf gjtp tfpj;jhh;. mtuJgjtpf; fhyj;jpy; <NuhL
efuhl;rpkf;fSf;fhd Kiwahd FbePh; trjpkw;Wk; RfhjhutrjpfisVw;gLj;jpjUtjpy;
Kidg;Gfhl;bdhh;. 1919 ,y; Foha; %yk; FbePh; tpepNahfk; Kiwapidnghpahh;
nray;gLj;jpdhh;. ,e;jpaefuhl;rpeph;thfq;fspd; tuyhw;wpy; ,j;jpl;lj;jpidKjd;Kjypy;
nray;gLj;jpath; nghpahh; vdmwpag;gLfpwJ.
myF– 6 rhiyghJfhg;G
1. Fbj;Jtpl;Lthfdk; Xl;LtJ (40 %),mjpNtfk; (24 %),thfdvz;zpf;ifmjpfhpg;G

(16 %), rl;lj;ijeilKiwg;gLj;Jtjpy; nkj;jdk; (15 %) kw;Wk; jiyf;ftrk;
kw;Wk; ,Uf;ifg; gl;iliaFiwthfg; gad;gLj;JtJ (5 %)
2. Xl;LeUf;FVw;gLk; ftdr;rpijT
3. rptg;Gtpsf;FvhpAk; NghJrhiyiaf; flg;gJ
4. jtwhdKiwapy; gpwthfdq;fisKe;jpr; nry;tJ

myF– 1 Nkk;ghl;ilmwpNthk;>njhiyNehf;F mstPL kw;Wk;

epiyj; jd;ik
Xh; Mz;by; ehl;bd; Gtpapay; vy;iyf;Fs; Fwpg;gpl; fhyj;jpw;Fs;

cw;gj;jpr; nra;ag;gl;lnghUl;fs; kw;Wk; gzpfspd;
nkhj;jgzkjpg;Ngnkhj;jcs;ehl;Lcw;gj;jpMFk;.
Kd;G
,Ue;jijtplNkk;gLj Njitahdtopfspy;
Kd;Ndw;wk; y; tsh;r;rpmiljy;
tsh;r;rpf;fhdRje;jpuk; Kd;Ndhf;fpnry;Yjy;
Nkk;ghL
jtwpidkPz;Lk;
jd; Nkk;ghL nra;ahjpUj;jy;
Kbtpy;yhjnray;ghL jpdrhptho;f;ifapd;
xUgFjp
jd;Ds; tsh;rr
; p Kd;ndLj;jy;
,;e;jpahtpy; kdpjtsq;fspd; tsh;r;rpf;FkdpjtsNkk;ghl;Lmikr;rfk; nghWg;ghFk;. ,jd;

jiyikafk; GJnly;ypapy; rh];jphpgtdpy; mike;Js;sJ.jkpo;ehl;bd; fy;tpawpTtPjk;
njd;khepyq;fspy; ,uz;lhtJ ,lj;ijg; ngw;Ws;sJ. jkpo;ehl;bd; fy;tpawpTtPjk; Njrpar;
ruhrhpiatplmjpfkhfcs;sJ. jkpo;ehl;by; cah;fy;tpf;fhdr; Nrh;f;ifahdJ ,e;jpahtpy;
kpfcah;e;jjhFk;.
GJg;gpf;fj; jf;ftsq;fs; GJg;gpf;f ,ayhjtsq;fs;

GJgpf;fj; jf;ftsq;fs; khrw;wkw;Wk; GJg;gpf;fj; jfhjtsq;fs; #oiy
Rw;Wr;#oy; eyk; fhf;fpwJ. ,e;jtsq;fs; khRg;gLj;jTk; Nrjg;gLj;jTk; nra;fpd;wd.
GJg;gpg;gjw;fhdxUFWfpaNeuj;ijvLj;Jf; ,e;jtsq;fs; cUthtjw;Fg; gy E}w;whz;Lfs;
nfhs;fpwJ.v.fh : Njitg;gLfpd;wd. v.fh :
#hparf;jp>fhw;Wrf;jp>ePh;>kuk;>fhfpjk; cNyhfq;fs;>fz;zhb>Gijg;gbtvhpnghUl;fs;
(epyf;fhp>ngl;Nuhy;> ,aw;ifvhpthA> Bry;)

jyhtUkhdk;
cyftq;fpapd; mwpf;ifapd;gbehLfspd; tUkhdmstPLfs;
fPo;f;fz;lthWGjpajhftifg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ (2017 – 18)
t. ehLfspd; tiffs; jyhtUkhdk; (mnkhpf;flhyhpy;)
vz;
1 Fiwe;jtUtha; < 1005
2 Fiwe;jeLj;jutUtha; 1006 – 3955
3 cah; eLj;jutUtha; 3956 – 12,235
4 cah;e;jtUtha; > 12,235
Mjhuk; :www.worldbank.org
khepyq;fs;
t.vz; msTfs; Me;jpug; fh;ehlfk; Nfush F[uhj; cj;jpug; jkpo;ehL ,e;jpah
gpuNjrk; gpuNjrk;
1 fy;tpawpTtpfpjk; %
67.02 75.36 94 78.03 69.72 80.09 74.04
(2011)
2 ghypdtpfpjk; (1000
Mz;fSf;Fjyhngz;
993 973 1084 919 912 996 943
fspd; vz;zpf;if)
(2011)
3 cah;fy;tpapy;
Nrh;f;if % (2015 – 30.8 26.1 30.8 20.7 24.5 44.3 24.5
16)
jkpo;ehl;bd; tsh;r;rp : jkpo;ehLFiwe;jfhyfl;lj;Jf;Fs;

kpftpiuthdtsh;r;rpiavl;barpykhepyq;fSs; xd;WMFk;.
tWik>mbg;giltrjp>rkj;Jtkpd;ikNghd;wkpfNkhrkhdepiyapypUe;JkpfNtfkhfj;
jkpo;ehLtsh;r;rpngw;wpUf;fpwJ. jw;fhyj;jpy; jkpo;ehLJzpr;ryhdr%feyj;
jpl;lq;fisKd;ndLj;jJ. midj;Jg; gs;spfspYk; kjpaczTtoq;Fk;
jpl;lk;>Rfhjhuikaq;fs;>rhiytrjpfs;>nghJg;Nghf;Ftuj;J>FbePh; trjp>kpd; ,izg;Gtoq;fy;
Nghd;wg; gyjpl;lq;fisf; Fwpg;gplyhk;.
gpwkhepyq;fis tpl jkpo;ehl;by; ,d;W rpwg;ghd nghJr; Nritfs; cs;sJ. me;jr;

Nritfspy; ngUk;ghyhdit ghFghbd;wp midtUf;Fk; fpilf;fpwJ vd;W cWjpahf
nrhy;yyhk;. tsh;r;rpg; ghijia nghWj;jtiu jkpo;ehL cs;glrpykhepyq;fspilNa
nghJthd xw;Wikfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,Wjpahf xU Kf;fpakhdxd;W : kdpjj;
jpwd;fisg; gad;gLj;jhky; ,e;jtpiuthd nghUshjhu tsh;r;rpia vl;l Kad;w
ngUk;ghyhd ,e;jpakhepyq;fistplkdpjj; jpwd;fisgad;gLj;jpa jkpo;ehl;by; jdpegh;
tUkhdk; mjpfkhFk; tWikepiyAk; ngUk;ghydkhepyq;fis tpl xg;gPll ; stpy; FiwthFk;
nghUshjhutsh;r;rpahdJ r%feyj; jpl;lq;fis rhj;jpag;gLj;jpg; nghUshjhutsh;r;rpAk;
kf;fs; MjuTk; xd;Wf;nfhd;W ,zf;fkhf nray;gLtNj Kf;fpakhd fhuzk; MFk;.

,e;jpahtpy; Rw;Wr;#oy; rl;lq;fs;
t. rl;lk; nray;ghL
vz;
1 Njrpag; gRikjPh;g;gharl;lk;> 2010 Rw;W#oy; ghJfhg;G>fhLfs; kw;Wk;
,aw;iftsq;fisg; ghJfhf;fpwJ
2 gy;Yaph;ikghJfhg;Gr; rl;lk;> 2002 gy;Yaph;ikfisg; ghJfhj;jy;
3 Rw;Wr;#oy; (ghJfhg;G) rl;lk;> 1986 Rw;Wr;#oiyghJfhj;jy; kw;Wk;
Nkk;gLj;jYf;fhdmjpfhuk; toq;Fjy;
4 td (ghJfhg;G) rl;lk;> 1980 fhLfs; mopj;jy; jilnra;jy; kw;Wk;
fhLfs; my;yhjgFjpfspy; kuk;
tsh;j;jiyCf;fg;gLj;Jjy;
5 ePh; (ePh; ghJfh;Gkw;Wk; khRgLjy; jLg;G) midj;JtifahdMWfs;.
rl;lk;> 1974 Vhpfs;>Fsq;fiskPl;Lguhkhpj;jy;
6 tdtpyq;Ffs; ghJfhg;Grl;lk;> 1972 fhl;Ltpyq;Ffs; kw;Wk; gwitfSf;Fg;
ghJfhg;Gtoq;FfpwJ
myF–2 ,e;jpahkw;Wk; jkpo;ehl;by; Ntiytha;g;G
Jiwfs;
nghJj; Jiw jdpahh; Jiw
jdptzpfh;
khepymuR FOkg;
gjptw;wJ $l;Ltzpfh;
eLtz; muR
FOkg; tiuaWf;fg;gl;lj
gjpTngw;wJ dpahh; epWtdk;
Njrpakakhf;fg;gl;l
njhopw;rhiyfs; chpkk; tiuaWf;fg;gl;lng
ngw;wth; hJepWtdk;
,ilf;fhytuyhw;Wf; fhyj;jpy; ,e;jpahtpd; nly;ypRy;jhd; ngNuh]; ~h

Jf;sf;>Ntiytha;g;gpd;ikr; rpf;fiyj; jPh;g;gjw;fhf :Ntiytha;g;GmYtyfj;ij: mikj;jhh;.

nghJj;Jiwkw;Wk; jdpahh; Jiwf;fhdNtWghLfs;

t.
nghJj;Jiw jdpahh; Jiw
vz;
1 NritNehf;fk; nfhz;lJ ,yhgNehf;fk; nfhz;lJ
2 nrhj;Jf;fs; murhq;fj;jpw;Fr; nrhe;jk; nrhj;Jf;fs; jdpegh;fSf;Fr; nrhe;jk;
3 Cjpak; murhq;fj;jhy; toq;fg;gLfpd;wJ Cjpak; chpikahsuhy; toq;fg;gLfpd;wd
FLk;gq;fs; %
njhopy;
1981 2008
gaphpLNthh; 42 33
tptrhaf; $ypfs; 34 26
tptrhaky;yhjnjhopyhsh;f 24 41
s;
nkhj;jFLk;gq;fs; 100 100
,UNty;gl;Ltpy; Ntiytha;g;G : xU fs Ma;T–Ntiytha;g;G epytuq;fspy; Vw;gLk;

khw;wj;ijj; Njrpa my;yJ khepy mstpy; kl;Lk;jhd; Ghpe;Jnfhs;s KbAk;
vd;wpy;iy>fpuhkj;ij Ma;T nra;tjpypUe;Jk; Ghpe;Jnfhs;syhk;. ,UNty ;gl;L vd;gJ
jkpo;ehl;by;>tpOg;Guk; khtl;lj;jpYs;s xU fpuhkkhFk;. ,e;jf; fpuhkk; 100 Mz;LfSf;Fk;
mjpfkhfmwpQh;fs; gyuhYk; Ma;Tnra;ag;gl;Lte;Js;sJ. ,e;j fpuhkk; ];Nyl;lh; fpuhkk;
vd;Wk; $wg;gLk;. Vnddpy;>nrd;idg; gy;fiyf; fofj;jpy; gzpahw;wp te;j fpy;gh;l;
];Nyl;lh; vd;gth; Kjd;Kjypy; jdJ khzth;fSld; fs Ma;Tnra;tjw;fhf
,e;jfpuhkjjpw;F 1916 Mk; Mz;Lnrd;whh;. fhyg; Nghf;fpy; gyMa;thsh;fs;
fpuhkj;jth;fspd; NtiyFwpj;Jfzf;fha;Tnra;J>fpuhkj;jpYs;s xt;nthUth; Fwpj;Jk;
NkYk; gytptuq;fisr; Nrfhpj;Js;sdh;. ,e;jf; fpuhktsh;r;rpapd; fhuzk;
fpuhkkf;fspilNa Muk;g Rfhjhueyk;>gs;spfs; mikj;jJ>nghJtpepNahf mikg;G
Mfpatw;wpd; kPJr%fg; ghJfhg;G tpopg;Gzh;it murhq;fk; mth;fSf;F Vw;gLj;jpaj
fhuzkhFk;. ,e;jf; fpuhkk; gykhWjy;fSf;F cl;gl;Ls;s NghjpYk; ,d;dKk; mth;fspd;
Ntiytha;g;Gf;F Kf;fpakhf tptrhaj;ijNa rhh;e;Js;sJ. gpd;tUk; ml;ltiziag;
ghUq;fs;. 1981 Mk; Mz;by; 100 FLk;gq;fspy; 24 FLk;gq;fs; tptrhaky;yhj
Ntiyfspy; <Lgl;bUe;jijf; fhzyhk;. 2008 Mk; Mz;by; tptrhaky;yhjNtiyfspy;
,Ue;jFLk;gq;fspd; vz;zpf;if 41 Mfcah;e;Js;sJ. 1981 – 2008 fhyj;jpy;
tptrhaj;jpy; 34 % tpUe;J 26 % Mf tptrhaf; $ypahfTk;>gaphpNthuhfTk; - <Lgl;bUe;j
FLk;gq;fspd; tpfpjk; Fiwe;Js;sJ.

myF– 3 gzk; kw;Wk; fld;
jdJ murhl;rpapy;>n~h;~h #hp (1540 – 1546) Fbkf;fSf;Fk;>

,uhZtj;jpw;FkhdxUGjpaeph;thfKiwiamikj;jhh;. mth; fhyj;jpy; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;l 178
fpuhk; vilnfhz;l nts;spehzak; ‘&gpah’vd;wiof;fg;gl;lJ. me;ehzak; Kfyhah;>kuhj;jpah;
kw;Wk; Mq;fpNyah; fhyk; tiuGOf;fj;jpy; ,Ue;jJ.
lhf;lh; gp.Mh; mk;Ngj;fhpd; ‘gzj;jpd; rpf;fYk; mjd; jPh;Tk;’ (The Problem of the
rupee and its solution) vd;wMuha;rr
; pf; fl;Liuapd; mbg;gilapy; jhd; ,e;jpahprh;t;
tq;fpapd; mbg;gilr; rl;lk; 1934 y; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
ehL nryhtzpapd; ngah;

,e;jpah &gha;
,q;fpyhe;J gTz;L
INuhg;gpaxd;wpak; A+Nuh
fdlh lhyh;
[g;ghd; nad;
rPdh Athd;
rTjpmNugpah hpahy;
M];jpNuypah lhyh;
kNyrpah hpq;fpl;
ghfp];jhd; &gha;
,yq;if &gha;
myF–4 jkpofj;jpy; Ntshz;ik
kiwePh; :kiwePh; vDk; gjk; 1990 Mk; Mz;LNlhdp Myd; vd;gtuhy; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
tptrhak; my;yJ njhopw;rhiy cw;gj;jpapd; NghJEfug;gLk; ePh; kiwePh; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
kiwePh; vd;gJ czT my;yJ kw;w cw;gj;jpnghUl;fs; xUehl;by; ,Ue;J kw;nwhU ehl;bw;F
thzpfk; nra;ag;gLk;NghJ mtw;NwhL kiwKfkhfmtw;wpw;fhf nrytplg;gLk; ePUk; nry;fpwJ.
,JNt kiwePh; MFk;. Cjhuzkhf xU nkl;hpf; ld; NfhJik cw;gj;j nra;tjw;F cyf
mstpyhd ruhrhpahf 1>340 fpA+gpf; kPl;lh; ePUk; mjDld; nry;fpwJ vd;gJ nghUs;. Cyf
mstpy; ,e;jpahkpf mjpfkhd ed;dhP ; gad;ghl;lhsuhf cs;sJ. ,JkpfTk; mjpfkhd vr;rhpf;ff;
$bamsthFk;. cyfpd; Ie;jhtJkpfg;nghpakiwePh; Vw;Wkjpahsuhf ,e;jpahtpsq;FfpwJ.
 njd; ,e;jpahtpd; %d;whtJnghpa MW fhtphpMFk;. ,J 765 fpNyhkPl;lh; ePsk;

nfhz;lJ.
 fhtphpMw;wpd; FWf;Nfjkpo;ehl;by; Nkl;^h; mizkw;Wk; fy;yizfl;lg;gl;Ls;sd.

Ez;zPh; ghrdj; njhopy;El;gk; : Ez;zPh; ghrdj; njhopy;El;gk; ghrdePh; gw;whf;Fiwf;F

ey;y jPh;thf tpsq;FfpwJ. ,j;njhopy;El;gk; ghuk;ghpaePh;ghrdKiwfistpl gaph;fspy;
mjpfkf#y; fpilf;f top nra;fpwJ. rPuhdfhy ,ilntspapy; msthfePh; gha;r;rg;gLtjhy;
cw;gj;jpj; jpwd; kw;Wk; ePh; gad;ghl;Lj;jpwd; mjpfhpg;gJld; gzpMl;fspd; nryitf;
fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. Ez;zhP ; ghrdj;jpd; %yk; ePh; top cukpLtjhy; cug ;gad;ghl;Lj;
jpwd; mjpfhpg;gNjhLjukhdtpisnghUSk; fpilf;fpwJ. jkpofk; xUjz;zhP ;
gw;whf;Fiwkhepykhf ,Ug;gjhy; Ez;zhP ; ghrdj; jpl;lj;jpid>mjpfjz;zhP ; Njitg;gLk;
tptrhagaph;fspy; jPtpukhfnray;gLj;Jtjpy; muR ftdk; nrYj;JfpwJ.
myF–5 ,lk;ngah;jy;

10k;tFg;
G
c q;
fS f;
F njup
Akh ?
jfty;Ngio
rp
WJsp
ml;
ltiz fs;
kdtiug;
glq;
fs;
;
NkYk;mwp
e;
J nfhs;
Nthk;
myF– 5 - 19 Mk; E}w;whz;by; r%f>rkarPh;jpUj;j ,af;fq;fs;
ehl;by; epytpagrpf;Fk; tWikf;Fk; ,uhkypq;fh; rhl;rpaha; ,Ue;jhh;. “grpapdhy;

,isj;Jg;Nghd>kpfTk; Nrhh;Tw;wViokf;fs; xt;nthUtPl;bw;Fk; nry;Ytijehd;
ghh;j;Njd;. ,Ue;Jk; mth;fspd; grp Nghf;fg;gltpy;iyvd; ,jak;
fLikahfNtjidg;gLfpwJ. fLikahdNehapdhy;
Ntjidg;gLgth;fisvdf;FKd;ghfg; ghh;f;fpNwd;. vdJ ,jak; eLq;FfpwJ.
ViofshfTk; ,izapy;yhed;kjpg;igAk; fisg;gile;j ,jaj;ijAk;
nfhz;Ls;smk;kf;fisehd; ghh;f;fpNwd;>ehd; gytPdk; mikfpNwd;.”
1860 ,y; Kjd;KiwahfjpUkztaJr; rl;lk; ,aw;wg;gl;lJ. mg;ngUik<];th;

re;jputpj;ahrhfiuNar; rhUk;. jpUkzj;jpw;fhdtaJgj;Jvd;Weph;zak; nra;ag;gl;lJ.
mJ1891 ,y; gd;dpnuz;lhfTk;> 1925 ,y; gjp%d;whfTk; cah;j;jg;gl;lJ. Mdhy;
ftiyf;Fhpatpjj;jpy; jpUkztaJxg;Gjy; fkpl;b (1929) $wpagb ,r;rl;lk;
fhfpjj;jpy; kl;LNkapUe;jJ. ePjpgjpfSk;>tof;fwpQh;fSk; xUrpygbj;jkdpjh;fSNk
mjidg ;gw;wpa mwpitg; ngw;wpUe;jdh;.
myF – 6 Mq;fpNyaMl;rpf;Fvjpuhfjkpofj;jpy;
epfo;e;jnjhlf;fhyfpsh;r;rpfs;
NtYehr;rpahhpd; ek;gpf;iff;Fhpa Njhopahfj; jpfo;e;jFapyp> cilahs; vd;wngz;fspd;

gilg;gphpitj; jiyikNaw;Wtopelj;jpdhh;. cilahs; vd;gJFapyp gw;wp csT $wkWj;jjhy;
nfhy;yg;gl;l Nka;j;jy; njhopy;Ghpe;j ngz;zpd; ngauhFk;. Fapypjdf;Fj;jhNd neUg;Gitj;Jf;
nfhz;L (1780) nrd;Wgphpl;b~hhpd; MAjf;fplq;fpypUe;j midj;Jj; jsthlq;fisk; mopj;jhh;.
xz;btPud; : xz;btPud; G+ypj;Njthpd; gilg;gphpTfspy; xd;wDf;Fj; jiyikNaw;wpUe;jhh;.

G+ypj;NtNuhL ,ize;JNghhpl;lmth; fk;ngdpg; gilfSf;FngUk; Nrjq;fisVw;gLj;jpdhh;.
nrytopr; nra;jpapd;gbxUNghhpy; mtuJ if Jz;bf;fg;gl;ljhfTk;>mjdhy; G+ypj;Njth; nghpJk;
tUe;jpajhfTk; njhpfpwJ. Mdhy; xz;btPud; vjphpapd; Nfhl;ilapy; jhd;
Eioe;Jgyjiyfisf; nfha;jikf;fhfj; jkf;Ffpilj;jg; ghpRvd;W $wpAs;shh;.
tpUg;ghl;rpapd; ghisaf;fhuuhdNfhghyehaf;fh; : Nfhghyehaf;fiuj; jiytuhff;

nfhz;ljpz;Lf;fy; $l;likg;gpy; (Dindigul League) kzg;ghiwapd;
nyl;Rkpehaf;fUk;>Njtjhdg;gl;bapd; G+i[ ehaf;fUk; ,lk; ngw;wpUe;jdh;.
jdJel;igntspg;gLj;Jk; tpjkhfxUey;YwTf; FOit mDg;gpitj;j jpg;GRy;jhdhy;
Nfhghyehaf;fh; <h;f;fg;gl;lhh;. Nfhak;Gj;J}iuikakhff; nfhz;L gphpl;b~hiu vjph;j;j mth;
gpd;dhl;fspy; fl;lnghk;kdpd; rNfhjuuhd Cikj;JiuNahL ,ize;jhh;. mth; cs;@h;
tptrhapfspd; MjuTld; Midkiyapy; fLk; Nghh; Ghpe;jhh;. MapDk; gphpl;b~; gilfshy;
mth; 1801 ,y; ntw;wpnfhs;sg;gl;lhh;.

myF– 8 Njrpak; :fhe;jpafhyfl;lk;
xUrpyh; mjpfhuj;Jf;FtUtjhy; cz;ikahd Rauh[;[pak; fpilj;JtplhJ. Mdhy; jhq;fs;

ngw;wmjpfhuj;ijjtwhfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; NghJeph;thfj;jpdiuvjph;f;Fk;
jpwidm,idtUk; ngwr;nra;tNj Rauh[;[pakhFk;.
- fhe;jpabfs;
1919 Mk; Mz;bd; ,e;jpamuRr; rl;lk; %ykhf ,ul;ilMl;rpvd;gJmwpKfk; nra;ag;gl;lJ.

,jd; %yk; khfhzmurpd; mjpfhuq;fs; xJf;fg;gl;l kw;Wk; khw;wg;gl;lJiwfs; vd ,uz;L
tiffshfg; gphpf;fg;gl;lJ. epjp>ghJfhg;G>fhty;Jiw>ePjpj;Jiw>epytUtha; kw;Wk; ePh;gg
; hrdk;
MfpaJiwfs; Mq;fpNyah;fs; trk; xJf;fg;gl;ld. khw;wg;gl;lJiwfspy;
cs;shl;rp>Ntshz;ik>tdq;fs; kw;Wk; kPd;tsj;Jiw Mfpad ,e;jpa mikr;rh;fspd;
fl;Lg;ghl;bd; fPo; tplg;gl;ld. 1935 Mk; Mz;L khfhz Rahl;rp mwpKfk; nra;ag;gl;l gpwF
,e;j Kiw KbTf;F te;jJ.
Mq;fpNyah;fs; 1865 Mk; Mz;LKjyhtJ tdr;rl;lj;ij epiwNtw;wpdhh;fs;.

Rs;spvLg;gJ>fhy;eilj; jPtdk; kw;Wk; Njd;>tpijfs;>kUj;Jt %ypiffs;>nfhl;ilfs; Mfpa
rpwpa mstpyhd td cw;gj;jpg; nghUs;fisAk; tdg; gFjpfspy; ,Ue;J Nrfhpf;f ,e;jr;
rl;lk; tdj;jpy; tho;NthUf;Fjiltpjpj;jJ. 1878 Mk; Mz;bd; ,e;jpa tdq;fs; rl;lj;jpd;
gbtdq;fspd; chpikmurplk; ,Ue;jJ. ed;nra; kw;Wk; jhpRepyq;fSk;
tdq;fshffUjg;gl;ld. goq;Fbapdh; gad;gLj;jpaRow;rpKiwtptrhak; jilnra;ag;gl;lJ.
cs;@h; kf;fspd; fl;Lg;ghl;by;
,Ue;Jtdg;gFjpfisjs;spitg;gjw;Fghjpf;fg;gl;lMjpthrpfSk; NjrpathjpfSk; fLk;
vjph;g;Gnjhptpj;jdh;. goq;Fbapdh; elj;jpanjhlh; Mh;g;ghl;lq;fSf;FkpfKf;fpa Mjhukhf
uhk;ghtpy; my;Y}hp rPjhuhk uh[{ jiyikapyhdMh;g;ghl;lj;ijf; Fwpg;gplyhk;.
uhk;ghgFjpMjpthrpfs; eyd; fhg;gjw;fhf Coy; mjpfhhpfSld; my;Y}hp rPjhuhk uh[{
Nghuhbajhy; mtuJ capiuf; Fwpitj;J Mq;fpNya muR eltbf;if vLf;fj; njhlq;fpaJ.
uhk;gh Mjpthrpfspd; fpsh;r;rpiamlf;Ftjw;fhf (1922 – 24) kyghh; fhty;Jiwapd;
rpwg;Gf;FOmDg;gpitf;fg;gl;lJ. tdthrpfspd; eyDf;fhfg; Nghuhbamy;Y}hp rPjhuhk uh[{
jpahfpMdhh;.
myF– 9 jkpo;ehl;by; tpLjiyg; Nghuhl;lk;
[hh;[; N[hrg; : tof;fwpQh; ed;Fnrhw;nghopthw;Wk; jpwd; gilj;jtUkhd [hh;[; N[hrg;

kJiuapy; jd;dhl;rp ,af;fj;ij Vw;gLj;jpajpYk;>mjd; Nehf;fj;ijkf;fspd; ftdj;jpw;Ff;
nfhz;Lnrd;w NghjpYk; Kf;fpag; gq;Ftfpj;jhh;. nrq;fz;Z}hpy; (,d;iwaNfuskhepyk;
Myg;Gohkhtl;lk;) gpwe;jpUe;jhYk; kJiuapy; trpg;gijNatpUk;gpkf;fspd; tof;fwpQuhfg;
gzpnra;jhh;. ghjpf;fg;gl;lr%fq;fSf;F ,th; Mw;wpaNritapd; fhuzkhf kJiu kf;fs;
,tiu‘Nuhrhg;G Jiu’vdmd;Gld; mioj;jdh;.

jkpo;ehl;bd; Kf;fpanjhlf;ffhykpjthjNjrpathjpfs; : njhlf;ffhyNjrpathjpfs; murikg;G

top Kiwfspd; kPJ ek;gpf;if nfhz;bUe;jdh;. miwf; $l;lq;fs; elj;JtJk; gpur;ridfs;
Fwpj;J Mq;fpyj;jpy; fye;JiuahLtJk; mth;fspd; nray;ghLfshf ,Ue;jd.
tq;fg;gphptpidapd; NghJjpyfUk; Vida jiyth;fSk; ngUthhpahdkf;fs; fye;J nfhz;l
nghJf;$l;lq;fis elj;jpajhYk; kf;fis<Lglr; nra;tjw;fhf tl;lhu nkhopiag;
gad;gLj;jpajhYk; njhlf;ffhyNjrpathjpfs; kpjthjpfnsd miof;fg;glyhapdh;.
nrd;idiar; Nrh;e;j Gfo;ngw;w jkpo;ehl;Lkpjthjj; jiyth;fs; V.S. rPdpthr rh];jphp> P.S.
rptrhkp> V. fpU~;zrhkp> T.R. ntq;fl;uhkdhh;> G.A. eNlrd;> T.M. khjtuht; kw;Wk; S.
Rg;gpukzpadhh; MfpNahuhth;.
ePy; rpiymfw;Wk; Nghuhl;lk; (1927) : N[k;]; ePy;>kjuh]; Jg;ghf;fp Ve;jpa fhyhl; giliar;
Nrh;e;jth;. 1857 NgnuOr;rpapd; NghJeilngw;wfhd;G+h; gLnfhiyvd;wiof;fg;gLk; rk;gtj;jpy;
gyMq;fpyg; ngz;fSk; Foe;ijfSk; nfhy;yg;gl;ldh;. ,jw;FtQ;rk; jPh;f;Fk; tifapy; ePy;
nfhûkhfele;Jnfhz;lhh;. gpd;dh; ePy; ,e;jpatPuh; xUtuhy; nfhy;yg;gl;lhh;.
nrd;idnksz;l;Nuhl;by; Mq;fpNyah; mtUf;FxUrpiyitj;jdh;. ,ij ,e;jpah;fspd;
czh;TfSf;F ,iof;fg;gLk; mtkhpahijvdf; fUjpaNjrpathjpfs; nrd;idapy; njhlh;
Nghuhl;lq;fis Nkw;nfhz;ldh;. 1937 ,y; uh[h[papd; jiyikapy; fhq;fpu]; Ml;rp
mike;jpUe;jNghJ ,r;rpiy mfw;wg;gl;L nrd;id mUq;fhl;rpaj;jpw;F nfhz;L nry;yg;gl;lJ.
jkpo;ehLmd;iwanrd;idkhfhzj;jpd; xUgFjpahf ,Ue;jJ. nrd;idkhfhzk; vd;gJ

,d;iwaMe;jpug; gpuNjrj;jpd; ngUk; gFjpfisAk; (flw;fiukhtl;lq;fs; kw;Wk; uhayrPkh)
fh;ehlfhitAk; (ngq;f@U>ngy;yhhp>njw;Ffduh) NfushitAk; (kyghh;) kw;Wk; xbrhtpd;
(fQ;rk;) rpygFjpiaAk; cs;slf;fpajhf ,Ue;jJ.
myF– 10 jkpo;ehl;by; r%fkhw;wq;fs;
1930 ,y; nrd;idrl;lkd;wj;jpy; Kj;Jyl;Rkpmk;ikahh; “nrd;idkhfhzj;jpy;

,e;JNfhtpy;fSf;Fg; ngz;fs; mh;gzpf;fg;gLtijjLg;gJ”vDk; kNrhjhitmwpKfg;gLj;jpdhh;.
gpd;dh; Njtjhrpxopg;Gr; rl;lkhfkhwpa ,k; kNrhjh> ,e;JNfhtpy; tshfq;fspNyh my;yJ
NtW topghl;L ,lq;fspNyh“nghl;Lf; fl;Lk; rlq;F”elj;JtJ rl;lj;jpw;Fg; Gwk;ghdjhFk;
vdmwptpj;jJ. Njtjhrpfs; jpUkzk; nra;Jnfhs;tjw;F rl;lG+h;tkhd mDkjpia
toq;fpaJ. NkYk; Njtjhrp Kiwf;F cjtp nra;fpw J}z;btpLfpwFw;wj;ijnra;Nthh;f;F
Fiwe;jgl;rk; Ie;jhz;L rpiw jz;lid vd Mizapl;lJ. ,k;kNrhjhrl;lkhfkhWtjw;F 15
Mz;Lfs; fhj;jpUe;jJ.

myF–1 ,e;jpah–miktplk;>epyj;Njhw;wk; kw;Wk;

tbfhyikg;G
MWfs;
,kakiyM jPgfw;gMWfs;
Wfs;
 rpe;J
 eh;kij
 fq;if
 jgjp
 gpuk;gGj;jpuh
 kfhejp
 Nfhjhthp
 fpU~;zh
 fhtphp
 ,kakiygyrpfuq;fspd; ,Ug;gplkhfcs;sJ.
 cyfpYs;s Vida kiyj;njhlh;fisf; fhl;bYk; mjpfkhdrpfuq;fisf;
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
 cyfpYs;s 14 caukhdrpfuq;fspy; 9 rpfuq;fisjd;dfj;Njnfhz;Ls;sJ
Me;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpd; jiyefuk; mkuhtjpefh; MFk;. Me;jpug;gpuNjr kW rPuikg;Gr;

rl;lj;jpd; gb 2024 tiui`juhghj; efuk; Me;jpugpuNjrk; kw;Wk; njYq;fhdhkhepyq;fspd;
jiyefukhf ,Uf;Fk;.
 Nkw;F–fpof;Fkw;Wk; tlf;F–njw;Fguty;
 mjpfkw;Wk; Fiwe;jgug;gsTs;skhepyq;fs;
 rh;tNjrvy;iyfisf; nfhz;buhjkhepyq;fs; Mfpatw;iwfz;lwpf

Muty;ypkiyj;njhlh; ,e;jpahtpNyNakpfg; goikahdkbg;Gkiyj; njhluhFk;.
 fhuNfhuk; fztha; ([k;K–fh~;kPh;)> n[h~pyhfztha;>rpg;fpyhfztha; (,khr;ry;

gpuNjrk;) nghkpbyhfztha; (mUzhr;rygpuNjrk;) ehJyhkw;Wk; n[ypg;yhfztha;
(rpf;fpk;) Mfpad ,kakiyapd; Kf;fpaf; fztha;fshFk;.
 ghfp];jhidAk;>Mg;fhdp];jhidAk; ,izf;Fk; ifgh; fztha; kw;Wk;
ghfp];jhdpYs;sNghyd; fzthAk; ,e;jpaj; Jizf;fz;lj;jpYs;sKf;fpaf;
fztha;fshFk;.
myF–2 ,e;jpah–fhyepiykw;Wk; ,aw;ifj; jhtuq;fs;
rkr;rPh; fhyepiyvd;gJ‘gphpl;b~; fhyepiy’vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

,f;fhyepiymjpfntg;gKilajhfNthmy;yJkpff;FspUilajhfNth ,Uf;fhJ.
fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J 6.7 kPcauj;jpy; mike;Js;snrd;idapd; ntg;gepiy 350 C Mf

,Uf;Fk;nghOJ 2240 kP cauKs;s cjif ntg;gepiyiaf; fz;lwpf.
Gypfs; ghJfhg;Gjpl;lk; 1973 ,y; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. GypfisghJfhf;fTk; mjd;

vz;zpf;ifiamjpfhpf;Fk; Nehf;fj;NjhLk; Gypfs; ghJfhg;gfq;fs; njhlq;fg;gl;ld.
thdpiyvd;gJxUFwpg;gpl;l ,lj;jpy; cs;stspkz;lyj;jpd; jd;ikiaf; Fwpg;gjhFk;.

fhyepiyvd;gJxUFwpg;gpl;lgFjpapd; Rkhh; 30 – 35 Mz;Lruhrhpthdpiyiaf; Fwpg;gjhFk;.
cyfpy; kpfmjpfmsTkiongWk; (1141 nr.kP) gFjpahdnksrpd;uhk; (Mawsynram)

Nkfhyahtpy; mike;Js;sJ.
myF–3 ,e;jpah–Ntshz;ik
gpujhd; ke;jphp fpU~prpQ;rhap Nah[dh – (PMKY) : Fiwe;jmsTePhpy;

mjpfkf#iyngWjy; kw;Wk; jz;zhP ; gad;ghl;ilNkk;gLj;jVw;gLj;jg;gl;ljpl;lk; MFk;.

,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpaNtshz; Gul;rpfs;

Gul;rpfs; cw;gj;jpfs;
kQ;rs; Gul;rp vz;nza; tpj;Jf;fs; (Fwpg;ghffLFkw;Wk; #hafhe;jp)
ePyg; Gul;rp kPdf
; s; cw;gj;jp
gOg;Gg; Gul;rp Njhy;>Nfhf;Nfh>kuGrhuhcw;gj;jp
jq;f E}ypiog; Gul;rp rzy; cw;gj;jp
nghd; Gul;rp goq;fs;>Njd; kw;Wk; Njhl;lf;fiyg; gaph;
rhk;gy; Gul;rp cuq;fs;
,sQ;rptg;Gg; Gul;rp ntq;fhak;>kUe;JnghUs;fs;> ,why; cw;gj;jp
gRikg; Gul;rp midj;JNtshz; cw;gj;jp
nts;spg; Gul;rp Kl;ilkw;Wk; Nfhopfs;
nts;sp ,iog; Gul;rp gUj;jp
rptg;Gg; Gul;rp ,iwr;rpcw;gj;jp>jf;fhspcw;gj;jp
tl;lg; Gul;rp cUisf;fpoq;F
ntz;ikg; Gul;rp ghy; cw;gj;jp
jkpo;ehl;by; fhy;eilfzf;nfLg;Gvt;thWNkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ?
jkpo;ehLmuRkhepymstpyhdfhy;eilfzf;nfLg;igfhy;eiltsh;g;Gj; JiwcjtpAld;
Nkw;nfhs;fpwJ. khtl;lmstpyhdfzf;nfLg;Gkz;ly ,iz ,af;Feh; %yk;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ. ,f;fzf;nfLg;Gfs; kj;jpamurpd; Ntshz; kw;Wk; tptrhapfs;
eyj;Jiwmikr;rfk;>fhy;eiltsh;g;G>ghy; gz;iz>kPdt
; sj; JiwNghd;wtw;wpd;
topfhl;Ljypd;gbNkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ.
,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; fhy;eilfzf;nfLg;G 1919 ,y; kpff; Fiwe;jghy; gz;izfhy;eilfSld;

vLf;fg;gl;lJ.
,e;jpahtpy; cs;s ,lg;ngah;TNtshz;ikapd; gy;NtWngah;fs;

ngah; khepyk;
[{k; mrhk;
nghd;dk; Nfush
nghL Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; kw;Wk; xbrh
gPthh;>khrd;>ngd;lh>gPuh kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;
gy;Nehf;Fjpl;lj;jpd; ngah; MWfs; gadilAk; khepyq;fs;

jhNkhjh; gs;sj;jhf;Fj; jhNkhjh; Nkw;Ftq;fhsk;> [hh;fz;l;
jpl;lk;
gf;uheq;fy; jpl;lk; (cyfpd; rl;y[; gQ;rhg;> `hpahdh> ,uh[];jhd;
nghpaGtp<h;gG
; miz)

`puhFl; jpl;lk; (cyfpd; kfhejp xbrh

kpfePskhdmiz)
Nfhrpjpl;lk; Nfhrp gPfhh; kw;Wk; Neghsk;
Jq;fgj;uhjpl;lk; Jq;fgj;uh Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; kw;Wk; fh;ehlfh
njfphp ,iz ghfPujp cj;jufhz;l;
rk;gy; gs;sj;jhf;Fj; jpl;lk; rk;gy; ,uh[];jhd; kw;Wk; kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;
ehfhh;[{dh rhfh; jpl;lk; fpU~;zh Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
rh;jhh; rNuhth; jpl;lk; eh;kij kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;>kfhuh~;buh> ,uh[];jhd;
,e;jpuhfhe;jpfhy;tha;j; rl;y[; ,uh[];jhd;>gQ;rhg;> `hpahdh
jpl;lk;
Nkl;^h; miz fhtphp jkpo;ehL
,e;jpakz; tiffs; vjph;nfhs;Sk; rthy;fs; :

1. kz; mhpg;G (jhs; mhpg;G>ePNuhl;lkz;zhpg;G>ePh; gs;skz;zhpg;G>gs;sj;jhf;Fkz;zhpg;G)
2. kz; rPuopT 3. ePh; Njq;Fjy; 4. cth;gG ; kw;Wk; fhuj;jd;ik
5. cg;GgbTfs; MfpadthFk;.
kz; rPuopT :,e;jpahtpy; kz; rPuopTvd;gJxUKf;fpagpur;ridahfcs;sJ. ,e;jpanjhiy

Ez;Zzh;T (IIRS), 2015 Mk; Mz;Lmwpf;ifapd;gb 147 kpy;ypad; n`f;Nlh; epyg;gug;Gkz;
mhpg;ghy; ghjpg;gile;Js;sJ.
kz; tsg;ghJfhg;Gk; kz;tsNkyhz;ikAk; :

1. fhLfs; cUthf;fk;
2. mizfs; kw;Wk; FWf;fizfs; fl;Ljy;
3. mjpfNka;r;riyj; jLj;jy;
4. Nkk;gl;lgaph;r;rhFgb Kiwfisg; gpd;gw;wy;
Rk cauk; cOjy;>gapw;Row;rp Kiw>fiufs; fl;Ljy;>gbf;fl;L
Ntshz;ik>gl;ilgaphply;>fhw;nwjph; jpirapy; kuq;fs; ely;>epiyj;j Ntshz; El;gj;ijAk;
kz; Nkyhz;ikf;Fcfe;jghJfhg;GKiwfisAk; gpd;gw;Wjy;.
,e;jpaNtshz; gUtfhyq;fs;
Ntshz; gUtk; Kf;fpag; gaph;fs;
tlkhepyq;fs; njd; khepyq;fs;
fhhp/g; gUtk; ([{d; - ney;>gUj;jp>kf;fhr;Nrhsk;> ney;>Nfo;tuF>kf;fhr;Nrhsk;>fk;
nrg;lk;gh;) Nrhsk;>fk;G>cSe;J G>epyf;fliy
uhgpgUtk; (mf;Nlhgh; - NfhJik>gUg;G>Myptpij ney;>kf;fhr;Nrhsk;>Nfo;tuF>epy
khh;r;) fs;>fLF>ghh;yp f;fliy>fk;G
iraj; gUtk; (Vg;uy; - fha;fwpfs;>goq;fs;> ney;>fha;fwpfs;>jPtdg; gaph;fs;
[{d;) jpizg; gaph;fs;

myF–4 ,e;jpah–tsq;fs; kw;Wk; njhopyfq;fs;
,e;jpahtpy; cw;gj;jpnra;Ak; jpl;lk; (Make in India Programme) ,jd; Kf;fpaNehf;fk;

cyftiuglj;jpy; ,e;jpahitxUrpwe;jnjhopyfcw;gj;jpikakhffhz;gpg;gjhFk;.
Njrpanra;jpfs; kw;Wk; fhfpjMiyfs; (NEPA) kj;;jpag;gpuNjrkhepygh;fhd;G+h; khtl;lj;jpy;

cs;sNeghefh; vd;Dk; ,lj;jpy; mike;Js;sJ.
,e;jpath;j;jfj; Jiwmikr;rfj;jpd; fPo; etk;gh; 20> 1975 ,y;

njhlq;fg;gl;lifj;jwptsh;r;rpMizah; mYtyfk; jw;NghJ ,e;jpa [Tsp Jiwmikr;rfj;jpd;
fPo; GJjpy;ypapy; cs;scj;Nahf; gtidjiyikaplkhff; nfhz;Lnray;gl;LtUfpwJ.
Njrpafhw;whw;wy; epWtdk; (NEW) : nrd;idapYs;s ,e;epWtdk; 1998 ,y;

xUjd;dhl;rpepWtdkhf Gjpa kw;Wk; GJg;gpf;ff; $ba Mw;wy; tsq;fs; mikr;rf
eph;thfj;jpd; fPo; Vw;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. ,jd; gzpfshdJfhw;Wtskjpg;GMa;Tkw;Wk; rhd;wspj;jy;
MFk;.
,Uk;Gkw;Wk; v/F cw;gj;jpnjhopw;rhiyKjd; Kjypy; 1830 ,y; jkpo;ehl;by;

Nghh;NlhehNthtpy; mikf;fg;gl;lJ.
,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; fhfpjj; njhopw;rhiy 1812 Mk; Mz;LNkw;Ftq;fj;jpy;

cs;snruhk;G+h; vd;Dkplj;jpy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
kj;jpagl;LMuha;rr ; pnjhopy; El;gepWtdk; (CSTRI) : gl;Ltsh;g;Gkw;Wk; njhopy;El;gk;

rhh;e;jepWtg;gl;lxUepWtdkhFk;. ,e;epWtdk; ngq;f@Uitj; jiyikaplkhff; nfhz;L
,e;jpamurhq;fj;jpd; kj;jpagl;Ltsh;g;Gthhpaj;jhy; 1983 Mk; Mz;Lnjhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
Njrparzy; thhpaj;jpd; jiyikafk; nfhy;fj;jhtpy; mike;Js;sJ.

nghJthf ,Uk;Gj;jhJfPo;f;fz;ltbtq;fspy; fhzg;gLfpwJ

,Uk;Gj;jhJgbT ,Uk;gpd; msT
Nkf;dill; 72.4 %
N`kill; 69.9 %
Nfhijl; 62.9 %
iykidl; 55 %
rpliul; 48.2 %
ngl;Nuhypak; kw;Wk; ,aw;ifvhpthAmikr;rfk; (MOP & NG) : ,J ,e;jpamurhq;fj;jpd;

fPo; ,aq;Fk; xUmikr;rfkhFk;. ,t;tikr;rfk;
Ma;Tnra;jy;>cw;gj;jp>Rj;jpfhpj;jy;>tpepNahfk;>Vw;Wkjp> ,wf;Fkjp>vz;nza; ghJfhg;G>
,aw;ifvhpthAkw;Wk; ngl;Nuhypacw;gj;jpg; nghUs; Nghd;wtw;wpw;FnghWg;GVw;fpwJ.
,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; ePh;kpd; epiyak; 1897 Mk; Mz;Llhh;[pypq;fpy; epWtg;gl;lJ.

,e;jpaNjrpaePh; kpd;rf;jpepWtdk; /ghpjhghj;jpy; mike;Js;sJ.
mOj;jg;gl;l ,aw;ifvhpthA(CNG) : (mjpfmOj;jj;Jld; milf;fg;gl;lkPj;Njd;)

vd;gJngl;Nuhy;> Bry; kw;Wk; jputnglNuhypavhpthAMfpatw;wpw;Fgjpyhfgad;gLj;jf;
$baxUvhpnghUshFk;. ,Jfhw;iwtpl ,yFthdjhfTk;>mjpfNtfkhfguTk; jd;ikf;
nfhz;ljhy; tpiutpy; kiwe;JtpLfpwJ. ,jdhy;
kw;wvhpnghUs;fistplMgj;JFiwthdjhFk;. tptrhaf; fopTfspypUe;JvLf;fg;gLk;
caphpthA>GJnly;yp>mfkjhghj;>Kk;ig>G+dh>nfhy;fj;jh>yf;Ndh>fhd;G+h;>thuzhrpNghd;wefu
q;fspy; thfdq;fSf;Fgad;gLj;jg;gLtJmjpfhpj;JtUfpwJ.
,e;jpahtpNyNamjpfmsTfhw;whiyfisf; nfhz;Ls;skhepykhfjkpo;ehLtpsq;FfpwJ.
fd;dpahFkhpkhtl;lj;jpy; cs;sKg;ge;jy; -
ngUq;Fbg;gFjpcyfpNyNamjpffhw;whiyfisf; nfhz;lnghpafhw;whiygz;izMFk;.
,e;jpamZkpd;rf;jpepWtdk; (NPCIL) : ,e;jpahtpd; xUnghJj;JiwepWtdkhFk;.

,Jkfhuh~;buhkhepyj;jpy; cs;sKk;igiaj; jiyikaplkhff; nfhz;L ,aq;Fk;
muRepWtdkhFk;. ,e;epWtdk; mZkpd;rf;jpcw;gj;jpf;fhdnghWg;igtfpf;fpwJ.
gUj;jp ,ioapypUe;J>tpijfisgphpj;njLf;Fk; Kiwf;F [pd;dpq; vd;Wngah;.
,e;jpahtpd; #hpa rf;jpepWtdk; GJnly;ypiajiyik ,lkhff; nfhz;Lcs;sJ.

Nkw;Fflw;fiuf;FmUfpy; cs;svz;nza; fpof;Fflw;fiuf;FmUfpy; cs;svz;nza;

tay;fs; tay;fs;
1. Kk;igi` vz;nza; tay; (65 % gpuk; kGj; j puhgs; s j; j hf;F (jpg;Ufhh;>rpy;rhfh;
kpfg;nghpaJ) khtl;lq;fs; mrhk;)
2. F[uhj; flw;fiu (2 tJnghpaJ) jpf;gha; vz;nza; tay; (ehl;bd; kpfg;
goikahdvz;nza; tay;)
3. Ng];i]k; vz;nza; tay; ehfh;fhl;bahvz;nza; tay;
Kk;igiàpd; njd;gFjp (jpf;gha;f;Fnjd;Nkw;FgFjp)
4. mypahngj; - vz;nza; tay; (gt; Nkhuhd; `f;hp[d; - vz;nza; tay;
njd;gFjp) (ehfh;fhl;bahtpd; njd;Nkw;FgFjp)
5. mq;fNy];th; Uj;urhfh; - yhthvz;nza; tay;fs; (mrhk;
khepyj;jpy; rpg;rhfh; khtl;lk;)
6. fhk;Ng– Y}dpgFjpfs; rh;khgs;sj;jhf;F (ghjh;G+h;>khrpk;G+h;>gjhhpah)
7. mfkjhghj; - fNyhy; gFjp me;jkhd; epNfhghhpd; cl;gFjpfs;>kd;dhh;
tisFlh>gNy~;thpflw;fiu> `hpahdh>gQ;rhg;
kw;Wk; cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;
,e;jpahtpy; cs;sfdpkq;fs; kw;Wk; mjNdhLnjhlh;Gilamikg;Gfs; :

1. ,e;jpaepytpay; fs Ma;TepWtdj;jpd; jiyikaplk; - nfhy;fj;jh
2. ,e;jpar; Ruq;fg; gzpafk; - ehf;G+h;
3. ,Uk;Grhuhnjhopy; El;gNkk;ghl;Likak; - i`juhghj;
,e;jpahtpy; cs;sRuq;fq;fs; kw;Wk; fdpkq;fspd;
eph;thfj;jpw;fhdnghWg;GRuq;fg;gzpmikr;rfj;jplk; cs;sJ. (Nkk;ghLkw;Wk;
xOq;FKiwr; rl;lk;> 1957)
,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; gUj;jpnerthiy 1818 Mk; Mz;Lnfhy;fj;jhtpw;FmUfpy;

cs;sNghh;l; f;sh];lh; vd;Dk; ,lj;jpy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.
,e;jpamurhy; eph;tfpf;fg;gLk; ,e;jpaepyf;fhpepWtdk;

Nkw;Ftq;fshj;jpYs;snfhy;fj;jhitjiyikaplkhff; nfhz;Lnray;gLfpwJ.
,Jcyfmstpy; mjpfepyf;fhpcw;gj;jpnra;Ak; epWtdk; MFk;.
nfapy; epWtdk; (GAIL) :,e;jpa ,aw;ifvhpthA epWtdkhdJ khepymurhq;fj;jhy;

eph;tfpf;fg;gLk; xUepWtdkhFk;. ,aw;ifvhpthAcw;gj;jpkw;Wk; tpepNahfk; nra;Ak;
epWtdq;fSs; xUkpfg;nghpaepWtdkhFk;. ,jd; jiyikafk; GJnly;ypapy;
cs;sJ.
t.vz; njhopyfq;fspd; ngah;fs; ,lk; kw;Wk; epWtg;gl;lM cw;gj;jpnghUs;

khepyk; z;L fs;

1 lhl;lh ,Uk;G v/F epWtdk; [hk;n~l;G+h; - 1911 NjdpUk;G

(TISCO) [hh; f ; f z; l ;
2 ,e;jpah ,Uk;G v/F gh;dG ; +h;> 1972 NjdpUk;G>fl;rh
epWtdk; (ISCO) `puhg;G+h;>Fy;b– v/F
Nkw;Ftq;fhsk;
3 tp];Nt];tua;ah ,Uk;G gj;uhtjp>fh;ehlf 1923 fyg;GNjdpUk;G
v/F epWtdk; (VISL) h kw;Wk; fly;
ghrp v/F
4 ,e;J];jhd; v/F epWtdk; gpyha; - 1957 uapy;Ntkw;Wk;
u~;ah rj;jP];fh; fg;gy; fl;Lk;
njhopy;El;gcjtpAld; cgfuzq;fs;
(HSL)
5 ,e;J];jhd; v/F epWtdk; &h;Nfyh–xbrh 1965 ntg;gkw;Wk;
n[h;kdpapd; Fsph;e;jcUis
njhopy;El;gcjtpAld; jfLfs;
(HSL) kpd;Kyhk;
G+rg;gl;ljfLf
s;
6 ,e;J];jhd; v/F epWtdk; Jh;fhG+h; - 1959 cNyhff;
,q;fpyhe;jpd; Nkw;Ftq;fhsk; fyit>fl;Lkh
njhopy;El;gcjtpAld; dg; nghUs;fs;>
(HSL) ,uapy;Ntcgfu
zq;fs;
7 ,e;J];jhd; v/F epWtdk; nghfhNuh– 1972 ,Uk;GfopTkw;W
u~;ahtpd; [hh;f;fz;l; k;
njhopy;El;gcjtpAld; ,Uk;GcNyhfk;
(HSL)
8 Nryk; v/F Miy Nryk; - 1982 JUg;gpbf;fhj
jkpo;ehL ,Uk;G
9 tp[a efu v/F Miy Nlhh;efy; - 1994 ePz;lkw;Wk;
fh;ehlfh gl;il v/Ffs;
10 tprhfg;gl;bdk; v/F Miy tprhfg;gl;bdk; - 1981 ntg;gcNyhfk;
(VSP) Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;
NALCO vd;Wmiof;fg;gLk; NjrpamYkpdpa epWtdk; 1981 ,y; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. ,jd;

ikaq;fs; xbrhkhepyj;jpy; mQ;ry;>lhkd;>NrhbNghd;w ,lq;fspy; cs;sd. ,j
,e;jpaRuq;fj; Jiw mikr;rfj;jpd; fPo; 1981 Mk; Mz;LnghJj; Jiw epWtdkhf
cUthf;fg;gl;lJ.
ghf;irl; vd;gJ mYkpdpaj;jpd; xUtifahd Mf;irL MFk;.

,JgpnuQ;Rthh;j;ijahdyPghf;]; vd;wthh;j;ijapy; ,Ue;Jngwg;gl;lJ.
ehf;G+iujiyikaplkhff; nfhz;L ,aq;fptUk; ,e;jpa khq;fdPR jhJepWtdk; (Manganese

ore India Ltd) 50 rjtpfpjkhq;fdPircw;gj;jpr; nra;J>cyfr; re;ijkjpg;gPl;by;
Kjd;ikahdjhfjpfo;fpwJ.

,e;J];jhd; jhkpuepWtdk; ,e;jpamurhy; eph;tfpf;fg;gLk;
,e;jpaRuq;fj;Jiwmikr;rfj;jpd; fPo; ,aq;ff;$banghJj;JiwepWtdkhFk;.
,e;jpa ,Uk;G v/F Mizak; (SAIL) : ,e;jpahtpy; ,Uk;G v/F njhopw;rhiyfs;

jpl;lkply; kw;Wk; tsh;r;rpf;F ,J Kf;fpagq;fhw;WfpwJ.
myF–5 ,e;jpah–kf;fs; njhif>Nghf;Ftuj;J>jfty; njhlh;Gkw;Wk; tzpfk;
,e;jpahtpd; NjrpaneLQ;rhiy Mizak; (NHAI) 1995 ,y; epWtg;gl;lJ.

,JjiutopNghf;Ftuj;Jmikr;rfj;jpd; fPo; ,aq;Fk; jd;dhl;rpngw;wmikg;ghFk;.
Nkfhyahkhepyj;jpy; ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J ,y;iy.

t.vz; kz;lyq;fs; jiyikaplk;
1 tlf;F ,uapy;Nt GJnly;yp
2 tlNkw;F ,uapy;Nt n[a;g;G+h;
3 tlkj;jpa ,uapy;Nt myfhghj;
4 tlfpof;F ,uapy;Nt nfhuf;G+h;
5 tlfpof;Fvy;iy ,uapy;Nt nfsfhj;jp
6 fpof;F ,uapy;Nt nfhy;fj;jh
7 fpof;Fflw;fiu ,uapy;Nt GtNd];th;
8 fpof;Fkj;jpa ,uapy;Nt `rpg;G+h;
9 Nkw;Fkj;jpa ,uapy;Nt [gy;G+h;
10 kj;jpa ,uapy;Nt Kk;ig (rj;ugjprpth[p Kidak;)
11 Nkw;F ,uapy;Nt Kk;ig (rh;rN; fl;)
12 njw;F ,uapy;Nt nrd;id
13 njd; kj;jpa ,uapy;Nt nrfe;jhghj;
14 njd; fpof;F ,uapy;Nt nfhy;fj;jh
15 njd; Nkw;F ,uapy;Nt `{g;sp
16 njd; fpof;Fkj;jpa ,uapy;Nt gpyh];G+h;
17 nfhq;fd; ,uapy;Nt etpKk;ig
,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; Gwefh; ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;JKk;igapy; 1925 ,y; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.

fhj;jpkd; (GATHIMAN) mjptpiuTtz;b ,e;jpahtpd; kpfmjpfNtf
,uapy;tz;bMFk;. ,e;j ,uapy;tz;bGJnly;ypiaAk; Mf;uhitAk; ,izf;fpwJ.
n~h;rh #h; jd;Dila Nguuirgyg;gLj;jTk; xUq;fpizf;fTk; rh`p (uhay;)

rhiyia rpe;J gs;sj;jhf;fpypUe;J Nkw;Ftq;fhsj;jpy; cs;sNrhdhh;
gs;sj;jhf;Ftiu mikj;jhh;. nfhy;fj;jhtpypUe;J ng~hth; tiu cs;s ,r;rhiy
Mq;fpNyah; Ml;rpfhyj;jpy; fpuhz;l; l;uq;f; rhiyvdngah; khw;wk; nra;ag;gl;lJ.
jw;NghJ ,r;rhiy mkph;jrurpypUe;J nfhy;fj;jh tiu ePl;bg;G nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ.

,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; kf;fs; njhiffzf;nfLg;G 1872 Mk; Mz;LNkw;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ.

KOikahdKjy; kf;fs; njhiffzf;nfLg;G 1881 Mk; Mz;LNkw;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ.
ehl;bd; 15 tJkf;fs; njhiffzf;nfLg;G 2011 Mk; Mz;Leilngw;wJ.
myF– 6 jkpo;ehL - ,aw;ifg; gphpTfs;
ePh; Nrfhpg;gjw;fhdrpytopKiwfs; : ePh; khRgLjiyj; jLj;jy;>ePh;

kWRow;rp>rpf;fdkhf epyj;jbePh; gad;ghL>kf;fs; njhiffl;Lg;ghL>kuGtop
ePh;tsq;fisg; GJg;gpj;jy;>etPdePh;g;ghrd Kiwfisg; gad;gLj;Jjy;>fhLfspd;
gug;gsitmjpfhpj;jy;>gaphpLk; Kiwfis khw;Wjy;>nts;sg;ngUf;F
Nkyhz;ik>Gtpntg;gePh; gad;ghL Mfpad ePh;tsj;ijghJfhf;Fk; rpytopKiwfs;
MFk;.
jkpo;ehl;by; mjpff; fhLfisf; (gug;gsT)

nfhz;lkhtl;lq;fs;
khtl;lk; gug;gsT (rJufpNyhkPl;lh;)
jh;kGhp 3,280
Nfhak;Gj;J}h; 2,627
<NuhL 2,427
NtY}h; 1,857
ePyfphp 1,583
jpz;Lf;fy; 1,662
jkpo;ehl;bd; gUtf;fhyq;fs;
gUtf;fhyk; fhyk;
Fsph;fhyk; [dthp–gpg;uthp
Nfhilf; fhyk; khh;r; - Nk
njd;Nkw;FgUtf;fhw;Wfhyk; [{d; - nrg;lk;gh;
tlfpof;FgUtf;fhw;Wfhyk; mf;Nlhgh; - brk;gh;
gpr;rhtuk; rJg;Gepyf;fhLflY}h; khtl;lj;jpy; rpjk;guj;jpw;FmUNfmike;Js;sJ. ,J

1>100 n`f;Nlh; gug;gsTld; (11 rJufpNyhkPl;lh;) cyfpd;
,uz;lhtJkpfg;nghparJg;Gepyf;fhlhfcs;sJ. tq;fflypypUe;Jkzy; jpl;Lfshy; ,f;fhLfs;
gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,J mtprPdpahkw;Wk; iuNrhNghuhNghd;wjhtu ,dq;fisf; nfhz;lJ.
1956 Mk; Mz;LkhepykWrPuikg;Gr; rl;lj;jpd;gbnkhopapay; mbg;gilapy; khepyq;fs;

kWrPuikg;Gnra;ag;gl;Ls;sd.

khepyj;jpd; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ikMizaj;Jld; fPo;fz;lkPl;Gg; gilfs; kw;Wk; mikg;Gfs;

,ize;Jnray;gLfpd;wd
khepy / A+dpad; gpuNjrmikg;Gfs; khtl;lmikg;Gfs; fPo;f;fz;lthW
1. khepyg; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ik 1. khtl;lePjpgjp (jiyth; -
Mizak; (jiyth; - Kjyikr;rh;) khtl;lMl;rpah;)
2. epthuz / Nghplh; Nkyhz;ikJiw 2. tUtha;j;Jiw
3. fhty;Jiw 3. Fbikgzpeph;thfk;
4. tdj;Jiw 4. cs;@h; fhty;Jiw
5. jPkw;Wk; Fbikapay; 5. FbikghJfhg;G
ghJfhg;GNritfs;
6. RfhjhuNritfs; 6. jPaizg;Gkw;Wk; mtruNritfs;
7. Nghf;Ftuj;Jj;Jiw 7. Ch;f; fhty; gil
(cs;@h;>r%fk;>muRrhuhmikg;G>jd;dhh;tepWt
dq;fs;
8. nghJg;gzpj;Jiw
9. fhy;eilj;Jiw
10. czTkw;Wk; tl;ltoq;fy; Jiw
jkpo;ehl;bd; Kf;fpaePh;tPo;r;rpfs;
khtl;lq;fs; ePh;tPo;r;rpfs;
jh;kGhp xNfdf;fy;
jpUney;Ntyp fy;ahzjPh;j;jk; kw;Wk; Fw;whyk;
Njdp Fk;gf;fiukw;Wk; RUsp
ehkf;fy; Mfhafq;if
ePyfphp Nfj;jhpd;>igf;fhuh
Nryk; fps;spA+h;
tpUJefh; Iadhh;
Nfhak;Gj;J}h; itNjfp>nrq;Fgjp>rpWthzpkw;Wk;
NfhitFw;whyk;
jpUg;G+h; jpU%h;j;jp
kJiu Fl;yhlk;gl;b
fd;dpahFkhp jpUg;gug;G>fhspNfrk;>cyf;ifkw;Wk;
tl;lg;ghiw
fpof;Fnjhlh;r;rpkiyapYs;srpfuq;fs; cauk; (kPl;lhpy;)

Nrh;tuhad; kiy 1,623
gokiy 1,500
cUfkiy 1,486
Fl;buhad; 1,395
KfD}h; 1,279

tyrkiy 1,034
t.vz; jkpo;ehl;bYs;scaph;f;Nfhsg; ngl;lfq;fs;

1 ePyfphpcaph;f;Nfhsg; ngl;lfk;
2 kd;dhh; tisFlhcaph;f;Nfhsg; ngl;lfk;
3 mfj;jpah; kiycaph;f;Nfhsg; ngl;lfk;
fly; ghJfhg;GNkyhz;ikapy; rJg;Gepyj; jhtuq;fspd; gq;F : fly; miyfs; kw;Wk;

Gayhy; Vw;gLk; ghjpg;gpypUe;Jflw;fiug; gFjpfisg; ghJfhf;fpd;wJ. NkYk;
gtsg;ghiwfisAk;>flNyhuGy;ntspfisAk; kzy; gbTfshy; %o;fbf;fg;glhky;
ghJfhf;fpd;wJ.
ghk;gd;> Kay; jPT>FUril>ey;yjz;zpjPT>Gs;spthry;> =uq;fk;>cg;Gjz;zpj;

jPT>jPTj;jply;>fhl;Lg;gs;spj; jPT>Ftpg;gpy; jPTkw;Wk; tpNtfhde;jh; epidTg; ghiw
Mfpad jkpo;ehl;by; cs;sKf;fpajPTfs; MFk;.
Nkw;Fnjhlh;r;rpkiyapYs;srpfuq;fs; cauk; (kPl;lhpy;)

njhl;lngl;lh 2,637
Kf;FUj;jp 2,554
Ntk;gbNrhiy 2,505
ngUkhs; kiy 2,234
Nfhl;ilkiy 2,019
gfhRuh 1,918
khtl;lq;fs; kiyfs;
Nfhak;Gj;J}h; kUjkiy>nts;spaq;fphpkw;Wk; Midkiy
jh;kGhp jPh;j;jkiy>rpj;Njhpkw;Wk; tj;jy; kiy
jpz;Lf;fy; godpkiykw;Wk; nfhilf;fhdy;
<NuhL nrd;dpkiykw;Wk; rptd; kiy
NtY}h; [t;thJ>Vyfphpkw;Wk; ,uj;jpdkiy
ehkf;fy; nfhy;ypkiy
Nryk; Nrh;tuhad;>fQ;rkiykw;Wk; Rz;zhk;Gf; Fd;Wfs;
fs;sf;Fwpr;rp fy;tuhad;
tpOg;Guk; nrQ;rpkiy
nguk;gY}h; gr;irkiy
fd;dpahFkhp kUJtho; kiy
jpUney;Ntyp kNfe;jpufphpkw;Wk; mfj;jpakiy
ePyfphp ePyfphpkiy

eph;thfgphpTfs; vz;zpf;if
khtl;lq;fs; 37 (32+5)
tUtha;f; Nfhl;lq;fs; 76
tl;lq;fs; 226
gph;fhf;fs; 1,127
tUtha; fpuhkq;fs; 16,564
khefuhl;rpfs; 15
efuhl;rpfs; 125
Cuhl;rpxd;wpaq;fs; 385
Ng&uhl;rpfs; 561
fpuhkCuhl;rpfs; 12,618
kf;fsitj; njhFjpfs; 39
rl;lkd;wj; njhFjpfs; 234
myF– 7 jkpo;ehL–khDlg; Gtpapay;
kz;lyk; / khtl;lq;fs; jiyikafk;

nrd;id nrd;id
Nkw;Fkz;lyk; Nfhak;Gj;J}h;
kj;jpakz;lyk; jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp
njw;Fkz;lyk; kJiu
jkpo;ehl;by; cs;sePh;tsMjhuq;fs;
Nkw;gug;GePh;tsMjhuq;fs; vz;zpf;if
Mw;Wtbepyk; 17
ePh;j;Njf;fq;fs; 81
Vhpfs; 41>127
Mo;JisfpzWfs; kw;Wk; kw;wfpzWfs; 4>98>644
jpwe;jntspfpzWfs; 15>06>919
nkhj;jk; 20>46>788 kp.f.kP
Mjhuk; - 2017 jkpo;ehLGs;spapay;final
jkpo;ehLghy; tsh;r;rpfofk; vd;wmikg;ghdJjkpo;ehLghy; cw;gj;jpahsh;fs;

$l;LwTrq;fk; vd;wGjpamikg;ghfgjpTkhw;wk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ.
,JgpugykhfMtpd; vd;wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ.

jkpo;ehl;bd; kpfePskhd Njrpa neLQ;rhiyvz; 44 – I cilajhFk;.

,Jx#hpypUe;Jjh;kGhp>Nryk;>f&h;>jpz;Lf;fy;>kJiu>jpUNey;Ntyptopahf fd;dpahFkhptiu 627.2
fpNyhkPl;lh; J}uk; nry;fpwJ. jkpo;ehl;bd; kpff; FiwthdePsq;nfhz;lNjrpaneLQ;rhiyvz;
785 – If; nfhz;ljhFk;. ,J kJiuapyp;JJ tuq;Fwpr;rp tiunry;fpwJ. ,jd; ePsk; 38
fpNyhkPl;lh; MFk;.
jkpo;ehl;bd; kpfePskhdNjrpaneLQ;rhiyvz; 44 – I cilajhFk;. ,Jx#hpypUe;J

jh;kGhp>Nryk;>f&h;>jpz;Lf;fy;>kJiu>jpUNey;Ntyptopahf fd;dpahFkhptiu 627.2 fpNyhkPl;lh;
J}uk; nry;fpwJ. jkpo;ehl;bd; kpff; FiwthdePsq;nfhz;lNjrpaneLQ;rhiyvz; 785 – If;
nfhz;ljhFk;. ,JkJiuapyp;JJ tuq;Fwpr;rp tiu nry;fpwJ. ,jd; ePsk; 38 fpNyhkPl;lh; MFk;.
Gtpapay; FwpaPL (GI Tag) :Gtpapay; FwpaPL vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l Gtpapay; gpuNjrj;jpy;
jahhpf;fg;gLk; nghUs;fspd; kPJ gad;gLj;jg;gLk; Fwpg;ghFk;. ,J cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;
chpikahsh;fSf;F chpikfs; kw;Wk; ghJfhg;ig toq;FfpwJ.
,e;jpah 2018 Mk; Mz;iljpidg;gaph;fspd; Njrpa Mz;lhf mDrhpj;jJ. cyfczTkw;Wk;

Ntshz;ikf; fofk; (FAO), 2023 Mk; Mz;ilrh;tNjrjpidg;gaph;fs; Mz;lhf mDrhpf;fj;
jPh;khdpj;Js;sJ.
rpyKf;fpaGtpapay; FwpaPLfs;
,lk; cw;gj;jpg; nghUs;fs;
Muzp gl;L
fhQ;rpGuk; gl;L
Nfhak;Gj;J}h; khTmiuf;Fk;
,ae;jpuk;>Nfhuhgl;LNriy
jQ;rhT+h; Xtpaq;fs;>fiyeak;
kpf;fjl;Lfs;>jiyahl;bnghk;ikfs;>
tPiz
ehfh;Nfhtpy; Nfhapy; eiffs;
<NuhL kQ;rs;
Nryk; ntz;gl;L (Nryk; gl;L)
gthdp Nghh;itfs;
kJiu Rq;fbNriy
Rthkpkiy ntz;fyr; rpiyfs;
ehr;rpahh;Nfhtpy; Fj;Jtpsf;F
gj;jkil gha;
ePyfphp ghuk;ghpa G+ ijay;
kfhgypGuk; rpw;gq;fs;
rpWkiy kiythio
Vj;jhnkhop Njq;fha;

jkpo;ehLNtshz; gy;fiyf; fofj;jpd; (TANU) fPo; nray;gl;LtUk; jkpo;ehL ney;

Muha;r;rpepWtdk; (TRRI) ney; Muha;r;rpia Nkw;nfhs;Sk; Xh; ,e;jpa epWtdkhFk;.
,JjQ;rhT+h; khtl;lj;jpy; MLJiw vd;Dkplj;jpy; 1985 Mk; Mz;LVg;uy; khjk;
njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. ,e;epWtdk; ,g;gFjpapYs;s fy;Y}hpfs; kw;Wk; Muha;rr; p epWtdq;fSf;F
ney; rhFgb kw;Wk; cw;gj;jp Kiw Fwpj;j Muha;r;rpfSf;F Njitahd cjtpfisr;
nra;JtUfpwJ.
jkpo;ehl;bd; Ntshz; Kiwfspd; tiffs; kw;Wk; gFjpfs;

Ntshz; tif gaphplg;gLk; gFjpfs;
jPtujd;dpiwTNtshz;ik jkpo;ehl;by; rpygFjpfs;
jth;j;Jmidj;JgFjpfspYk; gpd;gw;wg;gLfpwJ
Njhl;lNtshz;ik Nkw;Fkw;Wk; fpof;Fnjhlh;rr; pkiyr;rhpTfs;
ffyg;GNtshz;ik fhtphpkw;Wk; njd;ngz;izMw;Wg;gLiffs;
jkpo;ehl;bd; Kf;fpaVw;Wkjpfs;
Ntshz; nghUs;fs; Gifapiy>jhdpaq;fs;>gUj;jp>fUk;G>ney;>epyf;fliy
>thridg; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; fha;fwpfs;
Njhy; nghUs;fs; rpWNjhy;>igfs;>gzg;igfs;>ifg;igfs;>
,Lg;Gfr;ir>fhyzpfs; kw;Wk; ifAiwfs;
,uj;jpdfw;fs; kw;Wk; eiffs; tpiykjpg;Gkpf;ffw;fs;>Kj;Jf;fs;>jq;feiffs;>fiy
kw;Wk; myq;fhug; nghUs;fs;
,urhadkw;Wk; ,urhadk; fhfpjk;> ,urhadq;fs;> ,ug;gh; kw;Wk; fz;zhb
rhh;e;jnghUs;fs;
,uz;lhtJgRikg;Gul;rp (,aw;ifNtshz;ikmy;yJfhpkNtshz;ik) : ,aw;if

Ntshz;ikapy; nraw;ifcuq;fs;>G+r;rpf;nfhy;ypfs;>jhtutsh;r;rprPuhf;fpfs; (nraw;if
,urhadk;) fhy;eil jPtdf; fyg;Gfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLtjpy;iy. ,t;tiftptrhak;>gaph;
Row;rp>gaph; fopTfs;>tpyq;Ffspd; fopTfs;>tptrhak; my;yhj fhpkfopTfs;>caphpay;
G+r;rpf;nfhy;ypfs; Mfpadtw;iw kz;tsg; ghJfhg;gpw;Fek;gpAs;sdh;. FiwthdtptrhapfNs
,k;Kiwapidg; gpd;gw;Wfpd;wdh;.
,aw;if Ntshz;ikia Nkk;gLj;Jk; Nehf;fj;NjhL kj;jpamurhdJ Njrpa ,aw;if fhpk

Ntshz;ikj; jpl;lj;ij mwpKfg;gLj;jpAs;sJ. tpopg;Gzh;T Vw;gLj;Jjy;> ,aw;if cuq;fis
Nkk;gLj;Jjy;>gapw;rpaspj;jy; Nghd;wtw;iw ,j;jpl;lk; nray;gLj;JfpwJ. NkYk; fhpkg;
nghUs;fis kWRow;rp nra;aTk;>njhopw;$lq;fs;>caphpcuq;fs;>caphpG+r;rpf;nfhy;ypfs;
cw;gj;jpnra;aTk; njhopw;$lq;fSf;Fkhepyj;jpy; epjpcjtp mspj;jy;>juNkk;ghl;Ltsh;r;rp kw;Wk;
mjideil Kiwg;gLj;Jk; FOkj;jpd; kdpjtsj;ij Nkk;gLj;Jjy; Nghd;wit ,j;jpl;lj;jpd;
%yk; nray;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
lhd;B(TANTEA):,e;epWtdk; ,e;jpahtpy; fUg;Gtif Njapiy cw;gj;jpapYk;>fyg;Gtif

Njapiy cw;gj;jpapYk; Kd;ddptfpf;Fk; epWtdq;fSs; xd;whFk;.
(jkpo;ehLNjapiyNjhl;lf; fofk;) ,e;epWtdj;jpd; NjapiygaphpLk; gug;GVwj;jho 4>500
n`f;Nlh; MFk;.

myF–1 ,e;jpamurpayikg;G
murpayikg;gpd; 42 tJrl;ljpUj;jk; ‘FW murpayikg;G’vdmwpag;gLfpwJ.
1969 ,y; kj;jpa–khepymuRfspd; cwTfs; Fwpj;JKOtJk; Muha jkpofmuRlhf;lh; P.V.

,uh[kd;dhh; jiyikapd; fPo; %th; FO xd;iwepakpj;jJ.
2002 Mk; Mz;LNkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l 86 tJ murpayikg;Gr; rl;lj;jpUj;jj;jpd;gb ,e;jpa

murpayikg;gpd; gphpT 45 jpUj;jg;gl;L>gphpT 21 A tpd; fPo; njhlf;ff; fy;tp>mbg;gil
chpikahfr; Nrh;f;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,e;jj; jpUj;jk; khepymuRfs; Kd;gUtkoiyah; fy;tpia
(Early Chilhood Care and Education – ECCE) 6 taJtiuAs;s Foe;ijfSf;F toq;f
mwpTWj;JfpwJ.
1978 Mk; Mz;L> 44 tJmurpayikg;Gr; rl;lj;jpUj;jg;gb>mbg;gilchpikfs;

gl;baypypUe;Jnrhj;Jhpik (gphpT 31) ePf;fg;gl;lJ. ,e;jpamurpayikg;Gr; rl;lk; gFjpXII, 300 A
tpd; fPo; xUrl;lchpikahfitf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
2004 Mk; Mz;L ,e;jpamuR“nrk;nkhopfs;”vDk; Gjpatifg;ghl;bid Vw;gLj;jjPh;khdpj;jJ.

mjd;gb 6 nkhopfs; nrk;nkhopjFjpia ngw;Ws;sd. mit>jkpo; (2004)>rk];fpUjk;
(2005)>njYq;F (2008)>fd;dlk; (2008)>kiyahsk; (2013) kw;Wk; xbah (2014).
jw;NghJ mjpfhug; gfph;T vd;gJ kj;jpa muRgl;baypy; 100 Jiwfs;>khepymuR gl;baypy; 61

Jiwfs; kw;Wk; ,uz;Lf;Fk; nghJthd nghJg;gl;baypy; 52 Jiwfs; vd;Wk;
khw;wg;gl;Ls;sJ. 1976 Mk; Mz;L Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l 42 tJmurpayikg;G rl;lj;jpUj;jk;
khepyg;gl;baypy; ,Ue;J 5 Jiwfis nghJg;gl;baYf;F khw;wpaJ.
mitfy;tp>fhLfs;>vilfs; kw;Wk; msTfs;>gwitfs; kw;Wk; tdtpyq;Ffs; ghJfhg;Gkw;Wk;
cr;rePjpkd;wk;>cah;ePjp kd;wmikg;Gfisj; jtpu gpw ePjpkd;wq;fspd; ePjpeph;thfk;
MfpadthFk;.
1789 Mk; Mz;LgpnuQ;RGul;rpapd; NghJRje;jpuk;>rkj;Jtk;>rNfhjuj;Jtk; Mfpad

Kf;fpaKof;fq;fshapd. ,e;jpamurpayikg;gpd; KfTiuapy; ,tw;wpw;FKf;fpaj;Jtk;
jug;gl;Ls;sJ.
gphpT 14 - rl;lj;jpd; Kd; midtUk; rkk;

gphpT 15 - kjk;> ,dk;>rhjp>ghypdk; kw;Wk; gpwg;gplk; ,tw;wpd;
mbg;gilapy; ghFgLj;Jtijj; jilnra;jy;
gphpT 16 - nghJNtiytha;g;Gfspy; rktha;g;gspj;jy;
gphpT 17 - jPz;lhikiaxopj;jy;
gphpT 18 - ,uhZtkw;Wk; fy;tprhh; gl;lq;fisj; jtpukw;wgl;lq;fis
SAIS ACADEMY ePf;Fjy; Page 138

II. Rje;jpuchpik :
gphpT 19 - Ngr;Rhpik>fUj;Jnjhptpf;Fk; chpik>mikjpahdKiwapy;

$l;lk; $Ltjw;Fchpik>rq;fq;fs;>mikg;Gfs; njhlq;f
chpik> ,e;jpaehl;bw;Fs; tpUk;gpa ,lj;jpy; trpf;Fk; kw;Wk;
njhopy; nra;Ak; chpik
gphpT 20 - Fw;wQ;rhl;lg;gl;legh;fSf;fhdchpikkw;Wk;
jz;lidfspypUe;JghJfhg;GngWk; chpik
gphpT 21 - tho;f;ifkw;Wk; jdpg;gl;lRje;jpuj;jpw;Fg; ghJfhg;GngWk;
chpik
gphpT 21 A - njhlf;ff; fy;tpngWk; chpik
gphpT 22 - rpytof;Ffspy; ifJnra;J>jLg;Gf; fhtypy;

itg;gjw;nfjpuhd ghJfhg;G chpik
III. Ruz;lYf;nfjpuhdchpik :
gphpT 23 - fl;lhaNtiy>nfhj;jbikKiwkw;Wk; kdpjj;jd;ikaw;w

tpahghuj;ijj; jLj;jy;
gphpT 24 - njhopw;rhiyfs; kw;Wk; Mgj;jhd ,lq;fspy; Foe;ijj;
njhopyhsh; Kiwiaj; jLj;jy;
IV. rkar;rhh;Gchpik :
gphpT 25 - ve;jxUrkaj;jpidVw;fTk;>gpd;gw;wTk;>gug;gTk; chpik

gphpT 26 - rkatptfhuq;fiseph;tfpf;Fk; chpik
gphpT 27 - ve;jnthU kjj;ijAk; gug;Gtjw;fhf thp nrYj;Jtjw;nfjpuhd
Rje;jpuk;
gphpT 28 - kjk; rhh;e;j fy;tp epWtdq;fspy; eilngWk; topghLkw;Wk;
mwpTiu epfo;Tfspy; fye;J nfhs;shkypUf;f chpik

V. fy;tp>fyhr;rhuchpik :
gphpT 29 - rpWghd;ikapdhpd; vOj;Jkw;Wk; fyhr;rhug; ghJfhg;G

gphpT 30 - rpWghd;ikapdhpd; fy;tpepWtdq;fisepWtp>eph;tfpf;Fk;
chpik
VI. murpayikg;Gf;Fl;gl;LjPh;TfhZk; chpik :
gphpT 32 - jdpg;gl;lthpd; mbg;gilchpikfs; ghjpf;fg;gLk; NghJ>

ePjpkd;wj;ijmZfpchpikiag; ngWjy;
gpNuk; ng`hhpeNud; iu[lh vd;gtuhy; ,e;jpa murpayikg;Gr; rl;lk;

,j;jhypaghzpapy;>mtuJ ifg;gl vOjg;gl;lJ.
myF– 2 eLtz; muR
GJjpy;ypapy; mike;Js;s ,e;jpacr;rePjpkd;wk; 1950 [dthp 28 Mk; ehs; Jtq;fg;gl;lJ.

,J 1935 Mk; Mz;L ,e;jpamuRr; rl;lj;jpd; fPo; epWtg;gl;l $l;lhl;rpePjpkd;wj;ijj;
njhlh;e;JcUthf;fg;gl;lJ.
jkpofj;jpypUe;JehlhSkd;wj;jpw;FNjh;e;njLf;fg;gLk; cWg;gpdh;fs;.
 khepyq;fsit - 18 cWg;gpdh;fs;
 kf;fsit - 39 cWg;gpdh;fs;
KbTthf;F (Casting Vote) : khepyq;fisitapy; rl;lkNrhjhtpd; kPJeilngw;w

thf;nfLg;G rkepiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; gl;rj;jpy; murpayikg;Gr; rl;lg;gphpT 100 ,d;
gbJizf; FbauRj; jiyth; thf;F mspf;fyhk;. ,Jrl;l kNrhjhtpd; xg;GjYf;F
xUthf;F kl;LNk Njit vd;w epiyiaf; Fwpf;fpwJ. mtUila KbTf;F vjph;g;G
njhptpf;f vtUf;Fk; chpik ,y;iy.
FbauRj; jiyth; kw;wk; Jizf; FbauRj; jiyth; gjtpfs; xNurkaj;jpy; fhypahf

,Uf;Fk; gl;rj;jpy; cr;rePjp kd;w jiyik ePjpgjpFbauRj; jiythpd; gzpfisr;
nrayhw;Wthh;. 1969 Mk; Mz;L ,j;jifa xU epfo;tpd; NghJ cr;rePjp
kd;wjiyikePjpgjp M. `pjaJy;yhFbauRj; jiytuhf epakpf;fg;gl;lhh;.

Nfushkw;Wk; gQ;rhg; khepyq;fspy; mjpfgl;rkhf 9 KiwFbauRj; jiyth;

Ml;rpeilKiwg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
ehlhSkd;wf; $l;lj; njhlh;

gl;n[l; $l;lj; njhlh; gpg;uthpKjy; Nktiu
kiof; (gUt) fhyf; $l;lj; [{iyKjy; nrg;lk;gh;
njhlh;
Fsph; fhyf; $l;lj; njhlh; etk;gh; kw;Wk; brk;gh;
epjpkNrhjh:epjpkNrhjhtpidjpUj;jk; nra;aNth my;yJ epuhfhpf;fNth

khepyq;fsitf;F mjpfhuk; ,y;iy. kf;fsitapy; kl;LNkepjpkNrhjhtpid
mwpKfg;gLj;jKbAk;. ,k;kNrhj khepyq;fsitapd; xg;GjYld; rl;lkhfkhWk;.
khepyq;fsit 14 ehl;fSf;Fs; xg;Gjy; mspf;ftpy;iynadpy; xg;Gjy; ngwhkNyNa
rl;lkhfptpLk;. khepyq;fsitapd; rl;lj; jpUj;jj;jpw;fhd Kd;nkhopTfis
kf;fsitfUj;jpy; nfhs;sNtz;bajpy;iy. ve;j Kd;nkhopTfisAk; kf;fsit
epuhfhpf;fyhk;.
GJjpy;ypapy; cs;s uh~;bugjpgtd; - FbauRj; jiythpd; ,y;yk; MFk;.

mtUila ,y;yk; kw;Wk; mYtyfk; ,uz;Lk; xNu fl;llj;jpy; mike;Js;sd.
,Ue;jNghjpYk; mtUf;F ,Ug;gplj;Jld; $bamYtyfq;fs; NkYk; ,uz;L
,lq;fspy; cs;sd. mq;F tUlj;jpw;F xUKiw nrd;W jd;Dila mYtyf
gzpfis mth; Nkw;nfhs;fpwhh;. mitfs; rpk;yhtpy; cs;shpl;hlP ; fl;llk; (The
Reteat Building) kw;Wk; i`juhghj;jpy; cs;s uh~;bugjpepiyak; MFk;. ,itfspy;
xd;Wtlf;fpYk; kw;nwhd;W njw;fpYk; mike;Js;sJ. ,Jehl;bd;
xw;WikiaAk;>kf;fspd; gy;NtWgl;l fyhr;rhuj;jpd; xw;WikiaAk;
giwrhw;Wfpd;wJ.
myF– 3 khepymuR
1862 Mk; Mz;L [{d; 26 Mk; ehspy; tpf;Nlhhpahkfhuhzp toq;fpa fhg;Ghpik

fbjj;jpd; %yk; nrd;id>Kk;ig>nfhy;fj;jhMfpakhfhzq;fspy; cah; ePjpkd;wq;fs;
Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;ld. ,tw;wpy; nkl;uh]; cah; ePjpkd;wtshfk; cyfpNyNa
,yz;lDf;FmLj;J ,uz;lhtJnghpaePjpj;JiwtshfkhFk;.
jkpofj;jpy; rl;lkd;wcWg;gpdh;fsp; nkhj;jvz;zpf;ifapd; gb (234

cWg;gpdh;fs;) mikr;rh;fspd; vz;zpf;if 36 tiu ,Uf;fyhk;. mjhtJ234 ,y; 15
tpOf;fhL.
1986 ,y; ,aw;wg;gl;ljkpo;ehLrl;lNkyit (ePf;fk;) kNrhjh %yk; jkpo;ehl;by;

rl;lNkyitePf;fg;gl;lJ. ,r;rl;lk; 1986 etk;gh; Kjy; ehsd;WeilKiwf;Fte;jJ.

myF–4 ,e;jpahtpd; ntspAwTf; nfhs;if
cs;ehl;Lf; nfhs;ifkw;Wk; ntspAwTf; nfhs;iff;F ,ilNaahdNtWghLfs;

cs;ehl;Lf; nfhs;if ntspAwTf; nfhs;if
 cs;ehl;Lf;  ntspAwTf;
nfhs;ifvd;gJxUehLjd nfhs;ifvd;gJxUehLgpwehLfSld;
Jehl;bw;Fs;shdtptfhuq;f nfhz;Ls;stptfhuq;fs; njhlh;ghdjhFk;.
s; njhlh;ghff;  tzpfk;>murje;jpuk;>jLg;Geltbf;iffs;>
nfhz;Ls;snfhs;ifahFk;.  ghJfhg;G>csTj; Jiwkw;Wk; cyfshtpa
 ,Jcs;tptfhuq;fs;>r%fe #oy; Mfpatiffisfnfhz;ljhFk;.
yk;>Rfhjhuk;>fy;tp>Fbapay;
chpikfs;>nghUshjhutpt
fhuq;fs; kw;Wk; rfg;
gpur;ridfs;
Mfpatw;iwikakhff;
nfhz;lrl;lq;fiscs;sl
f;fpaJ.
,e;jpamurpayikg;Gr; rl;lk; 1950 rl;lg;gphpT 51 : muRnewpKiwg;gLj;Jk; ,e;jpahtpd;

ntspAwTf; nfhs;iffs;. muRKaw;rpnra;aNtz;baitfs; :
 rh;tNjrmikjpkw;Wk; ghJfhg;igNkk;gLj;Jjy;
 ehLfspilNaepahakhdkw;Wk; nfsutkhdcwTfisg; NgZjy;
 rh;tNjrkw;Wk; rh;tNjrmikg;Gfiskjpj;jy;
 rh;tNjrg; gpur;ridfiseLth; kd;wk; %yk; jPh;f;fCf;Ftpj;jy;
ntspAwTf; nfhs;ifvd;gJkw;wehLfSld; cwitg; NgZtjw;fhfxUehl;lhy;
ftdkhftbtikf;fg;gl;lcj;jpfspd; fyitahFk;. ,uh[je;jpuk; vd;gJ Xh; murpd;
ntspAwTf; nfhs;ifiar; #oYf;Fj; jFe;jhw;Nghy; nray;gLj;Jtjw;fhd fUtp MFk;.
myF–5 ,e;jpahtpd; rh;tNjrcwTfs;
,J 1969 Mk; Mz;by; eilngw;wxUrh;tNjrtbtikg;Gg; Nghl;bapd; %yk;

,r;rpd;dkhdJ Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;lJ. M];jphpa tbtikg;ghsh; ];NthNghlh ,ij tbtikj;J
Nghl;bapy; ntd;whh;. ,J ,e;j mikg;gpDila ngahpd; nt;tNtWvOj;Jf;fis (OPEC) xU
tl;lkhd tbtikg;gpy; fhzyhk;.
gphpf;]; (BRICS) vd;wnrhy; [pk; X’ePy; (Jim O’ Neil) vd;wgpugykhdgphpl;b~;

nghUshjhuepGzuhy; cUthf;fg;gl;lJ. gpNurpy;> u~;ah> ,e;jpah>rPdhMfpaehLfs; 2050 Mk;
Mz;Lthf;fpy; MW njhopy;kakhf;fg;gl;lehLfistpllhyh; kjpg;gpy;
nghpaehLfshfcUthFk; vd;Wk; fle;j 300 Mz;Lfspd; mjpfhug; Nghf;FKw;wpYk; khWgLk;
vd;Wk; mth; fzpj;jhh;.

fl;Lg;ghLf; NfhL : 1949 Mk; Mz;LjPh;khdpf;fg;gl;lNghh; epWj;jf; NfhL 1972 Mk;

Mz;bw;Fg; gpd;dh; vy;iyf; fl;LghLf; NfhLvdmiof;fg;gl;lJ. ,J 1972 Mk; Mz;bd;
rpk;yhxg;ge;jj;jpd; fPo; ,e;jpahtpw;Fk; ghfp];jhDf;Fk;
,ilNaVw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl;lvy;iyahFk;. ,f;NfhLgphptpidnra;ag;gl;lNghJuhl;f;sp/g; NfhL
(RadCliffe Line) vd;Wmiof;fg;gl;lJ. (uhl;f;sp/g; vd;gth; vy;iyMizaj;jpd; jiytuhf
,Ue;jhh;) ,f;NfhLjw;NghJfl;Lg;ghLf; NfhLvdmiof;fg;gLfpwJ
,e;jpahtpw;Fr; nrhe;jkhdBd;gpfh (Teen Bigha)vd;wgFjpNkw;Ftq;fhsk; kw;Wk;

tq;fhsNjrj;jpw;F ,ilNaahdvy;iyapy; cs;sJ. FWfyhd ,g;ghij 2011 Mk;
Mz;Ltq;fhsNjrj;jpw;Ff; Fj;jiff;Ftplg;gl;lJ.
FU gj;krk;gthvDk; Gj;jJwtp ,e;jpahtpypUe;JG+lhDf;Fr; nrd;whh;.

mq;FjdJnry;thf;ifVw;gLj;jpGj;jrkaj;ijg; gug;gpajd; %yk; ,U
ehl;Lkf;fspilNaghuk;ghpaj;ijcWjpg;gLj;jpdhh;.
rpe;J ntsp ehfhpf fhyk; Kjy; ,e;jpahTk; Mg;fhdp];jhDk; gd;Kfj;jd;ikiaAk;

kpfMokhdel;GwitAk; nfhz;bUe;jd. fdp~;fUila Ml;rpapd; NghJ Vuhskhd ,e;jpa
rkag; gug;Gf; FOf;fs; rPdh>kj;jpaMrpahkw;Wk; Mg;fhdpjhd; Nghd;wehLfSf;Fj; jq;fs;
kjj;ijg; gug;gr; nrd;wdh;. gYrp];jhd; (jw;fhyj;jpaghfp];jhdpd; vy;iyg;Gwkhfhzk;)
gFjpiar; rhh;e;jfhd; mg;Jy; fghh;fhd; ,e;jpatpLjiyg; Nghuhl;l ,af;fj;jpd; Kf;fpaj;
jiytUk; ,e;jpaNjrpafhq;fpurpd; jPtpuMjuthsUk; Mthh;.
mNrhfh; Gj;jkjj;ijg; gug;Gtjw;fhfmtuJkfd; kfpe;jhitAk; kfs; rq;fkpj;jpiuiAk;

,yq;iff;FmDg;gpdhh;. Nrho murh;fshd Kjyhk; ,uh[uh[d; kw;Wk; Kjyhk; ,uhN[e;jpud;
MfpNahh; ,yq;ifapd; tlgFjpiaf; ifg;gw;wpdh;.
cyfpd; kpfg; goikahd fly; th;j;jfghijfspy; xd;WRNkhpahtpy; ,Ue;J g`;iud;

topahf nkYf;fh vd;Wmiof;fg;gl;l rpe;Jntspehfhpfk; tiu mikf;fg;gl;bUe;jJ.
kf;kfhd; vy;iyf; NfhL - ,e;jpah>rPdhkw;Wk; G+lhd; fpof;Fg; gFjp Mfpa gFjpfSf;F

,ilNaahdvy;iyf;NfhLMFk;. ,J 1914 Mk; Mz;by; gphpl;b~; ,e;jpah>jpngj; kw;Wk;
rPdhMfpaehLfspd; gpujpepjpfs; $l;lj;jpy; jPh;khdpf;fg;gl;lJ. gphpl;b~; ,e;jpahtpd; rhh;gpy;
,e;jpahtpw;fhdnrayhsh; Mh;jh; n`d;wpkf;kfhd; ,f;$l;lj;jpy; fye;Jnfhz;lhh;.
myF– 1 nkhj;jcs;ehl;Lcw;gj;jpkw;Wk; mjd; tsh;r;rp : Xh; mwpKfk;

,e;jpahtpy; GDP apd; Jiwthhpahdgq;fspg;G

Mz;L tptrhak; % njhopy;fs; gzpfs; %
1950 – 51 51.81 14.16 33.25
1960 – 61 42.56 19.30 38.25
1970 – 71 41.95 20.48 37.22
1980 – 81 35.39 24.29 39.92
1990 – 91 29.02 26.49 44.18
2000 – 01 23.02 26.00 50.98
2010 – 11 18.21 27.16 54.64
2011 – 12 17.86 27.22 54.91
2012 – 13 17.52 26.21 56.27
2013 – 14 18.20 24.77 57.03
2015 – 16 17.07 29.08 52.05
2016 – 17 17.09 29.03 52.08
2017 – 18 17.01 29.01 53.09
Mjhuk; : Central Statistics Organisation
1934 Mk; Mz;by; irkd; F];el; vd;gtuhy; GDP apd; etPdfUj;JKjd; Kjypy;
cUthf;fg;gl;lJ.
GDP apd; kjpg;gL

P : Gs;spapay; Jiwmikr;ruitapd; fPNoAs;skj;jpaGs;spapay;
mikg;G(CSO), GDPrk;ge;jg;gl;lMtzq;fisghJfhf;fpwJ. njhopw;Jiwapd;
cw;gj;jpiaMz;Lfzf;nfLg;Gelj;jpnjhopy;Jiwcw;gj;jpFwpaPL(IIP) >Efh;Nthh; tpiyFwpaPL
(CPI) Nghd;wFwpaPLfisntspapLfpwJ.
nkhj;jkjpg;G $Ljy; : nghUshjhuj;jpy; xUgFjp>njhopy; my;yJJiwapy;

cw;gj;jpnra;ag;gl;lgz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; gzpfspd; kjpg;Ngnkhj;jkjpg;G $Ljy; (GVA) MFk;.
GVA = GDP + khdpak; - thpfs; (Neh;Kfthp>tpw;gidthp)
nghUshjhutsh;r;rpf;Fk; nghUshjhuKd;Ndw;wj;jpw;Fk; cs;sNtWghL

nghUshjhutsh;r;rpn
ghUshjhuKd;Ndw;w nghUshjhutsh;r;rp nghUshjhuKd;Ndw;wk;
k; xg;gPL
fUj;J nghUshjhutsh;r;rpFWfpafU nghUshjhuKd;Ndw;wk;
j;J xU“gue;jfUj;J”
tiuaiw / xUFwpg;gpl;lfhyj;jpy; ,JnghUshjhuj;jpy; ntspaPl;bd;
nghUs; nghUshjhuj;jpy; tsh;r;rpiaf; fUj;jpy; nfhz;L
ntspaPl;bd; HDI apd; FwpaPl;bd; Kd;Ndw;wk;
Neh;kiwmsTkhw;wj;ijf; tho;f;ifj; juj;jpy; cah;T>njhopy;

nfhLf;Fk; El;gKd;Ndw;wk; kw;Wk; xUehl;bd;

xl;Lnkhj;jkfpo;r;rpFwpaPli; lf;
Fwpf;fpwJ
mZFKiw ,ay;G mstpd; ,ay;G juj;jpd; ,ay;G
Nehf;fk; GDP, GNP, FDI, FII tho;f;ifvjph;ghh;g;Gtpfpjk;>Foe;ijv
Nghd;wmsTfs; mjpfhpf;Fk; Oj;jwpTtpfpjk; kw;Wk;
tWiktpfpjj;jpy; Kd;Ndw;wk;
fhytuk;G ,aw;ifapy; ,aw;ifapy;
FWfpafhyj;ijcilaJ ePz;lfhyj;ijcilaJ
nghUe;Jk; jd;ik tsh;e;jehLfs; tsh;e;JtUfpd;wehLfs;
mstPl;LEl;gq;fs; ehl;LtUkhdj;ijmjpfhpj;jy; cz;ikahdehl;LtUkhdj;ijmjpf
hpj;jy; mjhtJjdpegh; tUkhdk;
Nghd;wit
epfo;tpd; mjph;ntz; xUFwpg;gpl;lfhyk; njhlh;r;rpahdnray;Kiw
murhq;fcjtp ,JxUjhdpaq;fpnray;Kiw murhq;fjiyaPl;ilkpfTk;
ahFk;. vdNtmurhq;fcjtp ek;gpAs;sJ.
/ ,Jgue;jnfhs;ifkhw;wq;fiscs;s
MjuTmy;yJjiyaPLNjit lf;fpAs;sJ. vdNtmurhq;fj;
g;gl;lJ. jiyaPL ,y;yhky; mJrhj;jpaNk
,y;iy
nkhj;jNjrpakfpo;r;rp(GNH) : ‘GNH’vd;wthh;j;ijia 1972 ,y; cUthf;fpath;

[pfNkrpq;fNathq;`f; vd;wG+l;lhd; murh;. mth; gk;gha; tpkhdepiyaj;jpy; epjpfhyq;fs;
(Financial Times) vd;wgj;jphpf;iff;Fgphpl;b~; gj;jphpf;ifahshpd; Neh;fhzypy; GNP I tpl
GNHkpfKf;fpak; vd;whh;. 2011 ,y; If;fpaehLfs; rig
“tsh;r;rpf;fhdxUOOikahdmZFKiwf;F–kfpo;r;rp”vd;wjPh;khdj;ijepiwNtw;wpaJ.
cWg;GehLfs; G+lhidxUvLj;Jf;fhl;lhfgpd;gw;wpkfpo;r;rpiaAk;>ey;topiaAk;
kfpo;r;rpvdmioj;jdh;. (“mbg;gilkdpjFwpf;Nfhs;”)
GNHapd; ehd;F J}z;fs;
1. epiyahdkw;Wk; rkkhdr%fnghUshjhutsh;r;rp
2. Rw;Wr;#oy; ghJfhg;G
3. fyhr;rhuj;ijghJfhg;gJk; Nkk;gLj;JtJk;
4. ey;yMl;rpj; jpwd;
cstpay; eyd;>cly; eyk;>Neug; gad;ghL>fy;tp>fyhr;rhugd;Kfj; jd;ik>ey;yMl;rpj;
jpwd;>r%fj;jpd; cah;T>Rw;Wr;#oy; gd;Kfj; jd;ik>tho;f;ifj; juk; Mfpait GNH ,d; 9
fsq;fshff; fUjg;gLfpwJ.
kdpjNkk;ghl;Lf; FwpaPL(HDI) : kdpjNkk;ghl;Lf; FwpaPLvd;gJ 1990 Mk; Mz;Lghfp];jhdpd;

Kf`g; - cy; `f; vd;wnghUspay; mwpQuhy; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. gpwg;gpd; NghJtho;ehs;
vjph;ghh;g;G>taJte;Njhhpd; fy;tpawpTkw;Wk; tho;f;ifj; juk;> GDP apd;
klf;ifnray;ghLvdfzf;fplg;gl;L>thq;Fk; rf;jprkepiyf;F (PPP) rhpnra;ag;gLfpwJ. UNDP
apy; ntspaplg;gl;lrkPgj;jpy; kdpjtsh;rr; pkjpg;gPLfspy; ,e;jpah 189 ehLfspy; 130 tJ
,lj;jpw;Fcah;e;Js;sJvdntspapl;Ls;sJ.

myF– 2 cyfkakhjy; kw;Wk; th;j;jfk;
me;epanryhtzpfl;Lg;ghl;Lr; rl;lk; 1974 (Foreign Exchange Regulation Act) : ,e;jrl;lk;

,e;jpahtpy; gd;dhl;LepWtdq;fspd; nray;ghl;ilNeubahfFwpg;gpLfpwJ.
me;epanryhtzpNkyhz;ikr; rl;lk; 1999 (Foreign Exchange Management Act) : ,J

ghuhSkd;wj;jhy; 1999 y; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ. “fl;Lg;ghl;Lf;F”khwhf“eph;thfj;ij” FEMA tpd;
fPo; typAWj;jpaJ.
cyfth;j;jfmikg;G (World Trade Organisation) :
jiyikafk; : n[dpth>Rtpl;rh;yhe;J
Nehf;fk; : tzpfj;jpidfl;Lg;gLj;jy;>may;ehl;Lthzpgk;
cWg;gpdh;fs; : jiyik ,af;Feh;>Jizjiyik ,af;Feh; - 4 kw;Wk; 80
cWg;GehLfspypUe;JNjh;e;njLf;fg;gl;l 600 mYtyf
Copah;fs;
fhl;bd; (GATT) Rw;Wfs;
 ItJn[dpth (Rtpl;rh;yhe;J) – 1947

 IItJmd;dprp (gpuhd;];) – 1949
 IIItJlhh;f;FNt (,q;fpyhe;J) – 1950 – 51
 IV, Vkw;Wk; VI n[dpth (Rtpl;rh;yhe;J) – 1956> 1960 – 61> 1964 – 67
 VIItJNlhf;fpNah ([g;ghd;) – 1973 – 79
 1986 – 1994 ,y; VIIItJkw;Wk; ,Wjpr; Rw;Wgd;lhnly; v]; B (cUFNt).
,ij“cUFNtRw;W”vdmioj;jdh;.
2018 ,y; ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg; nghpagd;dhl;LepWtdq;fs;

Nrhdpfhh;g;gNurd; nel;by;
`Tyf; Ngf;fhh;L(HP) gpuhf;lh; &Nfk;gpy;
lhl;lhFOkk; rpl;bFOkk;
ikf;Nuhrhg;l; fhh;g;gNurd; ngg;rpepWtdk;
I.gp.vk; NfhNfh–NfhyhepWtdk;

myF– 3 czTghJfhg;Gkw;Wk; Cl;lr;rj;J
jkpo;ehl;by; rpyCl;lr;rj;Jjpl;lq;fs; :
1. Gul;rpj; jiyth; vk;.[p.Mh; Cl;lr;rj;JczTj;jpl;lk;
2. Muk;gf; fy;tpf;FNjrpaCl;lr;rj;JMjuTjpl;lk;
3. nghJ ICDS jpl;lq;fs; kw;Wk; cyftq;fpcjtpAld; xUq;fpize;jFoe;ijfs;
Nkk;ghl;LNritfs; (General ICDS Projects and World Bank Assisted Integrated Child
Development Services)
4. gpujkke;jphpfpuhNkhjah Nah[dh jpl;lk;
5. jkpo;ehLxUq;fpize;jCl;lr;rj;Jjpl;lk;
6. kjpaczTj; jpl;lk;
jkpo;ehl;by; nray;gLk; Kf;fpakhdjpl;lq;fs;
1. lhf;lh; Kj;Jyl;Rkpnul;bkfg;NgWeyj; jpl;lj;jpd; (Dr.Muthulakshmi Reddy Maternity

Benefit Scheme) fPo; >Viofh;gpzpg; ngz;fSf;F&. 12>000 epjpAjtptoq;fg;gLfpwJ.
2. Kjyikr;rhpd; tphpthdRfhjhufhg;gPLjpl;lk; (Chief Minister’s Comprehensive Health
Insurance Scheme) 2011 – 12 Mk; Mz;by; ,e;jjpl;lk; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. ,jd;
Nehf;fk; midtUf;Fk; cly; eyk; toq;Fk; Nehf;fpy; murhq;fj;jhy;
,ytrkUj;Jtkw;Wk; mWitrpfpr;irtoq;FtjhFk;.
3. jkpo;ehLRfhjhumikg;Gjpl;lq;fs; (Tamilnadu Health Systems Projects)
,ytrkhfMk;Gyd;]; NritfismwpKfg;gLj;jpAs;sJ. (108 mtruMk;Gyd;]; Nrit)
4. ‘gs;spRfhjhujpl;lk;’ (School Health Programme) tphpthdRfhjhuNritiamuRkw;Wk;
muRcjtpngWk; gs;spfspy; gbf;Fk; midj;Jkhzth;fSf;Fk;
toq;FtijtypAWj;JfpwJ.
5. NjrpanjhONeha; xopg;Gjpl;lj;jpd; (National Leprosy Eradication Programme) %yk;
midj;JnjhONehahspfisAk;
fz;lwpe;Jnjhlh;r;rpahdrpfpr;iriatoq;FtijNehf;fkhfnfhz;Lkhepyj;jpy;
nray;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
jkpo;ehl;by; NjrpaczTghJfhg;Gr; rl;lk; : ,e;jpahtpy; NjrpacztghJfhg;Gr; rl;lk; Jtq;fp

%d;WMz;LfSf;Fg; gpd;dh;> ,r;rl;lk; jkpo;ehl;by; etk;gh; 1> 2016 md;WJtq;fg;gl;lJ.
thq;Fk; rf;jprkepiy(Purchasing Power Parity) : thq;Fk; rf;jprkepiy(PPP)vd;gJthq;Fk;

rf;jpnjhlh;ghdxUfUj;jhFk;. ,JxUnghUshjhuf; Nfhl;ghlhFk;. xUnghUspd; tpiyAld;
rhpnra;ag;glNtz;banjhifiakjpg;gpLfpwJ. ehLfspd; tUkhdepiyfs; kw;Wk; tho;f;ifr;
nryTnjhlh;ghdgpwnjhlh;GilanghUshjhuj; juTmy;yJgztPf;fk; kw;Wk; gzthl;lj;jpd;
rhj;jpakhdtpfpjq;fisxg;gpLtjw;Fthq;Fk; rf;jprkepiyiagad;gLj;jyhk;. rkPgj;jpy; thq;Fk;
rf;jprkepiyapd; mbg;gilapy; ,e;jpah %d;whtJnghpanghUshjhukhfkhwpAs;sJ.
rPdhkpfg;nghpanghUshjhukhfkhwp>mnkhpf;fhit ,uz;lhtJ ,lj;jpw;Fjs;spas;sJ.

jhq;fpapUg;G(Buffer Stock) : jhq;fpapUg;Gvd;gJczTjhdpaq;fshdNfhJikkw;Wk; mhprp

,e;jpaczTf; fofj;jpd; (Food Corporation of India) %yk; murhq;fj;jhy; thq;fg;gLfpwJ.
cghpcw;gj;jp ,Uf;Fk; khepyq;fspy; tptrhapfsplkpU;ENfhJikkw;Wk;
mhprpiaFCItoq;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;jtpiyf;FFiwe;jgl;rMjuTtpiy(Minimum Support Price)
vd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;jgaph;fspd;
cw;gj;jpiacah;j;Jtjw;fhftptrhapfSf;FCf;fj;njhiftoq;Ftjw;fhftpijg;GgUtj;jpw;FK
d;dh; xt;nthUMz;Lk; Fiwe;jgl;rMjuTtpiy (MSP) murhq;fj;jhy; mwptpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
nfhs;Kjy; nra;ag;gl;lczTjhdpaq;fs; fsQ;rpaq;fspy; Nrkpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
jkpo;ehl;bd; mjpfkw;Wk; Fiwthd MPI khtl;lq;fs;

Kjy; Ie;Jkhtl;lq;fs; Filrp Ie;J khtl;lq;fs;
fhQ;rpGuk; jh;kGhp
nrd;id nguk;gY}h;
flY}h; ,uhkehjGuk;
Nfhak;Gj;J}h; tpUJefh;
ehfg;gl;bdk; mhpaY}h;
Fiwe;jgl;rMjuTtpiy (Minimum Support Price) :

Fiwe;jgl;rMjuTtpiyvd;gJme;jg; gaphpd; rhFgbapy; gy;NtWnryTfisfUj;jpy;
nfhz;LxUFwpg;gpl;lgapUf;FxUtpiy>epGzh; FOthy; eph;zapf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Fiwe;jgl;rMjuTtpiymwptpj;jgpd;dh;> ,e;jgaph;fs; gutyhftsh;f;fg;gLk; ,lq;fspy;
muRnfhs;Kjy; ikaq;fisj; jpwf;Fk;. vdpDk; me;jtptrhapfs; jq;fs;
gaph;>tpisnghUSf;Fey;ytpiyiag; ngw;why; jpwe;jntspre;ijapy;
tpiyFiwe;jgl;rMjuTtpiyiatplFiwthf ,Ue;jhy;>tptrhapfs; jq;fs;
tpisnghUs;fisFiwe;jgl;rMjuTtpiyf;Ftpw;gjd; %yk;
cWjpg;gLj;jg;gl;ltpiyiag; (MSP) ngWthh;fs;.
myF– 4 murhq;fKk; thpfSk;
vLj;Jf;fhl;L
thpmbg;gil thptpfpjk; thpmsT
&. 10>000 10 % &. 1000
&. 20>000 10 % &. 2000
&. 30>000 10 % &. 3000
,e;jpahtpy; thptpjpg;gpd; Nth;fs; kD ];kpUjp kw;Wk; mh;j;jrh];jpu

fhyj;jpypUe;Nj gpd;gw;wg;gl;lJ. jw;fhy ,e;jpathp KiwahdJ gz;ilafhy th
pKiwia mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ.

tsh;tPjthptpjpg;G tpfpjthptpjpg;G Nja;TtPjthptpjpg;G

tUkhdmjpfhpg;G tUkhdmjpfhpg;G tUkhdkhw;wk;
thpAk; mjpfhpf;Fk; thpFiwAk; vg;NghJk; xNuthp
v.fh. tUkhdthp v.fh. epWtdthp v.fhtpw;gidthp
,e;jpahtpy; Kjd;Kjyhf tUkhdthp 1860 Mk; Mz;L rh; N[k;]; tpy;rd; vd;gtuhy;
mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. 1857 Mk; Mz;Lfyfj;jpd; %yk; Vw;gl;l ,og;Gfis <Lfl;l
murhq;fj;jpd; %yk; Nghlg;gl;l MizNa thptpjpg;ghFk;.
tUkhd thptiy jsj;jd; %yk; elg;G Mz;bw;fhd tUkhdthp mwpf;ifapid

khzth;fis mwpe;Jnfhs;sf; $wy;.
thpf;Fk; fl;lzj;jpw;Fk; cs;sNtWghLfs;

thp (Tax) fl;lzk; (Payment)
thpvd;gJve;jtpjgpujpgyDk; fl;lzk;
vjph;ghh;f;fhky; murhq;fj;jhy; vd;gJgzpfisgad;gLj;Jtjw;fhfnrYj;JtjhFk;.
fl;lhakhfnrYj;jg;gLfpd;wnrYj;
JifahFk;.
nghJthfmurhq;fj;jpd; tUkhd fl;lzk; vd;gJxUFwpg;gpl;led;ikfSf;fhdjdpr;
,dq;fspy; rYiffisg;
xd;whfthpNkNyhq;fpAs;sJ. ngw;wpUe;jhYk;>nghJeyxOq;FKiwapd;
rpwg;ghdKjd;ikNehf;fkhFk;.
thpvd;gJfl;lhanrYj;JifMFk;. fl;lzk; (Fee) vd;gJjd;dhh;tkhfnrYj;JtjhFk;
xUjdpg;gl;leghpd; khwhfgzpfisngwtpUg;gkpy;iyvdpy; fl;lzk;
kPJthptpjpf;fg;;gl;lhy;>mjidmth; nrYj;jj; Njitapy;iy
nrYj;jNtz;Lk;;. ,y;iynadpy;
mth; jz;bf;fg;gLthh;.
thpnrYj;Jgth;fs; fl;lzk; nrYj;Jtjd; %yk;
Neubahfvt;tpjrYiffisAk; Efh;Nthh;fs;>NeubahfrYiffisg; ngWfpd;wdh;.
vjph;ghh;f;fKbahJ. cjhuzk; cjhuzk; :Kj;jpiuthp>Xl;Leh; chpkf;
:tUkhdthp>md;gspg;Gthp>nrhj;Jt fl;lzk;>murhq;fgjpTf; fl;lzk;
hpkw;Wk; kjpg;G $l;Lthp (VAT)

thpmbg;gil thptpfpjk; thpmsT

&. 10>000 10 % &. 1000
&. 20>000 10 % &. 2000
&. 30>000 10 % &. 3000
gz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; gzpfs; thpapd; mikg;G (GST) :
khepygz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; gzpfs; thp (SGST) (khepyj;jpw;Fs;) : kjpg;G $l;Lthp (VAT) /

tpw;gidthp>nfhs;Kjy; thp>nghOJNghf;Fthp>Mlk;guthp>ghpRr;rPl;Lthpkw;Wk; khepy $Ljy;
fl;lzk; kw;Wk; thpfs;.
kj;jpagz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; gzpfs; thp(CGST) (khepyj;jpw;Fs;) :

kj;jpaRq;fj;jPhi
; t>Nritthp><Lnra;thp> $Ljy; Maj;jPhi
; t> $Ljy; fl;lzk;>fy;tpfl;lzk;
(,ilepiyf; fy;tpkw;Wk; Nky;epiyf; fy;tpthp)
xUq;fpize;jgz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; gzpfs; thp (IGST) (khepyq;fSf;F ,ilNa) :

ehd;FKf;fpa GST tpfpjq;fs; cs;sd. (5 %, 12 %, 15 % kw;wk; 28 %) fha;fwpfs; kw;Wk;
czTjhdpaq;fs; Nghd;wtho;f;iff;Fj;
Njitahdmj;jpahtrpaNjitfSf;fhdmidj;Jgz;lq;fSf;Fk;
,e;jthpapypUe;Jtpyf;Fmspf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
1954 Mk; Mz;LKjd;Kjypy; gz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; gzpfs; thpiamky;gLj;jpaehLgpuhd;];

MFk;.
tUkhdk; ,e;jpaepWtdq;fs; may;ehl;LepWtdq;fs;

&. 50 Nfhbf;Fs; 25 % 40 %
&. 50 Nfhbf;FNky; 30 % 40 %
1. rkj;Jttpjp : thpxUfl;lhaf; fl;lzk; vd;gjhy;>thpKiwiatbtikg;gjpy; rkj;Jtk;

vd;gJKjd;ikvd;gijmidj;JnghUshjhuty;Yeh;fSk; xg;Gf;nfhs;fpwhh;fs;. gzf;fhuh;fs;
Viofistplmurhq;fj;jpw;FmjpfthptUthianrYj;jNtz;Lk;. Vndd;why;
Viofistplgzf;fhuh;fSf;FmjpfthpnrYj;jk; jpwd; cs;sJ.
2. rpf;fdkw;Wk; trjptpjp : thpvspikahdjhf ,Ue;jhy;>thpt#ypg;gjw;fhdnryT
(thpnrYj;JNthh; nryT + thpt#ypg;Nghh; nryT) kpff; Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;. NkYk;
xUegUf;FthpnrYj;jg; NghJkhdgzk; fpilf;Fk; Neuj;jpy; thpt#ypf;fg;glNtz;Lk;.
,Jtrjpf;fhdthpvd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ. xUtrjpahdthp>thpt#ypf;Fk; nryitFiwf;fpwJ.
3. cw;gj;jpj; jpwd; kw;Wk; nefpo;r;rpthp : murhq;fk; NghJkhdthptUthiag; ngwf;
$bathpfisNjh;Tnra;aNtz;Lk;. epiwathpfSf;Fg; gjpyhfmjpfthptUthiag; ngwf;
$barpythpfisj; Njh;Tnra;aNtz;Lk;. ,Jcw;gj;jpj; jpwd; thpahFk;. kf;fs; jq;fs;
tUkhdj;jpypUe;JthpnrYj;Jfpwhh;fs;. vdNtkf;fs; tUkhdk; mjpfhpj;jhy;
jhdhfNtmjpfthptUthianrYj;Jk; tifapy; thpmikg;Gtbtikf;fg;glNtz;Lk;.
,Jnefpo;r;rpthpvdg;gLfpwJ.

thpmikg;G : xt;nthUtifahdthpAk; rpyed;ikfs; kw;Wk; jPikfisg; ngw;Ws;sd. ehk;

nfhz;Ls;sthpmikg;G>gy;NtWtifahdthpfspd; njhFg;ghFk;. Mlk; ];kpj; Kjy;
gynghUshjhuty;Yeh;fs; thptpjpg;Gf; nfhs;iffisf; nfhLj;Js;sdh;. mitfspy;
nghJthdtiffis ,q;FepidT $WtJKf;fpakdhjhFk;.
myF– 5 jkpo;ehl;by; njhopy;Jiw njhFg;Gfs;
];lhh;l; mg; ,e;jpahjpl;lk; ([dthp 16> 2016) : ];lhh;l; mg; ,e;jpah jpl;lk; vd;gJ
,e;jpa murpd; xUKd; Kaw;rpj; jpl;lkhFk;. ,jd; Kjd;ikahd Nehf;fk; njhopy;
njhlq;Ftjw;fhd njhlf;f Kaw;rpfis Vw;gLj;Jjy;>Ntiytha;g;Gfis cUthf;Fjy;
kw;Wk; tsq;fis cUthf;Fjy; MFk;.
];lhz;l; mg; ,e;jpahjpl;lk; (Vg;uy; 5> 2016) : ];lhz;l; mg; ,e;jpahjpl;lk; vd;gJgr;irg;
Gy;ntsp (Greenfield Enterprise) epWtdk; mikg;gjw;fhfFiwe;jgl;rk; 10 yl;rj;Jf;Fk;> 1
Nfhbf;Fk; ,ilapy;>xUgl;bay; rhjpapdh; (SC) my;yJgl;bay; goq;Fbapd; (ST) kw;Wk;
xUtq;fpf; fpisf;FxUngz; fld; ngWgth; vdfld; toq;fptq;fpf;
fld;fisvspjhf;FtNj ,j;jpl;lkhFk;.
njw;Fmiuf;Nfhsj;jpy; cs;sehLfs; cyfshtpanjw;FehLfs; (Global South)

vd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpd;wd.
Fwpg;gpl;lrpyjfty; njhopy;El;gnghUshjhukz;lyq;fs; : tsh;rr ; piaNkYk; mjpfg;gLj;Jk;

nghUl;Lnrd;idtl;lhugFjpfisj; jtpu> ,uz;lLf;F (Tier – II)
efuq;fshdNfhak;Gj;J}h;>kJiu>jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp>jpUney;Ntyp>x#h; kw;Wk; Nryk;
Mfpaitjfty; njhopy;El;gKjyPl;bw;fhd ,lq;fshfj; Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
,jidvspjhf;Ftjw;fhf ELCOT epWtdk; gpd;tUk;>vl;L ,lq;fspy; ELCOSEZs
(ITFwpg;gpl;lnghUshjhurpwg;Gkz;lyq;fs;) epWtpAs;sJ.
nrd;id - Nrhopq;fey;Y}h;
 Nfhak;Gj;J}h; - tpshq;Fwpr;rp
 kJiu - ,ye;ijFsk;
 kJiu - tlghyQ;rp>fpz;zpkq;fyk;
 jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp - ehty;gl;L

khepyj;jpd; myFfismikf;ftpUk;Gk; epWtdj;jpw;F ELCOSEZs %yk; trjpfs;

toq;fg;gLfpwJ. Gjpa ,lq;fspy; ELCOSEZs mikg;gjw;fhdrhj;jpaf; $Wfs; Njitkw;Wk;
ek;gfj; jd;ikapd; mbg;gilapy; toq;fg;gLfpwJ. (tiugljfty; njhopy;El;gf; nfhs;if–
2018 – 19)
 jpUney;Ntyp - fq;ifnfhz;lhd;
 Nryk; - [hfPh; mk;khghisak;
 x#h; - tp];tehjGuk;
rpwg;Gg; nghUshjhukz;lyq;fs; (Special Economic Zones – SEZs) : ehl;by; Vw;Wkjpf;F

,ilA+W ,y;yhj #oiy fUj;jpy; nfhz;Lrpwg;;Gg;
nghUshjhukz;lyq;fismikg;gjw;fhdxUnfhs;ifVg;uy; 2000 Mk;
Mz;LmwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. Mjd ;gbgpd;tUk; ,lq;fspy; Vw;Wkjp nrayhf;f
kz;lyq;fis muR mikj;Js;sJ.
ehq;fNehpSEZ - gy;Nehf;Fcw;gjjpSEZjpUney;Ntyp
vz;Z}h; SEZ - mdy; kpd; jpl;lk;>taY}h;
Nfhak;Gj;J}h; SEZ - jfty; njhopy;El;gG+q;fhf;fs;
x#h; SEZ - jhdpaq;fpnghwpapay;>kpd;dZtpay;>tpz;ntspkw;Wk;
ghJfhg;G
nguk;gY}h; SEZ - gy;Nehf;Fcw;gj;jpSEZ
jhdpaq;fpefuk;
(Auto city) SEZ - jhdpaq;fpfs; / jhdpaq;fpcjphpghfq;fs;>jpUts;@h;
,e;jpah–
rpq;fg;G+h; SEZ - IT/ITEs,kpd;dZtd;nghUs;>jsthlq;fs; kw;Wk;
fplq;Ffs; - jpUts;@h; khtl;lq;fs;
caphp–kUe;Jfs;
SEZ - kUj;JtMuha;rr
; pmikg;G>tp~f;fl;Lg;ghl;Likak;>
ikakPs; cUthf;fkUj;Jtk;>kUj;JtMuha;r;rp

nkl;uh]; cw;gj;jpnrayhf;fikak; (Madras Export Processing Zone – MEPZ) : nkl;uh];

Vw;Wkjp nrayhf;f ikak; nrd;idapy; xUrpwg;Gg; nghUshjhu ikakhFk;. kj;jpa muR
mikj;j ehl;bd; vO Vw;Wkjp nrayhf;f kz;lyq;fspy; ,JTk; xd;whFk;. ,J me;epa Neub
KjyPlb; id Cf;Ftpg;gjw;Fk; me;epa nryhtzpia <l;Ltjw;Fk;>tl;lhug; gFjpfspy; mjpf
Ntiy tha;g;Gfis cUthf;Ftjw;Fk; 1984 Mk; Mz;LepWtg;gl;lJ. MEPZ jiyikafk;
nrd;idia mLj;j jhk;guk; GSTrhiyapy; mike;Js;sJ

11k;tFg;
G
c q;
fS f;
F njup
Akh ?
jfty;Ngio
rp
WJsp
ml;
ltiz fs;
kdtiug;
glq;
fs;
;
NkYk;mwp
e;
J nfhs;
Nthk;
.
myF– 1 gz;ila ,e;jpah : njhlf;fk; Kjy; rpe;Jehfhpfk; tiu
rpe;JehfhpfKk; jkpo; ehfhpfKk; : ,e;jpa tuyhw;wpy; epfo;e;jKjy; efukakhf;fj;jpd;

ntspg;ghL rpe;J ehfhpfkhFk;. rpe;Jehfhpfj;jpd; Njhw;wKk; Njhw;Wtpj;jth;fs;
Fwpj;jnra;jpfSk; tpthjj;Jf;F chpadthfNt cs;sd. rpe;JvOj;Jf;fspd; nghUis
,d;Dk; fz;lwpa Kbatpy;iy. njd;dpe;jpahtpy; fz;nlLf;fg;gl;l ngUq;fw;fhyj;
jhopfspy; nky;ypafPwy;fshf vOjg;gl;lthrfq;fSk; rpy ,lq;fspd; ngah;fSk;
rpe;Jehfhpfj;Jf;Fk; jkpo; gz;ghl;Lf;Fk; ,ilNaahdcwit epWTtjw;fhd
rhd;WfshfKd; itf;fg;gLfpd;wd. jkpo;ehl;bYk; njd;dpe;jpahtpYk;
,ilf;fw;fhyj;jpypUe;J njhlh;r;rpahf kf;fs; tho;e;Jte;jjw;Fg; gynjhy;ypay; rhd;Wfs;
cs;sd. ,th;fspy; rpyr%fq;fs; rpe;JgFjpapypUe;J ,lk; ngah;e;jpUf;fyhk;
vd;gijkWf;fKbahJ. vdpDk; cWjpahdnjhUKbTf;Ftu ,d;Dk; mjpfMa;Tfs; Njit.
goe;jkpofj;ijr; Nrh;e;jCh;fshd mhpf;fNkL>fPob>ciwA+h; Nghd;wit ,e;jpahtpy; ele;j
,uz;lhk; efukakhf;fj;jpd; gFjpfs; MFk;. ,e;jCh;fs; rpe;Jefuq;fspypUe;J kpfTk;
NtWgl;ljhf cs;sd.
nk`h;fhhpy; njhlf;ffhygy;kUj;Jtk; : kdpj %jhijaUf;F kUj;Jtf; Fzk; nfhz;l

%ypiffs; Fwpj;jmwpT ,Ue;jpUf;fpwJ. tuyhw;Wf;FKe;ijafhyj;jpypUe;Jmth;fshy;
jq;fsJ cly;eyj;ijg; guhkhpf;fKbe;jJ. tho;f;ifKiwkhwpa NghJ GjpaNeha;fs;
Njhd;wpd. mtw;Wf;fhdkUe;Jfisf; fz;lwpaNtz;bapUe;jJ. Gjpafw;fhyj;jpypUe;J kf;fs;
miuj;jjhdpaq;fisAk; rikj;jczTfisAk; cz;zj; njhlq;fpdhh;fs;. ,Jgy;
NfhshfSf;Fk; gpwcly; gpur;ridfSf;Fk; toptFj;jJ. capUs;s xU kdpjhpd; gy;ypy;
Jisapl;ljw;fhd kpfg; goikahd rhd;W nk`h;fhhpy; fpilj;Js;sJ. ,Jgy;
kUj;Jtj;Jf;fhd xU KfTiuahfj; Njhd;WfpwJ.
fhl;Lcaphpdq;fSk; gof;fg;gLj;jg;gl;lcaphpdq;fSk; : fhl;Lj;jhtuq;fSk; tpyq;FfSk;

gwitfSk; gpwcaphpdq;fSk; ,aw;ifahf tsh;git. jhtuq;fSk; tpyq;fpdq;fSk;
kdpjh;fshy; ngUkstpy; gof;fg;gLj;jg;gLk; NghJmtw;wpd; tho;f;ifKiwAk; clypay;
$WfSk; khw;wk; milfpd;wd. mtw;wpd; ,ay;ghdtsh;r;rp ghjpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,jd;
tpisthf>fhl;by; cs;sjhtuq;fSld; xg;gpLk;NghJ>gof;fg;gLj;jg;gl;ljhtuq;fspd; tpijfs;
mstpy; rpwpajhf khWfpd;wd. tpyq;Ffisg; gof;fg;gLj;Jk; NghJmitjq;fspd;
%h;j;jFzj;ij ,of;fpd;wd.
Nuhhpnrh;l; : ,e;jg; gbTg;ghiwghfp];jhdpy; cs;sNuhhpgFjpapy; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ùg;ghkf;fs;

fj;jpfSk; gpwfUtpfSk; nra;tjw;F ,J gad;gl;lJ.
njhy;jhtutpayhsh;fs; (Archaeobotanist) goikahdNtshz;ikAk; kdpjUf;Fk;

Rw;Wr;#oYf;Fk; ,ilNaahd cwitAk; Fwpj;J Ma;T nra;fpwhh;fs;.

vf;f]; - Fjpiu>fOij>thpf;FjpiuMfpatpyq;Ffiscs;slf;fpaNghpdk;.
Njhp :Njhpfs; vd;gdkzw;Fd;Wfshy; cUthf;fg;gLk; flw;fiug; gFjpfshFk;. ,k;kz;

tifGj;Jap&opapd; ,uz;lhk; fl;lj;jpy; cUthfpapUf;fyhk; vdek;gg;gLfpwJ.
mr;#ypad; kuGk; Nrhfdpad; kuGk; : ,e;jpahtpy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l Ma;tpd; mbg;gilapy;

goq;fw;fhy kf;fspd; njhlf;ffhyg; gz;ghLmth;fs; gad;gLj;jpa fw;fUtpfspd;
mbg;gilapy; ,U kuGfshfg; gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ. iff;Nfhlhhp tiff; fUtpfisf;
nfhz;lkuGmr;#ypad; (Acheulian) vd;Wk; $ohq;fy;iyr; nrJf;fp cUthf;fg;gLk;
nghUs; efuk;
fUtpfisf; nfhz;lkuGNrhfdpad; (Sohanian) vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. mr;#ypad;
rq;F ehNf~;th;>ghyNfhl;
kuGngUkstpy; NfhlhhpfisAk; ntl;Lf; fj;jpfisAk; nfhz;lJ. NrhfdpakuGJz;lhf;Fk;
fUtpfisAk; mijr; rhh;it^hpak; ~hh;Lif
e;jNtiyfSf;fhd fUtpfisAk; kl;LNk nfhz;lJ.
fhh; d pypad; (kzp) Nyhj; j y;
,d;iwaghfp];jhdpy; cs;sNrhfd; Mw;wpd; tbePh;g;gFjpapy; epytpakuG vd;gjhy;> ,J
];Bl;mz;
NrhfdpakuG vdg;gLfpwJ. ill;ikapy;
(Eiuf;eilngw;
fy;) njw; F T
w Ma; ,uh[];
fspd j;Nhd;
ghJ ,Nj gFjpapy;
nrk; G ,uh[]; j hd; > Xkd;
mr;#ypad; kuGrhh;e;j fUtpfSk; fpilj;jd. vdNtjdpj;jd;ik tha;e;j Nrhfdpa kuG vd;w
xd;W ,Ue;jjhff; $w ,ayhJ vd;fpd;wdh; Ma;thsh;fs;.
jPf;NfhopKl;ilXLfs; : ,e;jpahtpy; tuyhw;Wf;F Ke;ija fhyg; gz;ghLepytpa ,lq;fspy;

jPf;Nfhopfs; ,Ue;jjw;fhdrhd;Wfs; fpilj;Js;sd. ,g;gwitapd; Kl;il XL kzpfs;
nra;ag; gad;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. ghl;Ndapy; fpilj;jjPf;NfhopKl;ilXl;bd; fhyk;
,d;iwf;FKd; 25>000 Mz;Lfs; vdf; fzpf;fg;gLfpwJ. gpk;ngl;fh>ghl;NdMfpa ,lq;fspYk;
jPf;Nfhop Kl;il XLfs; fpilj;Js;sd.
Nky; goq;fw;fhytopghl;Lj;jyk; : Nky; goq;fw;fhyj;ijr; Nrh;e;j xU topghl;Lj;jykhf

,Ue;jpUf;fyhk; vdfUjj;jFe;j xUrpW fl;Lkhdk; cj;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpy; cs;sghNfhh;
vd;Dkplj;jpy; milahsk; fhzg;gl;Ls;sJ. nRJf;fg;glhjfw;fshy; tl;ltbtpy; #og;gl;l
xUkzw;ghiwapd; ghsk; ,q;F fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,Jjw;fhytopghl;Lj;jyq;fis xj;jpUf;fpwJ.
,e;jpahtpy; topghl;Lj;jyq;fSf;fhdNjlypy; fpilj;jkpfg; goikhdrhd;W ,Jjhd;.
myF– 2 gz;ila ,e;jpah>nrk;Gf;fhy>ngUq;fw;fhy> ,Uk;Gf;fhy>Ntjfhyg;

gz;ghLfs;
Fhydpafhy mwpQh;fs; gz;ila ,e;jpa ,yf;fpaq;fspd; kPJMh;tk; nfhs;tjw;F

ntFfhyj;jpw;F Kd;dNuh> 1657 ,y; nkhfyha ,sturuhd jhuhRNfh cgepljq;fis ghurPf
nkhopapy; nkhopngah;j;jhh;.

n[d;l; mnt];jh : n[d;l; mnt];jhvdg;gLk; ,g;ghurPf / <uhdpa E}y;

n[huh];bhpakjj;ijr; Nrh;e;j E}yhFk;. ,e;Njh - <uhdpankhopfisg; Ngrp te;j kf;fs;
tho;e;jepyg;gug;G>mth;fspd; flTs;fs; Fwpj;J ,e;E}y; gynra;jpfisf; $WfpwJ.
,e;jpahtpd; tlf;F>tlNkw;Fg; gFjpfisg; gw;wpaFwpg;GfSk; ,e;E}ypy; cs;sd. ,e;E}ypy;
,lk; ngw;Ws;snrhw;fs; NtjE}y;fspd; rk];fpUjr; nrhw;fNshL nkhopxg;Gik
nfhz;Ls;sd. ,e;jpaJizf; fz;lj;jpw;F ntspNa mike;jpUe;j Mhpah;fspd;
njhlf;ffhythoplq;fs; gw;wp mwpe;J nfhs;s VJthd Jizr;rhd;Wfis ,e;E}y;
nfhz;Ls;sJ.
rj;aNkt n[aNj (tha;ikNanty;Yk;) vd;wnrhw;nwhlh; Kz;lfcgep~j; vDk;

E}ypypUe;JvLf;fg;gl;lJ.
nkhopapay; Ma;thsh;fs; tuyhw;Wr; rhd;Wfspd; mbg;gilapy; nkhopia mJ

vOjg;gl;l tbtj;jpYk; tha;nkhop tbtj;jpYk; Ma;T nra;fpd;wdh;.
nrhw;gpwg;gpay;>tuyhW>nkhopapay;>xg;gPlL
; nkhopapay;> ,yf;fpatpkh;rdk; Mfpatw;iw mth;fs;
gad;gLj;Jfpd;wdh;.
xU nghJ %jhijahhplkpUe;JcUthFk; jiyKiwfs; tk;rhtsp / nfhbtop / guk;giu

vdg;gLk;.
fUg;G>rptg;G tz;zkl;fyd;fs;>kdpjvYk;Gr; rhd;Wfs; kw;Wk; ,Uk;Gg; nghUl;fSld;

jkpo;ehl;bd; fpU~;zfphp mUfpy; cs;stlkiyf;Fz;lh vDk; ,lj;jpy; mz;ikapy;
fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,q;Frpyfw;gyiffSk; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. gy E}w;whz;Lfs;
goikahdFj;Jf;fy; jpUg;G+h; khtl;lk; rpq;fhhpghisak; Fe;jyk; mUNf ele;j mfo;tha;tpy;
fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;lJ. ,J cg;ghW ejpf;fiuapy; gz;ilafhy kdpjh;fspd; thoplq;fs;
,Ue;jijr; Rl;bf;fhl;LfpwJ.
myF– 5 njd;dpe;jpahtpy; rKjhacUthf;fk;
rptfq;ifkhtl;lk; G+yhq;Fwpr;rpapy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l Ie;jhk; E}w;whz;bd; ,ilg;gFjpiar;

Nrh;e;jfy;ntl;Lfspy; xd;WNre;jd;> $w;wd; vd;w ,U murh;fspd; ngah;fisf;
Fwpg;gpLfpwJ. mth;fspd; FLk;gk; tk;rhtsp Mfpad Fwpj;J vf;Fwpg;Gk;
fhzg;glhtpl;lhYk; rpymwpQh;fs; mth;fisf; fsg;gpumurh;fs; vdf; fUJfpd;wdh;.
ngh.M. Mwhk; E}w;whz;bd; %d;whtJfhy;gFjpfhyj;jpy; fsg;gpuh;fs; Ml;rpghz;bah;fshy;
KbTf;Ff; nfhz;Ltug;gl;ljhfj; njhpfpwJ.
rq;ffhyg; ngz;ghw; Gyth; : rq;fg; ghly;fspd; njhFg;gpw;F gq;fspj;j 450 f;Fk;

Nkw;gl;lGyth;fspy; Kg;gJngz;ghw; GytUk; mlq;Fth;. mth;fs; 150 f;Fk;
Nkw;gl;lghly;fis ,aw;wpAs;sdh;. mth;fSs; xsitahh;>my;Y}h;
ed;Ky;iyahh;>fhf;ifg;ghbdpahh;>fhtw;ngz;L>ey;ntspahh;>xf;$h;>khrhj;jpahh;>ghhpkfsph;
MfpNahh; kpf Kf;fpa ngz;ghw; Gyth;fshth;.

FwpQ;rp kiyAk; kiyrhh;e;jgFjpAkhFk;.

,q;FNtl;ilahLjYk;>czTNrfhpj;jYk; tof;fkhf
,Ue;jJ.
Ky;iy fhLk; fhLrhh;e;j ,lKkhd
,q;f>fhy;eilNka;g;gJk;>mj;Jld;
khw;wplNtshz;iknra;tJk; njhopyhf ,Ue;jJ.
kUjk; taYk; tay; rhh;e;j ,lKkhd ,q;FePh;ghrdj;jpd;
%yk; fyg;igfisg;
gad;gLjjpNtshz;iknra;tJnjhopyhFk;.
nea;jy; flYk; fly; rhh;e;j ,lKkhd ,q;FkPd;gpbj;jYk;
cg;Gcw;gj;jpANkKf;fpaj; njhopy;fshFk;.
ghiy kzYk; kzy; rhh;e;jtwz;lepyg;gFjpahd
,q;FNtshz;ikrhj;jpakpy;iyvd;gjhy; kf;fs;
fhy;eilj; jpUl;ilAk; nfhs;isabg;gijAk;
njhopyhff; nfhz;ldh;.
];J}gpfs; : ];J}gpvd;gJGijNkLfspd; Nky; fspkz;zhy; fl;lg;gl;ljhFk;.

,we;Njhiuvhpj;jrhk;gy; ,q;Fitf;fg;gLk;. njhlf;fj;jpy; Gj;jhpd; m];jpvl;L ];J}gpfspy;
itf;fg;gl;ld. ,t;thWngsj;jj;jpd; Gdpjf; fl;llf;iyNjhw;wk; ngw;wJ.
miuf;NfhstbtKs;s ];J}gpNguz;lj;ijf; Fwpf;fpd;wJ. mj;Jld; Gj;jh; Md;kPfcyfpd;
Nguurh; vd;gijAk; Fwpf;fpwJ. ];J}gpfisr; Rw;wpmikf;fg;gl;Ls;sRw;Wtl;lg; ghijapy;
gf;jh;fs; tyk; tUth;.
vl;Lj;njhif>gj;Jg;ghl;LVwj;jho 2400 ghly;fs; nfhz;l ,yf;fpaf; fUT+ykhFk;.

%d;WKjy; vz;Z}W mb msTnfhz;l ,g;ghly;fs; ghzh;fshYk; Gyth;fshYk;
,aw;wg;gl;lit.
vl;Lj;njhifahtd : 1. ew;wpiz 2. FWe;njhif 3. Iq;FWE}W 4. gjpw;Wg;gj;J 5.

ghpghly; 6. fypj;njhif 7. mfehD}W 8. GwehD}W
gj;Jg;ghl;lhtJ : 1. jpUKUfhw;Wg;gil 2. nghUeuhw;Wg;gil 3. rpWghzhw;Wg;gil 4.
ngUk;ghzhw;Wg;gil 5. Ky;iyg;ghl;L 6. kJiuf; fhQ;rp 7. neLey;thil 8.
FwpQ;rpg;ghl;L 9. gl;bdg;ghiy 10. kiygLflhk;
rq;fk; kUtpafhyj;ijr; Nrh;e;j>gjpndz; fPo;f;fzf;F E}y;fs; ngUk;ghYk; ePjpgw;wpAk;
xOf;fnewpKiwfisg; gw;wpAk; NgRtdthFk;. jpUf;FwSk; ehybahUk; ,jpy;
Kjd;ikahdit. Kjd;ikahdfhg;gpaq;fshdrpyg;gjpfhuKk; kzpNkfiyAk;
gz;ghLkw;Wk; kjtuyhw;Wf;Frpwe;jrhd;Wfshfg; gad;gLgit.

myF– 7 Fg;jh;
epyg;gpuGj;Jtk; : epyg;gpuGj;Jtk; vd;wr%fmikg;G ,e;jpahtpd; kj;jpafhyr%fj;jpd;

xUgz;GepiyMFk;. tuyhw;whsh; Mh;.v];. rh;khgpd;tUk; epyg;gpuGj;Jtgz;Gfisg;
gl;baypLfpwhh;. murh; mspf;Fk; epykhdpak;>epjp>ePjpchpikfis gadhspfSf;F
khw;wpj;jUjy;>tptrhapfs;>fiyQh;fs;>tzpfh;fs;
kPJepycilikahsh;fSf;Fchpikmspj;jy;>mbf;fb epfo;e;jfl;lha ciog;G
epfo;r;rpfs;>cghpia muR vLj;Jf;nfhs;sy;>tzpfj;jpYk;>ehzak; mr;rbj;jypYk;
tPo;r;rp>mjpfhhpfspd; Cjpaj;ij epytUtha; t#y; %yk; ngw;Wf;nfhs;s
mDkjpg;gJ>rke;jh;fs; (epyg;gpuGj;JtJizepiyMl;rpahh;fs;) mjpfhuq;fs; mjpfhpj;jy;.
gjpndl;L Kf;fpa Guhzq;fs; gl;bayplg;gl;Ls;sd. mitfspy;
gpuk;kGuhzk;>gj;kGuhzk;>tp~;Z Guhzk;>
];fe;jGuhzk;>rptkfhGuhzk;>khh;fz;NlaGuhzk;>mf;dpGuhzk;>gtp~;a Guhzk;>kj;];a Guhzk;>
=kj;gftj; Guhzk; Mfpad ed;Fmwpag;gl;litahFk;.
Fg;jh;fs; mjpfvz;zpf;ifapy; jq;fehzaq;fisAk;>xg;gPl;lstpy; Fiwe;jvz;zpf;ifapy;

nts;sp>nrk;Gehzaq;fisAk; ntspapl;ldh;. vdpDk; Fg;jh; fhyj;jpw;Fg; gpd;dh;
jq;fehzaq;fspd; Gof;fk; Fiwe;JNghdJ.
gz;ilafhyj;jpy; cUthd ];kpUjpfs; ey;nyhOf;fk;>murpay;>fiykw;Wk;

gz;ghLvd;Wgy;NtWfUg;nghUs;fs; Fwpj;Jg; Ngrparka E}y;fshFk;. jh;krh];jpuq;fSk;
Guhzq;fSk; ,e;j ,yf;fpaf; fl;likg;gpd; ikag;nghUis tbtikj;jd.
gy;NtWtpjkhdepyf;Fj;jifKiw
epyf;Fj;jiftif chpikapd; jd;ik
eptpjh;kh mwf;fl;lisNghd;wmikg;gpd; %yk; epykhdpak; -
,k;Kiwtlf;F>kj;jpa ,e;jpahkw;Wk; tq;fj;jpy;
epytpaJ.
eptpjh;kmf;radh epue;jukhdmwf;fl;lis–ngw;wth; mjpypUe;JtUk;
tUthiag; gad;gLj;jpf; nfhs;syhk;
mg;ujhjh;kh tUthiag; gad;gLj;jyhk;. Mdhy; mijgpwUf;Fj;
jhdk; nra;aKbahJ. eph;thfchpikAk; ,y;iy
G+kprpj;uhadh jhpRepyj;ijKjd;Kjyhfr;
rhFgbepykhfkhw;WgtUf;Fj; jug;gLk; chpik.
,e;jepyj;jpw;Ff;
Fj;jifapypUe;Jtpyf;Fmspf;fg;gl;lJ.

kJuhghlypGj;jpuk; Fwpj;Jgh`pahd; : kJuhtpy; kf;fs; njhifmjpfk;. mth;fs;

kfpo;r;rpahf ,Ue;jdh;. mth;fs; jkJFLk;gj;ijg; gjpTnra;aNtz;bamtrpak; ,y;iy.
murUf;Fr; nrhe;jkhdepyj;jpy; tptrhak; nra;jth;fs; kl;Lk; jhd; jhdpaj;jpy;
xUgFjpiamurUf;Fj; juNtz;Lk;. #oiyg;
nghWj;JFw;wthspfSf;FkpjkhfNth>fLikahfNthmguhjk; tpjpf;fg;gl;lJ. kPz;Lk;
kPz;Lk; fyfk; nra;jhy; Fw;wkpioj;jhy;>tYJ if Jz;bf;fg;gLk;. ehLKOtJk; kf;fs;
ve;jcaphpdj;ijAk; nfhy;tjpy;iy. ve;jkJghdj;ijAk; mUe;Jtjpy;iy.
ghlypGj;jpuj;jpy; trpg;gth;fs; ey;ygzf;fhuh;fs;>trjpahdth;fs;><iff; Fzj;jpy;
xUtNuhnlhUth; Nghl;bNghLthh;fs;. efuq;fspy; itrpaf; FLk;gj;jpdh; jh;kk;
nra;tjw;Fk; kUj;Jtj;jpw;Fk; rj;jpuq;fisf; fl;bapUf;fpwhh;fs;. midj;J
Viofs;>Mjutw;Nwhh;>mdhijfs;>tpjitfs;>Foe;ijapy;yhjth;fs;>mq;ftPdh;fs;>CdKw;w
th;fs; vdmidtUf;Fk; midj;J tpjkhd cjtpfSk; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
myF– 9 njd;dpe;jpahtpy; gz;ghl;Ltsh;r;rp
1879 ,y; GJr;Nrhpf;F mUNf cUf;fhl;Lf;Nfhl;lk; vd;Dkplj;jpy; ,UGwKk;

,izf;fg;gl;Lypq;fk; ee;jp Mfpad (gy;yth;fspd; Kj;jpiu) nghwpf;fg;gl;lnrg;Gtisaj;jpy;
Nfhh;f;fg;gl;lgjpndhUnrg;Gg; gl;laq;fs; fz;lwpag;gl;ld. murd; ee;jpth;kdpd; (ngh.M 753)
,Ugj;jpuz;lhtJ Ml;rpahz;by; khdpakhfj; jug;gl;lxUfpuhkk; Fwpj;j nra;jpfs; ,jpy;
gjpTnra;ag;gl;Ls;sd. ,jd; cs;slf;fk; muriug; gw;wpa rk];fpUjnkhopapy; Gfo;tjpy;
njhlq;fp khdpaj;ijg; gw;wpatptuq;fisj; jkpopy; $wp ,Wjpapy; rk];fpUj nra;ANshL
KbtilfpwJ.
`Pzh;fspd; Njhw;wk; Fwpj;JcWjpahfvJTk; njhpatpy;iy. Nuhkhdpatuyhw;whsh; lhrpl]pd;

$w;Wg;gb>mth;fs; fh];gpad; fly; mUfpy; tho;e;jgoq;Fb ,df;FOf;fs;>NuhkhGhpg; Nguurpd;
tPo;r;rpf;Ff; fhuzkhf ,Ue;jth;fs;. ml;by;yhtpd; jiyikapy; jpuz;l ,th;fs; INuhg;ghtpy;
nfhLq;Nfhz;ikf;Fg; ngah; ngw;wth;fs;. nts;is `Pzh;fs; vd;W miof;fg;gl;l `Pzh;fspd;
xU gphpT kj;jpa MrpahtpypUe;J ,e;jpahNehf;fpefh;e;jJ. ,th;fsJgilnaLg;GF~hzh;fs;
fhyj;jpw;F E}W Mz;LfSf;Fg; gpd; Muk;gkhdJ.
Vida epyf;nfhilfs;
mf;u`hukhdpak; gpuhkzh;fSf;Fj; jug;gLtJ. ,Jepue;jukhdJ.
guk;giuahftuf;$baJ. thpfpilahJ.
Njtf;fpu`hukhdpak; Nfhtpy; kuhkj;JtopghLMfpagzpfSf;fhfg;
gpuhkzh;fs;>tzpfh;fs; MfpNahUf;Fmspf;fg;gLk;
epykhdpak;
rkar; rhh;gw;wkhdpak; Fg;jh;fSf;Ff; fPopUe;jepyg;gpuGf;fSf;Fj;
jug;gl;lkhdpak;

vy;NyhuFiffis 1983 ,y; cyfg; ghuk;ghpar; rpd;dkhf

And];Nfhmwptpj;Js;sJ.
Nruuh; - Fwpg;G : ngh.MMwhk; E}w;whz;LKjy; xd;gjhk; E}w;whz;LtiuNfush>NrungUkhs;

murh;fshy; Msg;gl;bUe;jhYk; xd;gjhk; E}w;whz;bd; njhlf;fk;
tiumth;fsJtuyhWFwpj;JXusNtnjhpate;Js;sJ.
,uz;lhk; GypNfrpapd; IN`hy; fy;ntl;L : IN`hy; (fh;ehlfh) NkFbNfhtpy; xUFd;wpd;

NkYs;sJ. ,r;rkzf; Nfhtpypd; fpof;Fr; Rthpy; 19 thpfisf; nfhz;lrk];fpUjf;
fy;ntl;Lxd;Wcs;sJ. (rf tUlk; 556> fp.gp 634 – 635 fhyj;ijr; rhh;e;jJ). ,f;fy;ntl;Lr;
nra;jpfisvOjpath; utpfPh;j;jpvd;wftpQh;. ,f;fy;ntl;LrhSf;fpamurh;fisf; Fwpf;Fk;
nka;fPh;j;jpahFk;. Fwpg;ghfmg;NghJMl;rpnra;Jnfhz;bUe;j ,uz;lhk; GypNfrp‘rj;a];uha’
(cz;ikapd; ciwtplk;) vd;WFwpg;gpl;Ls;shd;. ,f;fy;ntl;LrhSf;fpahpd;
murtk;rtuyhw;iw ,uz;lhk; GypNfrpjd; gifth;fs; midtiuAk; Fwpg;ghf
`h;rth;jdiuj; Njhw;fbj;jijf; Nfhbl;Lf; fhl;LfpwJ.
$uk; nrg;Ggl;laj;jpy; ,Ue;J : (thp : 12) fpof;Fkiyapy; ,Ue;J #hpaDk; re;jpuDk;

vOtJ Nghy jdJ mur tk;rhtspapy; ,Ue;J (Njhd;wpa) eurpk;kth;kdpd; Ngud;>mth;
,sturh;fspd; kFlq;fSf;nfy;yhk; kzpkFlk;>mth; jiyvjw;Fk; (vq;Fk;)
gzpe;jjpy;iy>vjphpmurh;fspd; ahidg; gilfis vjph;j;J tpul;barpq;fk;>eurpk;khthy;
Mrph;tjpf;fg;gl;l Njhw;wKilath;>mtNu ,sturuhf (G+kpf;F) te;jpUf;fpwhh;.
Nrhoh;fs;>Nruuh;fs;>fsg;gpuh;fs;>ghz;bah;fiskPzL
; k; kPzL
; k; Njhw;fbj;Js;sdh;. mth; Mapuk;
fuKilahd; (Mapuk; fuKilafhj;jtuhad; Nghy) E}w;Wf;fzf;fhd Nghh;fspy; Mapuk;
fuq;fs; nfhz;L Nghhpl;lJ Nghy; nray;gl;lth;>ghpahyh>kzpkq;fyk;>RukhuhNghh;fspy; ntw;wpr;
nrhy;ypd; xt;nthU vOj;ijAk; GtpNfrpapd; KJfpy; nghwpj;J GwKJfpl;L Xlr; nra;jhh;.
FlKdp (mfj;jpah;) muf;fd; thjhgpia mopj;jJ Nghy; thjhgpefiumopj;jhh;.
myF– 10 mugpah;>JUf;fpahpd; tUif
,y;Jkp~; fl;bKbj;jNghJ 72.5 kPl;lh; caukpUe;jFJg;kpdhh;> /ngNuh]; ~h Jf;sf;

Nkw;nfhz;lgOJePf;fk; gzpfshy; 74 kPl;luhfcah;e;jJ. 379 gbfs; nfhz;lkpdhh; mjd;
cauj;Jf;fhfTk;>khbfismilahsg;gLj;JfpwJUj;jpepw;fpwcg;gphpiffSf;fhfTk;>gbg;gbahdNfh
Gur; rhpTf;fhfTk;>NfhGuj;ijr; Rw;wpYKs;srhpthdtpspk;Gmyq;fhpg;Gfs; xUtisTNjhw;wj;ijj;
jUtjw;fhfTk; rpwg;GilaJ.
jpy;ypRy;jhdpaMl;rpapd; xl;Lnkhj;jtuyhw;wpy; Ml;rp chpikiaj; jhkhfNt Jwe;J>jpy;ypf;F

ntspNa xU rpwpaefUf;Fr; nrd;W>KOikahfKg;gJ Mz;Lfs; kdepiwNthLk; mikjpahfTk;
tho;e;j xNu Ry;jhd; ra;apj; tk;rj;jpy; te;j Myk; ~h –Abraham Early, The of Wrath.

fyPgh :KfkJegpapd; thhprhff; fUjg;gLk; fyPghf;fs; xl;Lnkhj;j ,];yhkpacyfj;jpd;

Fbik>kjk; njhlh;ghdtptfhuq;fspd; kPJmjpfhuk; nrYj;jpte;jdh;. 1258 ,y; ghf;jhj; efiu
kq;Nfhypah; ifg;gw;Wk; tiu fyPgh me;efiuMl;rpnra;jhh;. gpd;dh; vfpg;jpy; 1516 – 17 Mk;
Mz;Lfspy; Ml;Nlhkhdpah; ntw;wpngUk; tiu Ml;rp nra;jhh;. ,jd; gpd;dh;
Ml;NlhkhdpaRy;jhd;fNs ,g;gjtpiatfpj;jte;jdh;. Ml;Nlhkhdpag; NguuRePf;fg;gl;L (1920)
K];jghfkhy; mj;jhJh;jpd; jiyikapy; JUf;fpaf; FbauR cUthdNghJ ,f;fyPgh gjtp
xopf;fg;gl;lJ.
,e;jpahtpy; ,];yhkpah; Ml;rpapd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; vd;dntd;why;> ,];yhkpaMl;rpahsh;fspd;

#iwahly;fs;>mgfhpg;Gfs; ,Ue;jhYk; ePzl ; fhyk; ,e;Jkjj;Jld; rf
tho;Ttho;tjw;fhdkdVw;Gnjhlf;ffhyk; Kjy; fhzg;gLtNj.
,e;jpahitntd;wlf;fpaKfkJNfhhp>jkJjq;fehzaq;fs; rpytw;wpy; ngz; flTs; yl;Rkpapd;
cUtj;ijg; nghwpj;jpUf;fpwhh;. 1325 ,y; KfkJ– gpd; - Jf;sf;>rkzj;
JwtpfSf;Fmidj;JmuRmYtyh;fSk; ghJfhg;Gmspf;fNtz;Lk; vd;WxU Miz
ntspapl;lhh;. mtNu $l N`hypgz;bifapy; gq;nfLj;jNjhLNahfpfSld; ey;yel;Gld;
,Ue;jpUf;fpwhh;. ‘gyflTs; topghl;lhsh;fisAk;>
,e;Jf;fisAk;>kq;Nfhypah;fisAk;>ehj;jpfh;fisAk; gQ;rizapy;
mkuitj;JrfykhpahijfSk; nra;fpwhh;fs;’vd;W ,];yhkpaMl;rpahsh;fs;
Fwpj;JguzpntWg;Gld; vOJfpwhh;. NkYk; “,e;Jf;fs; vt;tsTthpnrYj;Jfpwhh;fs; vd;gijg;
nghWj;JNfhtpy;fs; fl;bf;nfhs;sTk;>jpUtpohf;fs; elj;jTk;>
,];yhkpaNtiyahl;fisitj;Jf;nfhs;sTk; mDkjpf;fg;gLfpwhh;fs;.
,];yhkpah;fSf;Fepfuhfuha;>uhzh>jh$h;> ~h> k`;jh>gz;bl; Nghd;wmuRgl;lq;fs;
,e;Jf;fSf;Fk; toq;fg;gLfpd;wd”vd;Wk; guzpvOJfpwhh;.
ehw;gjpd;kh; (rfy;fhdp) : jFjpapYk; thpirapYk; Ry;jhidmLj;Jg; gpuGf;fs; ,Ue;jdh;.

muir eph;tfpg;gjpy; mth;fs; xUjPhk; hdfukhdgq;Ftfpj;jdh;. gpuGf;fNsMSk; th;f;fkhf
,Ue;jNghjpYk; mth;fs;>JUf;fpah;>ghurPfh;>mugpah;>vfpg;jpah;> ,e;jpa K];yPk;fs;
Nghd;wntt;NtW ,df;FOf;fspypUe;Jk; ,dq;fspypUe;Jk; te;jdh;. ,y;Jkp~;>ehw;gjpd;kh;
nfhz;lxU FOit mikj;J>mth;fspypUe;JnjhpTnra;J ,uhZtj;jpYk; Fbikeph;thfj;jpYk;
epakpj;jhh;. ,y;Jkp~; ,we;jgpwF>Uf;Dj;jpd; /ngNuhi] murdhf;fNtz;Lk; vd;w ,y;Jkp~pd;
tpUg;gj;ijg; Gwe;js;Sk; msTf;Fme;jehw;gjpd;kh; FO tYkpf;fjhapw;W. ,u~;ah
jdJeyd;fisf; fhj;Jf;nfhs;tjw;fhfmgprPdpambikahFj; jiyikapy;
JUf;fpauy;yhjgpuGf;;fisAk; ,e;jpa K];yPk; gpuGf;fisAk; nfhz;lxU FO mikj;jhh
vdpDk; ,ijmt;tpUtiuAk; nfhiynra;aitj;jJUf;fpagpuGf;fs; vjph;j;jdh;. ,t;thwhfmurhpd;

%j;jkfNdMl;rpf;FthhpRvd;wtpjp ,y;yhjepiyapy; muRhpikNfhhpaVNjhxUth; jug;gpy; gpuGf;fs;
Nrh;e;Jnfhz;ldh;. ,JRy;jhidj; njhpe;njLf;fcjtpaJmy;yJMl;rpepiuyFiytjw;Fg;
gq;fspj;JgpuGf;fs; gyFOf;fshfRy;jhDf;Fvjpuhdrjpfspy; <Lgl;ldh;. vdNtme;jehw;gjpd;kh;
mikg;GRy;jhdpaj;jpd; epiyj;jd;ikf;Fg; nghpamghaj;ijVw;gLj;JfpwJvd;W $wpmijghy;gd;
xopj;jh;. ,jd; %yk; “JUf;fpagpuGf;fs;”Mjpf;fj;jpw;FKw;Wg;Gs;spitj;jhh;. mtuJ Mizia
kPWfpwgpuGf;fspd; epyq;fisg; gwpKjy; nra;jhh;. myhTjPd; fpy;[p>xw;wh;fisg;
gzpakh;j;jp>JUf;fpag; gpuGf;fspd; fs;sj;jdkhdeltbf;iffs; VNjDk; ,Ue;jhy; jk;kplk;
Neubahfj; njhptpf;FkhWgzpj;J>mt;fSf;Fvjpuhff; fLikahdeltbf;ifvLj;jhh;.

Ry;jhd; /ngNuh]; Jf;sf;> 1>80>000 mbikfs; itj;jpUe;jjw;fhfg; Gfo; ngw;wth;. ,jpy; 12>000
Ngh; iftpidQh;fshfg; gzpGhpe;jhh;. mtuJKjd;ikmikr;rh; fhd; [`d; kf;G+y; 2000 -
j;Jf;Fk; mjpfkhdngz; mbikfisitj;jpUe;jhh;.
mbiktk;rj;ijkk;yf; tk;rk; vd;Wk; $Wth; kk;yf; vd;gjw;Fcilikvd;WnghUshFk;.

,J‘Xh; mbik’vd;gjw;fhdmuGj; jFjpg; ngaUkhFk;.
mugpaUk; ,uhdpaUk; ,e;jpahit‘`pe;j;’vd;Wk;> ,e;jpah;fis‘`pe;Jf;fs;’vd;Wk;

Fwpg;gpl;ldh;. ,Ug;gpDk; ,e;jpahtpy; ,];yhkpa rKjhak; Njhd;wpgpwF‘`pe;J’vDk; ngah;
,];yhkpah; my;yhj ,e;jpah;fisf; Fwpg;gjhapw;W.
ghurPftuyhw;WMtzq;fs;>jpy;ypRy;jhdplk; Fwpj;Jkpifg;gLj;jpf; $Wfpd;wd.

Fwpg;gpl;lRy;jhdpd; Ml;rpapy; epfo;e;jrk;gtq;fs; Fwpj;jmtw;wpd; fUj;Jfs; ve;jtpkh;rdKk;
,d;wpetPdfy;tpg;Gyj;jpDs; Nrh;f;fg;gl;Ls;sd–Rdpy; Fkhh;>Emergence of Delhi Sultanate
/ngNuh]; Jf;sf;fplk; Xh; caujpfhhpahf ,Ue;jGfo; ngw;wfhd; - , - [`hd;

,];yhKf;F khwpa xU gpuhkzh;. Mjpapy; fz;Z vd;W mwpag;gl;l mth;
(jw;NghijanjYq;fhdhtpd;) thuq;fy;ypy; epfo;e;jRy;jhdpag; gilnaLg;G xd;wpd; NghJrpiwg;
gpbf;fg;gl;lth;.
yl;Rkzh; Nfhtpy;>tp];tehjh; Nfhtpy;>fe;jhpah kfhNjth; Nfhtpy; cs;gl gy

Nfhtpy;fisf; nfhz;lcyfg;Gfo;ngw;w f[{uhN`hNfhtpy; tshfk;> f[{uhN`htpypUe;J Ml;rp
Ghpe;j ge;Njy ;fz;l re;Njyh;fshy; fl;lg;gl;lJ.
fzpjtpayhUk; jj;JtQhdpAk; thdpayUk; tuyhw;WMrphpaUkhd my; - ngUdp>

f[pdpkhKJld; ,e;jpahte;jhh;. fpjhg; - cy; - `pe;j; vd;wjdJ E}iy ,aw;Wtjw;FKd;Gmth;
rk];fpUjk; fw;Wf;nfhz;lhh;. ,e;Jkj E}y;fisAk; jj;Jt E}y;fisAk; fw;whh;. A+f;spbd;
fpNuf;f E}iyf; $l mth; rk];fpUjj;jpy; nkhopngah;j;jhh;. Mhpagl;lhpd; Kf;fpa
E}yhdMh;agl;bak; (Gtp>mjd; mr;rpy; Roy;tJ
,uTgfiyVw;gLj;JfpwJNghd;wnra;jpfiscs;slf;fpa E}y;) vd;gijmth; NkiyehLfSf;Fj;
njhpag;gLj;jpdhh; ,e;jpahTf;Fk; gpw cyfehLfSf;Fk; ,ilNaxUghykhf ,Ue;jhh;.
[p]pahvd;gJ ,];yhkpamuRfshy; mth;fspd; epyj;jpy; thOk; ,];yhkpah;

my;yhjFbkf;fspd; jiyf;F ,t;tsTvdtpjpj;Jt#ypf;fg;gl;lxUthpahFk;. ,jd; %yk;
mth;fs; chpikfs; cWjpnra;ag;gl;ld. ,e;jpahtpy; Kjd;Kiwahf ,];yhkpah; my;yhjhh;
kPJ [p]pahtpjpj;jth; Fj;GjPd; Igf;. Kfyhamurh; mf;gh;>gjpdhwhk; E}w;whz;by;
[p]pahitxopj;jhh; vd;whYk;>gjpNdohk; E}w;whz;by; xsuq;frPg; mt;thpiakPz;Lk;
mwpKfg;gLj;jpdhh;.

Gfo;ngw;wehse;jhngsj;jg; gy;fiyf;fofj;ijmopj;jth; gf;jpahh; fpy;[p

vd;WfUjg;gLfpwJ. rPdg; gazpAthd; Rthq; jdJgazf; Fwpg;Gfspy;
ehse;jhFwpj;Jtphpthff; Fwpg;gpl;Ls;shh;. ehse;jh E}Yfj;jpy; ,Ue;j ,yf;fzk;>
,yf;fpak;>jh;f;fk;>thdpay;>kUj;Jtk; Fwpj;j E}whapuf;fzf;fhdifnaOj;Jg; gpujpfSk;
E}y;fSk; JUf;fpar; #iwahlypy; mope;jd.
kq;Nfhy; vd;wngah;>kq;NfhypankhopNgrf;$bakj;jpaMrpaehNlhbf; FOf;fs; midj;ijAk;

Fwpf;Fk;. gdpnuz;lhk; E}w;whz;by; mth;fs; nrq;fp]; fhd; jiyikapy;
xUkpfg;nghpamurhl;rpiaepWtpdh;. etPd u~;ahtpd; ngUk;gFjprPdh>nfhhpah>njd;
fpof;FMrpah>ghurPfk;> ,e;jpah>kj;jpaf;
fpof;FehLfs;>fpof;FINuhg;ghMfpatw;iwmtuJmurhl;rpcs;slf;fp ,Ue;jJ. mth;fspd;
tpiuthdFjpiufSk;; rpwe;jFjpiug; gilcj;jpfSk; Gjpanjhopy;El;gq;fisVw;Fk;
kdg;ghq;Fk; murpaiyr; #o;r;rpj; jpwj;Jld; ifahSk; nrq;fp];fhdpd; jpwDk;
kq;Nfhypahpd; ntw;wpf;Ff; fhuzkhff; $wg;gLfpd;wd.
,u]pahRy;jhdh (1236 – 1240) : ,th; Nguurh; ,y;Jkp~pd; kfs;.

,u]pahmhpaizVWtjw;FJUf;fpagpuGf;fs; fLk; vjph;g;Gnjhptpj;jdh;. ,th;fshy;
Vw;gl;lVuhskhdjilfisf; fle;Nj ,u]pahNguurpahfg; gjptVw;whh;. nkhuhf;Nfhehl;ilr;
Nrh;e;jgazp> ,gpd; gJ}jhtpd; $w;Wg;gb‘FjpiukPJMz;fs; rthhpnra;tijg; Nghy;>ifapy;
tpy; mk;Gld;>murghpthuq;fs; #o ,u]pahTk; rthhpnra;jhh;. jdJKfj;Jf;Fmth;
jpiuapltpy;iy’ ,Ug;gpDk; mth; %d;wiuMz;LfNsMl;rpGhpe;jhh;. [yhYjPd; ahFj; vd;wXh;
mgprPdpambikiamth; Fjpiu ,yhag; gzpj;Jiwj; jiytuhf (mkPh; - , - mFh;) Xh;
cah;e;jgjtpapy; mkh;j;jpdhh;. ,JJUf;fpagpuGf;fSf;FMj;jpuj;ijVw;gLj;jpaJ. ahFj;Jf;Fk;
murp ,u]pahTf;Fk; ,Ue;jneUf;fj;ijg; nghpJgLj;jgpuGf;fs; murpiag; gjtpapypUe;J
,wf;fKad;wdh;. ,u]pahTf;Fg; nghJkf;fs; MjuT ,Ue;jjhy;>jpy;ypapy; mth;fshy;
xd;Wk; nra;aKbatpy;iy. njw;Fg; gQ;rhgpy; fyff;fhuMSeh; my;Jdpahitj;
jz;bg;gjw;Fmth; eltbf;ifNkw;nfhz;bUe;jre;jh;g;gj;ijr; rjpfhuh;fs;
gad;gLj;jpmtiuMl;rpapypUe;Jmfw;wpdh;.
gz;lfd; vd;gJgz;lvd;gjd; gd;ikahFk;> ,r;nrhy;Yf;Fg; gilmbikvd;WnghUs;.

,uhZtg; gzpmDgtk;>NguurUldhdneUf;fk;>ek;gpf;ifMfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; mth;fs;
juk; gphpf;fg;gl;lhh;fs;. ,e;jek;gpf;if>mth;fs; MSeh;fshfTk; jsgjpfshfTk;
epakpf;fg;gLtjw;FtopNfhypaJ. tl ,e;jpahtpy; Fhpj; gz;lfd;>nkha;RjPd; Nfhhpapd;
mbikfshth;. ,e;jmbikfSf;Fnrhe;jr; r%fmilahsk; ,y;iy> ,jdhy; mth;fsJ
v[khdh;fs; mth;fSf;Fg; Gjpangah;fs; #l;bdh;>‘ep];gh’vd;gijAk;
cs;slf;fpamg;ngah;fs; mth;fsJr%fmy;yJgpuNjrmilahsj;ijf; Fwpj;jd. mbikfs;
jq;fsJ v[khdh;fspd; ep];ghitf; nfhz;bUe;jdh;. vdNtnkha;RjPd; mbik>nkha;RvDk;
ep];ghitf; nfhz;bUg;ghh;>Ry;jhd; rk;RjPd; ,y;Jkp~pd; mbik> ~k;]p gz;lfd;
vd;WFwpg;gplg;gLthh;.

myF– 11 gpw;fhyr; Nrhoh;fs;>ghz;bah;fs;
rpe;jhkzp>kapyhg;G+h;>jpUnthw;wpA+h;>jpUthlid>kfhgypGuk; MfpaitRWRWg;ghd fly;

tzpfikaq;fshf ,Ue;jdvd;gijfy;ntl;Lfs; thapyhfmwpfpNwhk;.
ghz;bah; fhyFjpiutzpfk; Fwpj;Jthrh/g; gpd;tUkhWgjpTnra;Js;shh;. “fhay; kw;Wk;

,e;jpahtpd; gpwJiwKfq;fspy; Vwj;jho 10>000 Fjpiufs; ,wf;Fkjpnra;ag;gl;ld. mtw;wpy;
1400 Fjpiufs; [khYjPdf;Fr; nrhe;jkhdit. Fjpiuapd; ruhrhptpiy 220 nrk;nghd;
jpdhh;fshFk;.”
kzpNkfiyia ,aw;wparPj;jiyr;rhj;jdhh; kJiuiar; Nrh;e;jth; Mthh;.
ghz;baehl;Lf;F tUif je;j ntdP]pa (,j;jhyp) gazp khh;f;NfhNghNyh Neh;ikahd

eph;thfj;Jf;fhfTk; ntspehl;Ltzpfh;fisr; rpwe;jKiwapy; elj;jpajw;fhfTk; ghz;ba
muriug; ghuhl;bAs;shh;. cld;fl;ilVWk; tof;fk;>murh;fs; gpd;gw;wpa gy jhukzKiw
Mfpait khh;f;NfhNghNyhtpd; gazf; Fwpg;Gfspy; gjpTnra;ag;gl;Ls;sd.
irtj; Jwtpahd jpUQhdrk;ge;jh; mhpNfrpia rkzkjj;jpypUe;J irt kjj;jpw;F khw;wpdhh;.
fq;ifnfhz;lNrhoGuj;jpy; ,uhN[e;jpuNrhod; Nkw;nfhz;lghrdg;gzpFwpg;gplj;jf;fJ.

mq;Fs;sVhpapy; nts;sk; Vw;gLtijj; jLf;Fk; Nehf;fj;Jld; 16 iky;
ePsKs;sXhcWjpahdfl;Lkhdj;ijmth; vOg;gpAs;shh;. mij ,uhN[e;jpuNrhod; ‘[yka
n[a];jk;gk;’vd;WFwpg;gpLfpwhh;. mjw;F‘ePhpy; fpilj;jntw;wpapd; epidthfvOg;gpa
J}z;’vd;WnghUs;. 100 Mz;LfSf;Fg; gpwF ,e;j
,lj;Jf;Fte;jmNugpatuyhw;Whrphpauhdmy;ng&dp ,f;fl;Lkhdmikg;igf; fz;Ltpae;jhh;.
“vq;fs; kf;fs; mjidf; fz;Ltpag;gilthh;fs;. Mdhy; mjidmth;fshy; tpthpf;f ,ayhJ.
mJNghd;wxd;iwmth;fshy; fl;lTk; KbahJ”vd;Wmy;ng&dpgjpTnra;Js;shh;. rhd;W :
[t`h;yhy; NeU>Glimpses of ht World History.
thpahft#ypf;fg;gl;lney; ‘fsk;’vd;wmyfpd; mbg;gilapy; t#ypf;fg;gl;lJ. xUfsk; vd;gJ

28 fpNyhMFk;. Kjyhk; uh[uh[d; thpt#iyKiwg;gLj;jpdhh;. xUNtyp (6.5 Vf;fh;) epyj;jpw;F
100 fsk; thpahft#ypf;fg;gl;lJ. Ntypapd; msTvd;gJkz;tsk;>Nghfq;fs; Mfpatw;iwg;
nghUj;JkhWgLfpwJ.

rk;Gtuhah;fs; : rk;Gtuhah;fs; uh[hjpuh[d;> %d;whk; FNyhj;Jq;fd; MfpaNrhomurh;fspd;

Ml;rpf; fhyj;jpy; tlMw;fhLnrq;fy;gl;LgFjpfspy;
typikgilj;jFWepykd;dh;fshftpsq;fpdh;. jhq;fs;
rhh;e;jpUe;jNguuRfSf;FMjuthfNghh;fspy; <Lgl;ldh;. gyrkaq;fspy; jq;fSf;Fs;Sk;
Nghhpl;Lf; nfhz;ldh;. gjp%d;whk; E}w;whz;bd; gpw;gFjpapypUe;Jghz;bah; Ml;rpapd;
,Wjptiurk;Gtuhah;fs; ghyhWgFjpapy; murpay; nry;thf;Fld; tpsq;fpdh;. mth;fspd;
muR ,uh[ fk;gPu uh[;ak; vdg;gl;lJ. mjd; jiyefuk; giltPl;by; mike;jpUe;jJ. tPuh;
Nrhork;Gtuhadpd; fy;ntl;Lfs; (1314 – 1315) gyfz;nlLf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. rk;Gtuhah;fs;
cah;e;jgl;lq;fisr; #l;bf; nfhz;ldh;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf>rfyNyhfrf;uth;j;jp(d;)
ntd;Wkz;nfhz;lrk;Gtuhad; (1322 – 1323) >rfyNyhfrf;uth;j;jp(d;) ,uh[ehuazd;
rk;Gtuhad; (1337 – 1338) MfpNahiuf; $wyhk;. rfyNyhfrf;uth;j;jp(d;) ,uh[ehuazd;
rk;Gtuhad; 20 Mz;Lfs; Ml;rpnra;jgpd;dhl;fspy; tp[aefuj;jpd; Fkhufk;gzhy;
Njhw;fbf;fg;gl;lhh;. ,e;jKwpabg;Gf;Fg; gpwFjhd; Fkhufk;gzh;
njw;FNehf;fpkJiutiugilnaLj;Jr; nrd;whh;. Fkhufk;gzh; kJiuRy;jhidj; Njhw;fbj;J
KO ntw;wpngw;whh;.
ngUTilahh; (gpufjPRtuh;) Nfhtpy; :,uh[uhN[];tuk;>gpufjPRtuh; Nfhtpy;

vd;Wmiof;fg;gLk; jQ;rhT+h; nghpaNfhtpy; fl;llf;fiy>Xtpak;>rpw;gk;>rpiytbj;jy;
MfpafiyfSf;Fj; jd;dfuw;wvLj;Jf;fhl;lhftpsq;FfpwJ. ,f;Nfhtpy;
mOj;jkhdrl;lmq;fPfhukhfcs;sJ. ,f;Nfhtpypd; fUtiwkPJmikf;fg;gl;l 190 mb
cauj;jhy; Md tpkhdk; 80 ld; vilnfhz;l %bamikg;igf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. fUtiwapd;
ntspr;Rth;fspy; nghwpf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,yl;Rkp>tp~;Z>mh;j;jehhPRtuh;>gpr;rhldh; (gpr;irVw;Fk;
Nfhyj;jpy; cs;srptd;) MfpacUtq;fs; rpwg;Gmk;rq;fs; MFk;. Guhzq;fspYk;
fhtpaq;fspYk; fhzg;gLk; fhl;rpfs; RtNuhtpaq;fshfTk; FWk; rpw;gq;fshfTk; ,f;Nfhtpy;
Rth;fspy; fhl;rpg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. NrhoMl;rpahsh;fspd; rkaf; fUj;jpaiy ,it
ntspg;gLj;Jfpd;wd. eldg; ngz;fs;> ,irf; fiyQh;fs;> ,irMrphpah;fs; ,it
ehLvd;wgFjpfisr; Nrh;e;jgyFbapUg;GfspypUe;JNjh;Tnra;ag;gl;Lf;>Nfhtpy;fNshL
,izf;fg;gl;ldh;. Nfhtpy;fspy; gf;jpg;ghly;fisg; ghLtjw;fhfg; ghlfh;fs;
epakpf;fg;gl;ldh;.
myF– 12 ghkpdpkw;Wk; tp[aefumuRfs;
tp[aefumurh;fs; ‘tuhfd;’vd;WFwpg;gpl;ljq;fehzaq;fismjpfvz;zpf;ifapy;
ntspapl;ldh;. (,Jjkpopy; nghd; vd;Wk; fd;dlj;jpy; n`hd;Dvd;Wk; Fwpg;gplg;gl;lJ).
,e;jj; jq;fehzaq;fs; ntt;NtW ,e;Jnja;tq;fspd; cUtq;fisAk;
fhis>ahid>fd;lngUz;lhvd;wfw;gidg; gwit (,ul;ilf; fOFtbtj;jpy; cs;s
,e;jcUtk; jdJ myfpYk; efuj;jpYk; ahidiaf; nfhj;jpf; nfhz;bUg;gjhff;
fhzg;gLfpwJ) Mfpatpyq;FcUtq;fisAk; jhq;fpAs;sd. ehzaj;jpy; murDila ngah;
efhp my;yJ fd;dl vOj;Jtbtj;jpy; nghwpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
m~;ljpf;f[q;fs; (vl;LGfo;ngw;wftpQh;fs;) :
my;yrhdp>ngj;jz;zh>ee;jpjpk;kz;zh>njdhypuhkd;>Jh;[jp>gl;L
%h;j;jp>GztPugj;ud;>ky;yhdhkw;Wk; gdh[p #udh.

rpykuGf; fijfspd;gbGfo;ngw;wirtj; JwtpAk;>rk];fpUjmwpQUkhdtpj;ahuz;ah;

(khjth;) mwpTWj;jYf;F ,zq;f `hpùUk; Gf;fUk; Ry;jhd; Jf;sf;fplk;
nra;Jte;jgzpapypUe;Jtpyfp>Ry;jhdhy; rpiwgpbf;fg;gl;lNghJ K];yPk; kjj;jpw;FkhwpapUe;j
,th;fs; kPz;Lk; ,e;Jf;fshfkhwpdh; vd;W $wg;gLfpwJ. tp[aefug; NguuRepWtpajpy;
tpj;ahuz;ah; Kf;fpag; gq;fhw;wpdhh;. Mdhy; ,Jre;Njfj;jpw;FhpaJvd;gh;. Vnddpy;
rpyfy;ntl;Lr; rhd;Wfspd;gbtpj;ahuz;ah; gjpdhd;fhk; E}w;whz;bd; ,Wjpg; gFjpapy;
tho;e;jth;. mjhtJtp[aefug; NguuRcUthdmWgJMz;LfSf;Fg; gpd;dh; tho;e;jth;.
MfhaePytz;zj;jpYs;suj;jpdf;fw;fs; XusTtpiy kjpg;Gs;s fw;fshFk;.

,k;khzpf;ffw;fspdhy; ,iof;fg;gl;lmhpaizghurPfmurh;fspd; xUrpk;khrdkhf ,Ue;jJ vd
gph;njsrpapd; ~hehkh Fwpf;fpd;wJ.
,uhkehjGuk;>GJf;Nfhl;ilrpw;wurh;fs; : ,uhkehjGuk; rpw;wuRkJiuehaf;fmurh;

Kj;JfpU~;zg;gehaf;fuhy; gjpNdohk; E}w;whz;bd; njhlf;fMz;Lfspy;
Jtq;fpitf;fg;gl;lJ. Nghh; GhpAk; kugpidf; nfhz;bUe;j ,g;gFjptho; kf;fs;
ghz;baNrhotp[aefumurh;fsplk; giltPuu;fshfg; gzpahw;wpdh;. NkYk; jpUney;Ntyp>njd;
jkpofg; gFjpMfpatw;wpYk; gutpdh;. ehaf;fkd;dh;fspd; gilfspYk; gzpahw;wp
,th;fs;>guk;giuf; fhty;fhuh;fshffpuhkq;fs;>Nfhtpy;fs; Vida epWtdq;fs; Mfpatw;iwg;
ghJfhf;Fk; gzpiaAk; nra;Jte;jdh;. ,uhNk];tuk; Nfhtpy;>cilahdNrJgjp
(,uhNk];tuj;jpw;Fk; ,yq;iff;Fk; ,ilapyhdePh; ,izg;gpd; my;yJghyj;jpd; jiyth;
vd;WnghUs;) vd;gthpd; ghJfhg;gpd; fPopUe;jJ. GJf;Nfhl;ilxUrpwparpw;wurhfkJiukw;Wk;
jQ;rhT+h; ehaf;fmuRfspd; ,ilapy; mike;jpUe;jJ. Ke;ijafhyj;jpy;
Nrhoghz;bamuRfSf;fpilNa ,ilg;gLehlhf ,Ue;Js;sJ. ,uhkehjGuk; gFjptho;
kf;fisg; NghyNtGJf;Nfhl;ilgFjptho; kf;fSk; Nghh; GHpAk; kuigrhh;e;jth;fshth;. ,jd;
fhuzkhfNtnjhz;ilkhd;fspd; jiyikapy; ,g;gFjpxUrpw;wuRvd;Dk; kjpg;igg; ngw;wJ.
,j;njhz;ilkhd;fs; NrJgjp>kJiu>jQ;irehaf;fmurh;fspd; muz;kidfspy; Kf;fpag;
gzpfspy; gzpahw;wpdh;.
Nfhy;nfhz;lhNfhl;il : uh[h fpU~;z Njt; vd;wthuq;fy;iyj; jiyefuhff;

nfhz;lfhfj;jpatk;rmurh; fl;baNfhl;il ,J. 1495 – 1496 ,y; ,f;Nfhl;ilRy;jhf;
FypFJg;~htpw;FxU [hfPuhfj; (epykhf) jug;gl;lJ. mth; mf;Nfhl;iliaf; fUq;fw;fs;
nfhz;LGduikj;jhh;. mjd;gpd; ,f;Nfhl;ilg; gFjp ,Ue;jefuk; Kfk;kJefh; vdg;gl;lJ.
gpw;fhyj;jpy; ghkpdpmurpd; iftrkhfpmjd; gpd;dh; FJg;~hfpfhyj;jpy;
fk;gPukhdNfhl;ilahfNfhy;nfhz;lhNfhl;iljpfo;e;jJ. ghkpdpRy;jhdpaj;jpd; tPo;r;rpf;Fg;gpd;
,e;efuk; tsh;r;rpaile;jJ. 17 Mk; E}w;whz;by; Nfhy;nfhz;lhxUrpwe;jitur; re;ijahfj;
jpfo;e;jJ. Nfh`pD}h; ituk; cl;glkpfr;rpwe;jituq;fiscyfpw;Ftoq;fpaJ.
Nfhy;nfhz;lhNfhl;ili`juhghj;jpypUe;J 11 fpNyhkPl;lh; J}uj;jpy; cs;skiykPJ 120 kPl;lh;
cauj;jpy; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. Nfhy;nfhz;lhNfhl;ilmjd; xypmk;rmbg;gilapy;
rpwe;jfl;llf; fiyapd; mk;rkhFk.

myF– 14 Kfyhag; NguuR
cyfj;jpd; Vida gFjpfspy; : mf;ghpd; fhykhd 1559 Kjy; 1605 tiukhngUk; murh;fspd;
fhykhFk;. mtUf;FkpfmUNfapUe;jrkfhyj;jth; ,q;fpyhe;jpd; Nguurpahh; vyprngj; Mth;.
,f;fhyg; gFjpapy; jhd; N~f;];gpaUk; tho;;e;jhh;. ,Njfhyj;jpy; jhd; gpuhd;irNghh;ghh;d;
tk;rj;jpd; Kjy; murh; ehd;fhk; n`d;wpAk;>ghurPfj;ijrghtpmurtk;rj;jpd; khngUk;
typikkpf;fmurdhdkfh. mg;gh]{k; Mz;Lte;jdh;. INuhg;ghtpy; eilngw;w
];ghdpaMl;rpf;Fvjpuhfnejh;yhe;jpd; fpsh;r;rp ,f;fhyj;jpy; njhlq;fpVwj;jhovz;gJMz;Lfs;
njhlh;e;J 1648 ,y; Kbtile;jJ.
jpy;yp mhpaizf;fhd thhpRhpikg; Nghhpy; xsuq;frPg;gplk; Njhw;Wg;Nghdjhuh~{

Nfhjj;JtQhd ,sturh; vdmwpag;gl;lhh;. gy;NtWgz;ghLfisciuahlYf;Fcl;gLj;jpamth;
,e;Jkjj;jpw;Fk; ,];yhj;Jf;FkpilNaneUq;fpanjhlh;Gfs; ,Ug;gijf; fz;lwpe;jhh;. rk];fpUj
nkhopapyike;j cgepljq;fisg; ghurPfnkhopapy; nkhopngah;j;jhh;.
Nfhy;Fk;gh]; : 1480 Kjy; 1686 tiuMl;rpnrYj;jpamby; ~h`pkugpd; jiyefh; gP[g;G+h;

(tp[aGuh) MFk;. ,Jfz;fth; fl;llq;fisAk; k#jpfisAk; jd;dfj;Njnfhz;lJ.
,t;tk;rj;jpd; VohtJMl;rpahsuhdKfkJmby;~htpd; (1627 – 1656)
kpLf;fhdfy;yiwNaNfhy;Fk;gh]; (tl;ltbtf; Ftpkhlk;) MFk;. mby; ~h ,jidj;
jdJtho;ehspNyNafl;bdhh;. ,Jmlh; rhk;gy; epwf; fw;fshy;
fl;lg;gl;LNkw;G+r;RG+rpmyq;fhpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,jd; ntspg;Gwk; rhjhuzkhAk; Mdhy; moFwTk;
mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. fl;llj;jpd; ehd;Fntsp %iyfspYk; vz;Nfhzf; ftpifkhlk; cs;sJ.
xt;nthUftpifkhlKk; VO mLf;FfisAk; xt;nthUmLf;Fk; gyrhsuq;fisAk;
nfhz;Lghh;g;Nghiuf; fth;e;jpOf;Fk; tz;zk; mike;Js;sJ. Nuhkpd; GdpjgPll ; h;
Njthyaj;jpw;FmLj;Jcyfpd; ,uz;lhtJnghpaFtpkhlk; ,JNtahFk;. ,jd; cl;Rtw;wpd;
ePsk; 135 mb>cauk; 178 mb. ,q;Frw;Wcah;j;jg;gl;lNkilapy; KfkJmby;~h mth;
kidtpmU];gPgp>mth; kfs;>Ngud;>Ngudpd; gphpakidtpuk;ghMfpaIthpd; fy;yiwfs; cs;sd.
gPuq;fpiag; gad;gLj;Jk; uhZtg; gilg;gphpTgPuq;fpgil (Artilery) MFk;. ,ij ,lk; tpl;L ,lk;
nfhz;Lnry;yyhk;. nghJthfxUtUf;Fk; Nkw;gl;legh;fshy; ,it ,af;fg;gLk;.
ntbkUe;JKjd;Kjypy; rPdh;fshy; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;L fp.gp 13 Mk; E}w;whz;by;
INuhg;ghitmile;jJ. gjpdhd;fhk; E}w;whz;bd; ,ilg;gFjpapypUe;J ,J Jg;ghf;fpfspYk;
gPuq;fpfspYk; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. ghgUf;FKd;ghf ,e;jpahtpy; Nghh;fspy; gPuq;fpfs;
gad;gLj;jg;gl;ljw;fhdMjhuq;fs; ,y;iy.
[hfPh;jhhpKiw: ,J xUepycilikKiwahFk;. jpy;ypRy;jhdpah; fhyj;jpy;

,k;Kiwtsh;r;rpngw;wJ. ,k;Kiwapd; fPo; xUFwpg;gpl;lg; gFjpapy; thpt#y; nra;fpd;wmjpfhuKk;
mg;gFjpiaeph;tfpf;fpwmjpfhuKk; murhq;fj;ijr; Nrh;e;jxUmjpfhhpaplk; xg;gilf;fg;gLk;.

[kPdj ; hhpKiw: ,r;nrhy; kw;nwhUepycilikKiwiaf; Fwpg;gjhFk;. ghurPfnkhopapy;

[kPdj ; hh; vd;wnrhy;Yf;Fepyj;jpd; cilikahsh; vd;WnghUs;. Kfyhah; fhyj;jpy; gpuGf;fs;
th;f;fj;ijr; Nrh;e;NjhNu [kPdj; hh;fshf ,Ue;jdh;. mf;gh; gpuGf;fSf;Fk;
Ke;ijamuRFLk;gq;fspd; topj;Njhd;wy;fSf;Fk;
epyq;fistoq;fpmtw;iwguk;giuahfmDgtpf;Fk; chpikiaAk; toq;fpdhh;. [kPdj ; hh;fs;
Fj;jiffhuh;fsplkpUe;Jk; tptrhapfsplkpUe;Jk; thpt#y;
nra;JxUFwpg;gpl;lnjhifiamuRf;Fr; nrYj;jpdh;.
jh[;k`hy; : jh[;k`hy; Kfyhaf; fl;llf; fiyapd; rpwg;Gkpf;ftbtkhFk;. mJ ,e;jpaghurPf

,];yhkpaf; fl;llf; fiyfspd; $l;Lf; fyitahFk;. 1612 ,y; jpUkzkhdjpy; njhlq;fp 1631
,y; Foe;ijg;Ngwpd; NghJkuzkilAk; tiu ,izgphpahky; cw;wJizaha;
,Ue;jjdJkidtpKk;jh[{f;Fmopahg; Gfiomspg;gjw;fhf ~h[fhd; jh[;k`hiyf; fl;bdhh;.
ghurPftk;rhtspiar; Nrh;e;j ,e;jpauhfpa c];jj; mfkj; y`ht;hpvd;gth; jiyikf;
fl;llf;iyepGzuhf ,Ue;jhYk; ,t;tshfj;jpw;fhdtiuglj;ijj; jahhpj;jngUik
,f;fhyfl;lj;ijr; Nrh;e;jfl;llf;fiyepGzh;fisr; rhUk;. ,t;tshfk;
jiythapy;>Njhl;lk;>k#jp>fy;yiwkhlk; (kpdhh; vd;wiof;fg;gLk; ehd;FNfhGuq;fs;)
Mfpamidj;Jk; xUq;fpizf;fg;gl;Lj; jdpj;jd;iktha;e;jjhftbtikf;fg;gl;lJ. 1632 ,y;
fl;blNtiyfs; njhlq;fpd. ,e;jpah>ghurPfk;>cJkhdpag; NguuR>INuhg;ghMfpatw;wpypUe;J
,Ugjhapuj;jpw;Fk; Nkw;gl;lnjhopyhsh;fs; fy;yiwkhlg;gzpia 1639 – 39 ,y; Kbg;gjw;fhfg;
gzpakh;j;jg;gl;ldh;. mUfpYs;s Vida fl;llq;fs; 1643 ,y; Kbtile;jd.
myq;fhuNtiyfs; Fiwe;jgl;rk; 1647 tiiunjhlh;e;jJ.
jf;fhzRy;jhdpak; : kfhuh~;buh>Me;jpuhMfpatw;wpd; ngUk; gFjpiaAk; fh;ehlfj;jpd;

xUgFjpiaAk; nfhz;bUe;jghkpdpRy;jhdpak; xU E}w;whz;Lf; fhyk; nry;tr; nropg;NghL
,Ue;Jgpd;dh; rpijTw;wJ. typiktha;e;jgpuGf;fs; Nfhy;nfhz;lh (FJg;~h`p)>gP[g;G+h;>
(mby;~h`p)>nguhh; (,kj;~h`p) gPlhh;> (ghpj; ~h`p) mfkJefh;> (ep[hk; ~h`p) Mfpa
,lq;fspy; GjpamuRfisj; Njhw;Wtpj;jdh;. ,itaidj;Jk; $l;lhfj; jf;fhzr; Ry;jhdpak;
vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
Nghh;j;JfPrpah; : 1510 ,y; my;Gfh;f; gP[g;G+h; Ry;jhdplkpUe;JNfhthitf; ifg;gw;wpmijf;

fPo;j;jpirNghhj;JfPrpag; Nguurpd; jiyefuhf;fpdhh;. njhlh;e;JNkw;Fflw;fiuapy;
lhkd;>rhy;nrl;>gk;gha; Mfpa ,lq;fspYk;>fpof;Ff; flw;fiuapy;
nrd;idf;FmUNfrhe;Njhk;>tq;fhsj;jpy; `{f;spMfpa ,lq;fspYk; Nghh;j;JfPrpah;
FbNaw;wq;fs; cUthf;fg;gl;ld.
lr;Rf;fhuh; : lr;Rf;fhuh;fs; k#ypg;gl;bdk; (1605)>Gypf;fhl; (goNtw;fhL 1610)> #uj;
(1616)>gpkpypgl;bdk; (1641)>fhiuf;fhy; (1645)>rpd;Ruh (1653)>fhrpk;g[hh;>ghuhefh;>ghl;dh>ghyNrhh;
ehfg;gl;bdk; (midj;Jk; 1658)>nfhr;rp (1663) Mfpa ,lq;fspy;
jq;fsJtzpfepiyaq;fisVw;gLj;jpdh;.
gpnuQ;Rf;fhuh; : #uj; (1668)>k#ypg;gl;bdk; (1669)>mg;NghJrpWfpuhkkhf ,Ue;jGJr;Nrhp
(1673)>tq;fhsj;jpd; re;jd;efh; (1690) MfpaitgpnuQ;Rf;fhuhpd; njhlf;ffhyf;
FbNaw;wq;fshFk;. gpd;dh; kyghhpy; cs;skh`p>Nrhokz;lyf; flw;fiuapy; Vdhk; (,uz;Lk;
1725 ,y)>fhiuf;fhy; (1739) Mfpatw;iwf; ifg;gw;wpdh;.

Mq;fpNyah; : Kjypy; fk;ngdp #uj;jpy; xUtzpfr;rhtbiaepWtpaJ (1612 ,y;

mq;FxUtzpfepWtdk; / gz;lfrhiymikf;fg;gl;lJ). gpd;dh; nrd;id (1639)>gk;gha;
(1668)>fy;fj;jh (1690) Mfpatw;iwg; ngw;wJ. fk;ngdpgytzpff; FbNaw;wq;fisg;
ngw;wpUe;jhYk; fy;fj;jhtpy;ypak; Nfhl;ilAk;>nrd;idGdpj [hh;[;
Nfhl;ilAk;>gk;ghapYs;skhspifAk; Mq;fpNyahpd; kpfKf;fpakhdtzpff; FbNaw;wq;fshFk;.
khypf; Mk;gh; : vj;jpNahg;ghtpypUe;J ,e;jpahTf;FXh; mbikahff; nfhz;Ltug;gl;lkhypf;
Mk;gh;>gy ,lq;fs; khwp ,WjpahfmfkJefh; murpd; gpujkke;jphpahdnrq;fp];fhdplk;
te;JNrh;e;jhh;. khypf; Mk;gh; murpay; tpNtfk;>uhZtk; kw;Wk;
eph;thftp~aq;fisnrq;fp];fhdplkpUe;Jfw;Wf;nfhz;lhh;. nrq;fp];fhdpd; kuzj;jpw;Fg;
gpd;dh; mtUilakidtpkhypf; Mk;giuRje;jukdpjuhf;fpdhh;. fLikahdciog;gpd; %yk;
gy;NtWnghWg;Gfspy; gzpahw;wp ,Wjpahfj; njd;dpe;jpar; Ry;jhdpaj;jpd; xd;wpd; ,uhZtj;
jsgjpahfTk; gfuMSeuhfTk; Mdhh;. jf;fhzj;jpy; K];yPk;fSk; kuhj;jpah;fSk; jq;fs;
murpay; kw;Wk; tl;lhuj; jdpj;jd;ikfisg; ghJfhf;Fk; Kaw;rpapy;
xUq;fpize;JKfyhahpd; Nkyhjpf;fj;ijvjph;j;jdh;. ,k;Kaw;rpapd; gpd;Nd %isahfr;
nray;gl;lth; khypf; Mk;gh;. 1626>Nk14 ,y; khypf; Mk;gh; jd;Dila 78 Mk; tajpy;
kuzkile;jNghJmtuhy; gapw;Wtpf;fg;gl;lkuhj;jpah;fs; Xh; mq;fPfhpf;fg;gl;lrf;jpahfkhwpdh;.
myF– 15 kuhj;jpah;
“(kuhj;jpaehl;by;) kjvOr;rpvd;gJgpuhkzr; rkak; rhh;e;jjhf ,y;iy.

mikg;Gfs;>rlq;Ffs;>tFg;GNtWghLfs; Mfpatw;Wf;FvjpuhdjdJNghuhl;lj;ijg;
nghWj;jmstpy; tof;fj;jpy; cs;snfhs;iff;FkhwhdjhfmJmike;jJ. Jwtpfs; ngUk;ghYk;
gpuhkztFg;igr; rhuhky; r%fj;jpd; mbepiyiar; Nrh;e;jth;fshf ,Ue;jdh;”–ePjpgjpuhdNl
MSeh; kd;Nwhtpd; fy;tpf; fzf;nfLg;Gf;fhfcUthf;fg;gl;l 1823 Mk; Mz;bd;

mwpf;ifg;gbjQ;rhT+h; KOtJk; ,Ue;j 44 gs;spfspy; murit %ykhf 21 ,ytrgs;spfs;
elj;jg;gl;ld. rkag; gug;ghsh;fs; 19 gs;spfisAk;> Mya eph;thfk; xUgs;spiaAk; elj;jpd.
Mrphpah;fs; jhq;fshfNt ,ytrkhf %d;Wgs;spfiselj;jpdhh;fs;.
kpfKf;fpakhdGdpjj;jytopj;jlq;fspy; mike;jpUe;jgjp%d;Wrj;jpuq;fs;
%ykhfahj;hpfh;fSf;Fk; ViofSf;Fk; czTk; ciwtpltrjpAk; nra;JnfhLf;fg;gl;lJ.
uh[h Njrpq;F : kuhj;jpamurh; uh[huhk; Kfyhag; gilfspd; mr;RWj;jy;

fhuzkhfuha;fhpypUe;Jjg;gpNahbnrQ;rpapy; milf;fyk; GFe;jhh;. gilj;jsgjpRy;gpfh;fhd;
jiyikapYk;>gpd;dh; jhTj;fhd; jiyikapYk; mtiuj; njhlh;e;Jnrd;wKfyhag; gilfs;
nrQ;rpiaf; ifg;gw;wpd. nrQ;rpf;FvjpuhdKfyhaj; jhf;Fjypy; gd;Nlyh uh[Gj;jpujiyth;
Rt&g; rpq; nrQ;rpf;Nfhl;ilapd; (Nfhl;il ,uhZtj;jpd; jiyth;) fpyhjhuhf 1700 ,y;
gzpapy; mkh;j;jg;gl;lhh;. mjd; gpwFRt&g; rpq; nrQ;rpKOtijAk; jdJfl;Lg;ghl;by;
nfhz;Lte;jhh;. 1714 ,y; mth; kiwe;jgpwFmtuJkfd; Nj[; rpq; (Njrpq;F) nrQ;rpapd;
MSeuhfnghWg;Ngw;whh;. Kfyhakd;dUf;Ff; fg;gk; fl;lkWj;jijmLj;Jethg; rjj; - cy; -
yhfhdpd; Nfhgj;jpw;FMshdhh;. mjidj; njhlh;e;Jele;jrz;ilapy; 22 taNj Md uh[h
Njrpq;Fnfhy;yg;gl;lhh;. mtuJ ,staJkidtpcld;fl;ilVwpdhh;. uh[h
Njrpq;FethGf;Fvjpuhfntspg;gLj;jpatPuk; kf;fspilNafijg; ghly;fshfcUntLj;jJ.

myF– 17 Mq;fpNyah; Ml;rpapd; tpisTfs;
md;iwa nrd;id khfhzj;jpd; Fz;^h; khtl;lj;jpy; 1833 Mk; Mz;L Vw;gl;l gQ;rk;
gw;wpa xU Neubg; ghh;itahshpd; (Mq;fpNyah;) $w;WtUkhW : kpFe;jneUf;fbahd
#oypy; kdpjh;fs; vj;jifa mUtUg;ghd czit cl;nfhs;thh;fs; vd;gij
Nahrpf;fNt kpfTk; mr;rkhf cs;sJ. Vnddpy; caph; gpioj;jrpyh; xUnrj;jehiaAk;
FjpiuAk; NguhirNahL Ritg;gijf; fz;Nld;. kw;nwHUrkak;
xUJujph;~;lkhdfOijNfhl;iliatpl;LntspNawpa mf;fzj;jpNyNa mjd; kPJ Xeha;fs;
Nghy; gha;e;J Kd;dq;fhy;>gpd;dq;fhy; NtWghby;yhky; gha;e;J mq;NfNa nfhd;W
Ritj;jijf; fz;Nld;.
gk;gha;f;Fk; jhNdTf;Fk; ,ilNa ,Ug;Gg;ghij 1853 Mk;

Mz;LmikaTk;>n`suhTf;Fk; uhzpfQ;rpw;Fk; ,ilNa 1854 – 55 Mk; Mz;Lfspy;
mikaTk; nra;jJ. njd;dpe;jpahtpy; Kjy; ,Ug;Gg;ghij 1856 Mk;
Mz;Lkjuh]{f;Fk;>muf;Nfhzj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNamikf;fg;gl;lJ. mt;thz;by;
jpwe;Jitf;fg;gl;luapy; epiyaq;fspy; uhaGuk; uapy; epiyaKk; xd;whFk;.
Xg;ge;jf; $ypKiw: ,d;iwaeilKiwapy; ,Uf;Fk; xg;ge;jj; njhopyhsh;

jpl;lj;jpw;FKw;wpYk; khwhd>jz;lidf Fhpa xg;ge;jKiw MFk; ,J. ,k;Kiwapd ;gb
$yp (,e;jpaxg;ge;jnjhopyhsiu miof;Fk; ngah;) rpiwr;rhiyNghd;w #oypy;
gzpnra;aNtz;Lk;. gzpapy; myl;rpak; fhl;bdhNyh my;yJ gzp
nra;akWj;jhNyh>kpLf;fhfj; jphpe;jhNyhcj;juTf;Ff; fPo;gbakWj;jhNyh>xg;ge;jf; fhyk;
KbAKd; gzpiatpl;LtpyfpdhNyh> $ypia kWf;fNth my;yJ rpiwj; jz;lid
toq;fNth KbAk;. Xh; mw;gg; gpur;ridf;fhff; $l rl;lr; ruj;Jfisf; fhl;bNjhl;l
chpikahsh;fs; njhopyhsh;fspd; rk;gsj;ij kWg;gNjh mth;fis rpiwapyilf;fNth
nra;jdh;. $ypcah;Tf;fhfNthmy;yJxg;ge;jj;ijKwpf;fNthnra;jplrq;fk; itj;Jg;
Nghuhlxg;ge;jf; $ypr; rl;lk; Njhl;lj; njhopyhsh;fismDkjpf;ftpy;iy.
ghujpjdJ‘fUk;Gj; Njhl;lj;jpNy’vd;wghlypy; ngz; Njhl;lj; njhopyhsh;fspd;
ghpjhgepiyiacUf;fkhfvLj;Jf;fhl;bapUf;fpwhh;.
gl;lak; (Charter) vd;gJxUehl;bd; ,iwahz;ikmjpfhuj;ijikakhff;

nfhz;Lrfymjpfhuq;fSk;>rYiffSk;
cs;sxUtzpfepWtdj;ijNahcUthf;ftoq;fg;gLk; rl;lkhFk;. fpof;fpe;jpaf;
fk;ngdp>kfhuhzpvyprngj; 1600 ,y; toq;fpagl;laj;jpd; %yk; Jtq;fg;gl;lJ. thud;
N`];bq;]; fth;dh; n[duyhf 1773 Mk; Mz;LgjptpNaw;wJKjy;
,UgJMz;LfSf;FxUKiw ,g;gl;lak; GJg;gpf;fg;glNtz;baJmtrpakhdJ. gphpl;b~;
Kbahl;rpapd; Neubeph;thfj;jpd; fPo; ,e;jpahtUtjw;FKd;Gtoq;fg;gl;l 1853 Mk;
Mz;bd; gl;lar;rl;lNkfilrpahdJMFk;.

nkf;fhNy : ,e;jpa ,yf;fpak;>jj;Jtk;>kUj;Jtk; ,tw;wpy; vJTk;

nkf;fhNyey;ytw;iwfhztpy;iy. 1835 Mk; Mz;Lmth; vOjpafy;tpFwpj;jFwpg;gpy;
nkf;fhNyfPo;fz;lthWvOJfpwhh;.
..... vdf;FmuGnkhopAk; njhpahJ>rk];fpUjKk; njhpahJ. Mdhy;
muG>rk];fpUjnkhopfspy; rpwg;ghditahff; fUjg;gLk; E}y;fspd; nkhopahf;fq;fisg;
gbj;jpUf;fpNwd;. vdJehl;bYk;> ,q;Fk; (,e;jpahtpy;) fpof;fpe;jpankhopfspy;
Gyikngw;wkdpjh;fSld; cwthbapUf;fpNwd;. ey;yNjhh; INuhg;gpa E}yfj;jpy; cs;sXh;
mykhhpapy; ,Uf;Fk; E}y;fs; mNugpahtpYk;> ,e;jpahtpYk; cs;smidj;J ,yf;fpa
E}y;fSf;Fk; rkk; vd;gijmth;fSs; xUth; $l kWf;fkhl;lhh;fs;.
.... jw;NghJekf;Fk;>ehk;
Ms;fpd;wyl;rf;fzf;fhdkf;fSf;FkpilNaciungah;g;ghsh;fshfxUth;f;fj;ijcUthf;fe
hk; Kbe;jijr; nra;aNtz;Lk; - ,uj;jj;jpYk; epwj;jpYk; ,e;jpah; Mdhy;
Ritapy;>fUj;jpy;>jhh;kPfj;jpy;>mwptpy; Mq;fpNyauhf ,Uf;Fk; xUth;f;fk;.
... nkhopfisr; rPh;jpUj;jp>Nkw;fj;jpanrhw;gl;aypypUe;Jmwptpay;
njhlh;ghdnrhw;fisr; Nrh;j;JnrOikg;gLj;jpmidj;Jkf;fSf;Fk; vt;topapy; mwpitf;
nfhz;LNrh;f;fKbaNkhmt;topapy; nfhz;LNrh;f;Fk;
nghWg;igmt;th;f;fj;jplNktpl;Ltplyhk;.
,q;fpyhe;Jkf;fsitapd; Njh;Tf;FO (Select Committee) 1840 Mk;

Mz;Lmq;fk; tfpj;jrhh;y]; l;uhty;ad; ,t;thWjd; ghh;itiaKd; itf;fpwhh;.
tq;fhsj;jpy; Kd;Gtpise;jxUtifg; gl;LNghd;wgUj;jpapypUe;Jlhf;fh k];ypd;
vd;wnky;ypaJzpianea;thh;fs;. mJNghd;wxd;iwghh;g;gJmhpjhfptpl;lJ. lhf;fhefhpd;
kf;fs; njhif 1>50>000 ypUe;J 30>000 my;yJ 40>000 vd;wmstpy;
tpOe;Jtpl;lJvd;gNjhLme;efiukNyhpahNehAk;>fhLfSk; Ntfkhf #o;e;J
nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd. ,e;jpahtpd; khd;nr];lh; vd;WfUjg;gl;Lme;jefuk;
,d;wrpwg;gpoe;JtWik #o;e;J rpWj;Jtpl;lJ. mq;NfepyTk; mrhjhuzr;#oy; cz;ikapy;
gLgaq;fukhdJ. mNgLgha; gpnuQ;Rf; fj;Njhypf;frkag; Nghjfh; jhd; INuhg;ghtpw;Fj;
jpUk;Gtjw;FKd; 1823 Mk; Mz;L ,t;thW $wpdhh;. “ftiyAk;> ,wg;Gk; vq;nfq;Fk;
epiwe;Jnrd;idkhfhzj;jpYs;sMapuf;fzf;fhdnerthsh;fs; grpahy; nrj;Jkbfpwhh;fs;.”
jhk]; kd;Nwh: jhk]; kd;Nwh 1780 ,y; kjuh]; te;jile;jhh;. Kjy;

gd;dpnuz;LtUlq;fs; mth; xUgiltPuuhfik#h; Nghhpy; gq;Nfw;whh;. mth; ghuk`hy;
gFjpapy; (Nryk; khtl;lk;) 1792 Kjy; 1799 tiuapYk;>fduhgFjpapYk; 1799 Kjy; 1800
tiuapYk; gzpapypUe;jhh;. gphpj;njLf;fg;gl;lkhtl;lq;fshdflg;gh>fh;D}y;>rpj;J}h;>mde;jG+h;
Mfpatw;wpw;FMl;rpauhfgzpGhpe;jhh;. ,f;fhyj;jpy;jhd; mth;
,uaj;JthhpKiwgw;wpNahrpf;fyhdhh;. mth; 1820 Mk; Mz;Lnkl;uh];
khfhzj;jpw;FMSeuhfnghWg;Ngw;Wmjd; gpd; VO tUlq;fs; Nritahw;wpdhh;. mg;NghJ
1822 Mk; Mz;L ,uaj;JthhpKiwianrk;ikahfmwpKfg;gLj;jpnraY}l;bdhh;. mth;
MSeuhf ,Ue;jfhyj;jpy; fy;tpf;FKf;fpaj;Jtk;
nfhLj;jNjhLfy;tpf;fhdnrytPdq;fisvjph;fhyj;jpw;fhdKjyPlhfNtfUjpdhh;. mth;
eph;thfj;jpy; ,e;jpah;fs; ngUkstpy; gq;fhw;WtijMjhpj;jhh;. mth; [{iy 1827 Mk;
Mz;Lfh;D}ypy; mike;Js;sgl;bf; nfhz;lhtpy; fhyuhNehahy; ghjpf;fg;gl;Lcaphpoe;jhh;.
kf;fspilNagpugykhfpapUe;jMSeuhdmthpd; epidthfgyepidtplq;fs;
vOg;gg;gl;lNjhLFoe;ijfs; gyUf;Fk; mtuJngah; #l;lg;gl;lJ
nghJkf;fsplkpUe;Jt#ypf;fg;gl;lgzj;jpypUe;JmtuJrpiytbtikf;fg;gl;L 1839 Mk;
Mz;Lnrd;idapy; epWtg;gl;lJ.
tpy;ypak; ngz;bq; gpuGfhyj;jpy; (1833) kfy;thhpKiwmwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.

,jd;gbepytUtha;ff ; hdxg;ge;jk; epyj;jpd; chpikahsNuhLNkw;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ. Mdhy;
epythpahdJgaph; rhFgbnra;gthplkpUe;Njt#ypf;fg;gl;lJ.
1772 tiufpof;fpe;jpaf; fk;ngdpapd; eph;thfj; jiyth; MSeNuMthh; (tpy;ypak;

Nfhl;ilapNyh [hh;[; Nfhl;ilapNyhtPw;wpUg;ghh;). tpy;ypak; Nfhl;ilapy; MSeuhfg;
gjtpapypUe;j thud; N`];bq;]; xOq;FKiwr; rl;lj;jpd; (1773) %ykhffth;dh;
n[duyhfg; gjtpcah;j;jg;gl;lhh;. fth;dh; n[duy; fpof;fpe;jpaf; fk;ngdpapd; ,af;Feh;
kd;wj;jpd; %ykhfj; Njh;e;njLf;fg;gLthh;. 1833 gl;lar; rl;lk; %ykhfmg;gjtp ,e;jpahtpd;
fth;dh; n[duy; vd;WepiyNaw;wk; ngw;wJ. mg;gjtpAk; ,af;Feh; kd;wj;jhy;
Njh;e;njLf;fg;gLtNjhL>gjptptfpg;gth; ,af;Feh; kd;wj;jpw;Ff; fl;Lg;gl;Lr;
nray;glNtz;baflikAkpUe;jJ. 1857 ngUq;fpsh;rr ; pf;Fg;gpd; ,e;jpamurpd; nghWg;igf;
fpof;fpe;jpaf; fk;ngdpahhplkpUe;J ,q;fpyhe;JmuRNeubahfvLj;Jf;nfhs;stifnra;j 1858
,y; ‘tpf;Nlhhpahuhzpahhpd; gpufldk;’ Kjd;Kiwahfmurg; gpujpepjp (it];uha; kw;Wk;
fth;dh; n[duy;) vd;wnrhw;nwhliuf; ifahz;lJ. gphpl;b~; ehlhSkd;wj;jpw;Ff;
fl;Lg;gl;lKjy; it];uha; kw;Wk; ,e;jpafth;dh; n[duyhffhdpq; epakpf;fg;gl;lhh;.
Mq;fpNyaMl;rpf;Fj; njhlf;ffhyvjph;gG
; fs;
NtYehr;rpahh; xUngz;fs; gilia cUthf;fpapUe;jhh;. mth; Mq;fpNyahpd;

ntbkUe;Jf;fplq;Ffisf; fz;Lgpbg;gjw;Fj; jd; csthspfisg; gad;gLj;jpdhh;. ehr;rpahhpd;
gilapy; ,Ue;jFapypjd; kPJneUg;Gij;Jf;nfhz;L>Mq;fpNyahpd; ntbkUe;Jfplq;fpy;
Eioe;Jmijmopj;jhh;. ehr;rpahhpd; gilapypUe;j ,d;ndhUcsthspmtuhy;
jj;njLf;fgl;lcilahs; Mthh;. ,th; Mq;fpNyahpd; Xh; MAjf;fplq;ifmopj;Jf;nfhz;lhh;.
nrd;idnksz;l; Nuhl;by; itf;fg;gl;bUe;jePy; rpiy ,e;jpaNjrpathjpfisf; Nfhgk;

nfhs;sr; nra;jJ. mijmg;Gwg;gLj;jfhq;fpu]; rj;jpahfpuk; nra;jJ. uh[h[papd; fhq;fpu];
mikr;ruit (1937 – 39) ,r;rpiyiamfw;wpnrd;idmUq;fhl;rpafj;jpy; itj;jJ.
tp[aefuj;jpy; mwpKfkhdjq;fehzak; gNfhlhvdg;gl;lJ. INuhg;gpatzpfh;fs;

,e;jpahTf;Fte;jfhyfl;lj;jpy; ,g;gzk; nry;thf;Fngw;Wtpsq;fpaJ. jpg;GRy;jhd; Ml;rpapy;
ik#hpy; xUgNfhlh %d;wiu&gha;f;Fr; rkkhff; nfhs;sg;gl;lJ.
‘gNfhlhkuj;ijcYf;Fjy;’vd;wnrhytil ,q;fpyhe;Jkf;fspilNaepytpaJ.
xUtiumjph;~;lrhypMf;Fk; tha;g;Gfs; ,e;jpahtpy; Ftpe;Jfplf;fpd;wdvd;wINuhg;gpah;fspd;
mf;fhykdepiyia ,jd; %yk; ehk; czuyhk;. jkpopy; ,jidtuhfd; vd;gh;.

ghisaf;fhuh; Kiw 1530 fspy; Njhd;wpaJ. thuhq;fiyMz;Lte;jfhfjpamurpd;

,e;jKiwgpd;gw;wg;gl;Lte;jjhffUjg;gLfpwJ. murUf;Fj; NjitahdNghJNghhpy; tPuh;fSld;
gq;Nfw;fNtz;Lk; vd;wepge;jidAld; xUghriwiaAk; ngUk; epyg;gug;igAk;
itj;jpUg;gtiuNaghisaf;fhuh; vd;wnrhy; Fwpf;fpwJ.
,e;jKiwNjhd;Wtjw;FKd;dhy;>Nrh;itf;fhuh;fSk; jiyahhpfSk; fhty;
gzpfSf;fhfthpt#ypj;Jte;jdh;. ghisaKiwmwpKfkhdgpwF>ghisaf;fhuh;fs;
Nrh;itf;fhuh;fs;>jiyahhpfisj; jq;fs; fl;Lg;ghl;bd; fPo; nfhz;Lte;jhh;fs;.
A+Rg; fhdpd; ,aw;ngah; kUjehafk;. mth; ,uhkehjguk; khtl;lj;ijr; Nrh;e;jth;. GJr;Nrhpapy;

,Ue;jNghJ> ,Ryhk; rkaj;ijj; jOtpdhh;. 1752 ,y; fpist; jiyikapyhdfk;ngdpg;
gilapy; Nrh;e;jA+Rg; fhd; 1752 – 54 ,y; eilngw;wjpUr;rpuhg;gs;spKw;Wifapy; gq;Nfw;whh;.
Mw;fhLethGf;Fr; nrhe;jkhdjhf ,Ue;jhYk;>fk;ngdpeph;thfj;jpd; fl;Lg;ghl;by;
,Ue;jkJiu>jpUney;NtypMfpakhtl;lq;fSf;F 1756 Kjy; 1761 tiuMSeuhfhg;
nghWg;Gtfpj;jhh;. A+Rg;fhd; i`jh; mypiaj; Njhw;fbj;J>Nrhote;jhidf; ifg;gw;wpdhh;.
yhypapd; kjuh]; Kw;Wif (1758 – 59) d; NghJA+Rg;fhdpd; gq;fspg;Grpwg;ghdjhf ,Ue;jJ.
mth; eph;thfg; nghWg;gpy; ,Ue;jNghJ kJiuapy; nerTj;njhopiyCf;Ftpj;jhh;.
kJiuNfhtpy;fspy; topghLelj;Jtjw;Ff; Fwpg;gpl;lnjhifiatoq;fpdhh;. kjFUf;fs;
trkpUe;jNfhtpy; epyq;fiskPl;nlLj;jhh;. Mq;fpNyah;
mtiuMw;fhLethGf;Fgzpnra;aMizapl;lhjhy;>mth; fpsh;rr ; papy; ,wq;fpdhh;.
fpy;y];gpapd; td;nfhLikfisNehyp; ghh;j;j N[. gpshf;fp];ld;> 800 f;Fk;

Nkw;gl;lcly;fs; Nfhl;ilapypUe;JntspNavLj;Jr; nry;yg;gl;ljhf $Wfpwhh;. lgps;A+.N[.
tpy;rdpd; kjpg;gl
P ;bd;gbfpsh;rr
; papy; gq;Nfw;wjw;fhf 378 Ngh; rpiwitf;fg;gl;ldh;. 516 Ngh;
kPJFw;wk; Rkj;jg;gl;lhYk; rpiwj; jz;lidtpjpf;fg;gltpy;iy. tprhuizf; FOtplk;
mspf;fg;gl;lthf;F%yq;fspd;gb ,uhZtePjpkd;wk;
rpyjdpg;gl;legh;fSf;Fkuzjz;lidtpjpj;jH. rpyiuehLflj;jpaJ. ,j;jz;lidfs; NtY}h;
nghWg;gjpfhhpahy; 1806 nrg;lk;gh; 23 md;WepiwNtw;wg;gl;lJ. (rhd;W : W.J.Wilson, History of
Madras Army, Vol.III, pp. 186 – 89)
myF– 19 etPdj;ijNehf;fp
RthkptpNtfhde;jh; ,sik>ijhpak; Mfpatw;wpd; kWtbtkhthh;. etPd ,e;jpahtpd;

tpbnts;spvdf; Fwpf;fg;gLfpd;whh;. thyd;ild; rpNuhy; vd;ghhpd; thh;j;ijfspy; “jdJMSikj;
jpwdhy; ntspehLfspy; ,e;jpahtpd; ghuk;ghpakpf;fehfhpfj;jpw;Fk; mjDilaGjpjhfg;
gpwg;ngLj;Js;sNjrk; vDk; chpikf; Nfhhpf;iff;Fk; fz; $lhdmq;fPfhuj;ijg; ngw;Wje;jKjy;
,e;jpah;”Mthh;.
gandwpKiw (Utilitarianism) :kpfmjpfvz;zpf;ifapyhdth;fspd; mjpfg;gl;lkfpo;r;rpiaf;

NfhhpaetPdr; rpe;jidash;fs;.

myF–7 ,e;jpag; nghUshjhuk;
,e;jpa ,uapy;NtKjy; wi-fi trjpia ngq;fShpy; njhlq;fpaJ.

 ,e;jpatpkhdNghf;Ftuj;JepWtdq;fshdVh; ,e;jpahkw;Wk; ,e;jpad; Vh;iyd;];
Mfpait 27.8.2007 md;Wxd;whf ,ize;jd.
 JiwKfq;fspd; Nkyhz;ikkw;Wk; tsh;r;rpf;FFwpg;ghfrpWJiwKfq;fs;
tsh;r;rpf;Ftopfhl;l 1950 y; NjrpaJiwKfthhpak; cUthf;fg;gl;lJ.
,aw;iftsq;fspd; tiffs;:
(m) GJg;gpf;ff; $batsq;fs; : ePz;lfhyq;fs; epiyj;J ,Uf;ff;$bakPz;Lk;
cUthf;;ff;$batsq;fs; v.fh: fhLfs;>tdtpyq;Ffs;>fhw;W>fly;tsq;fs;>ePh;kpd;
rf;jp>caphpdj; njhFjp>fhw;whiykpd; cw;gj;jpNghd;wit.
(M) GJg;gpf;f ,ayhjtsq;fs; : kPz;Lk; cUthf;fg;glKbahjepiyj;J
,Uf;fKbahjitfs; v.fh : gbkvhpnghUl;fs; epyf;fhp>ngl;Nuhypak; fdpkq;fs; Nghd;wd.
ml;ltiz 7.6 vOj;jwpTtpfpjk;

fzf;nfLg;GMz;L fy;tpawpTngw;wth;fs; Mz;fs; ngz;fs;
1951 18.3 27.2 8.9
2001 64.8 75.3 53.7
2011 74.04 82.1 65.5
(Source :Registar General of India)
ml;ltiz 7.4 ghypdtpfpjk;

fzf;nfLg;GMz;L ghypdtpfpjk; (1000 Mz;fSf;Fcs;sngz;fs; tPjk;)
1951 946
2001 933
2011 940
kf;fs; njhifmlh;j;jp
Mz;L kf;fs; njhifmlh;j;jp (xUrJufpNyhkPl;lhpy; cs;skf;fs;)
1951 117
2001 325
2011 382

ml;ltiz 7.5 tho;ehs; vjph;ghh;g;G

Mz;L Mz;fs; ngz;fs; nkhj;jk;
1951 32.5 31.7 32.1
1991 58.6 59.0 58.7
2001 61.6 63.3 62.5
2011 62.6 64.2 63.5
ml;ltiz 7.1 kf;fs; njhifmsT
fzf;nfLg;GMz;L kf;fs; njhif (Nfhbfspy;) ruhrhpMz;Ltsh;r;rp
1901 23.84 -
1911 25.21 0.56
1921 25.13 -0.03
1931 27.90 1.04
1941 31.87 1.33
1951 36.11 1.25
1961 43.92 1.96
1971 54.81 2.20
1981 68.33 2.22
1991 84.33 2.16
2001 102.70 1.97
2011 121.02 1.66
gpwg;Gkw;Wk; ,wg;GtPjk;
Mz;L gpwg;GtPjk; ,wg;GtPjk;
1951 39.9 27.4
2001 25.4 8.4
2011 21.8 7.11
Kd;NdwpaehLfspd; ,ay;Gfs; :
1. cah;e;jehl;LtUkhdk; tsh;r;rp
2. cah;e;jjdpegh; tUkhdk;
3. cah;e;jtho;f;ifj; juk;
4. KO Ntiytha;g;G
5. njhopy;Jiwapd; Mjpf;fk;
6. cah; njhopy; El;gk;
7. njhopw;nrwpT
8. mjpfEfh;rr; pepiy
9. mjpfefh;kakhjy;
10. rPhpanghUshjhutsh;r;rp
11. rKjha>rkj;Jtk;>ghypdrkj;Jtk; kw;Wk; kpff; Fiwe;jtWikepiy
12. murpay; epiyj;jd;ikkw;Wk; ey;yMl;rp

nkhj;jehl;Lkfpo;r;rpf; FwpaPL (GNHI) : “nkhj;jehl;Lkfpo;r;rp”vd;wnjhlh; 1972 Mk;

Mz;LG+lhd; ehl;bd; ehd;fhtJkd;duhd [pf;Nk–rpq;Na–thq;Rf; vd;gtuhy;
cUthf;fg;gl;lJ. ,Jepiyj;jKd;Ndw;wk;>Rw;Wr;#oy;
ghJfhg;G>fyhr;rhuNkk;ghL>rpwe;jeph;thfk; Mfpatw;iwcs;slf;fpajhFk;.
myF–8 ,e;jpag; nghUshjhuk; Rje;jpuj;jpw;FKd;dUk; gpd;dUk;
Kjy; %d;WehLfs; (HDI) : ehh;Nt (0.949)> M];jpNuypah (0.939)>Rtpl;rh;yhe;J (0.939)
epjpMNahf; :jpl;lf;FOvd;gjw;Fkhw;whfepjpMNahf; vd;Dk; mikg;G 2015 Mk; Mz;L

[dthp 1 Mk; NjjpVw;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
,JePbj;jepiyahdtsh;r;rpiaNkw;ghh;itaplTk;>xUq;fpizf;fTk; kw;Wk; nray;gLj;jTk;
nray;gLk;. epjpMNahf; vd;gJ ,e;jpamurpd; jpl;lq;fisAk; nfhs;iffisAk;
fz;fhzpf;Fk; mwpTikakhFk;. Njrpakw;Wk; rh;tNjrnghUshjhuKf;fpaj;Jtk;
tha;e;jeilKiwfisAk;>Gjpanfhs;iffisAk;
Vw;gLj;jTk;>jdpg;gl;lgpur;rpidfSf;fhdMjuitAk; jUk;.
,Jrhh;e;jrhjidfisGhpe;Jnfhs;sjdpg;gl;lMuha;rr ; piaNkw;nfhs;sNtz;Lk;.
kf;fs; njhifmlh;j;jp
,lk; cjtp
&h;Nfyh (xhprh) n[h;kdpmuR
gpyha; (kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;) u~;ahmuR
Jh;fhG+h; (Nkw;Ftq;fhsk;) ,q;fpyhe;JmuR
nghfhNuh ([hh;fz;l;) u~;amuR
gh;dG+h; (Nkw;Ftq;fhsk;) jdpj;JiwapypUe;Jngwg;gl;lJ
tprhfg;gl;bdk; (Me;jpuh) u~;amuR
ngh;d;G+h; (Nkw;Ftq;fhsk;) jdpahh; JiwaplkpUe;J 1976 – y; ngwg;gl;lJ
Nryk; (jkpo;ehL) ,e;jpamuR (ntspehl;Lcjtp ,y;iy)
tp[a efh; (fh;ehlfh) ,e;jpamuR
gj;uhtjp (fh;ehlfh) ehl;Likahf;fg;gl;ltp];Nt];uah ,Uk;G v/F
epWtdk; (kj;jpakhepymuRf;Fnrhe;jk;)
1969 – 50 Nfhbf;FNky; itg;Gj;njhifnfhz;l14 tq;fpfs; Njrpakakhf;fg;gl;ld

1980 – 200 Nfhbf;FNky; itg;Gj; njhifnfhz;l 6 tq;fpfs; Njrpakakhf;fg;gl;ld
19 [{iy 1969 15 Vg;uy; 1980
1. myfhghj; tq;fp 1. Me;jpuhtq;fp
2. ghq;f; Mg; gNuhlh 2. fhh;g;gNu~d; tq;fp
3. ghq;f; Mg; kfhuh~;buh 3. epA+ ghqf; Mg; ,e;jpah

4. fduhtq;fp 4. Xhpad;ly; ghq;f; Mg; fhkh;];

5. kj;jpatq;fp 5. gQ;rhg; - rpe;Jtq;fp
6. Njdhtq;fp 6. tp[ah tq;fp
7. ,e;jpad; tq;fp
8. ,e;jpad; Xth;rP]; tq;fp
9. gQ;rhg; Ne~dy; tq;fp
10. rpd;bNfl; tq;fp
11. A+dpad; tq;fp
12. Aidnll; tq;fp
13. A+Nfhtq;fp
14. ghq;f; Mg; ,e;jpah
Mq;fpNyah; fhytuyhW : Mq;fpNyah; fhyj;jpy;
 Mq;fpNyah; EioTf;FKd; ,e;jpag; nghUshjhuk; fpuhkj;ijr; rhh;e;Jtho;e;Jte;jJ.

mg;NghJfpuhkg; nghUshjhukhdJRarhh;Gg; nghUshjhukhf ,Ue;jJ.
 nghUshjhukw;Wk; mikg;GhPjpahd ,e;jkhw;wk;
,e;jpanghUshjhuepiyiagpd;jq;fpaepiyf;Fj; js;spaJ. gpur;rpidfs; midj;Jk;
cly;eyk;>FbapUg;G>Foe;ijfs; kw;Wk; ngz;fs; eyd; kw;Wk;
ciog;ghsh;fs;>nghOJNghf;F>Fw;wq;fs; kw;Wk; r%fr;rPh;FiyTMfpatw;iwr;
rhh;e;jjhfNt ,Ue;jd. ,e;jgpur;ridfs; fhuzkhfxOq;Fwmikf;fg;gl;lr%fgzpfspd;
Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpw;fhdNjitczug;gl;lJ.
njhopw;nfhs;iffs; : njhopw;nfhs;if 1948 :

ikamurpd; Kw;Whpik : ,uapy;Nt> ,uhZtj;jsthlq;fs;>mZMw;wy;>jghy;JiwNghd;wit
,e;jpamurpd; Kw;Whpikapd; fPo; nray;gLk;.
khepymurpd; Kw;Whpik : ,aw;iftsq;fshdepyf;fhp> v/F>tpkhdcjphpghfq;fs;
jahhpg;G>thfdcw;gj;jp>fk;gpapy;yhnjhlh;Grhjdq;fs; kw;Wk; vz;nza; tsq;fs;
Nghd;witkhepymurpd; Kw;Whpikapd; fPo; nray;gLk;.
xOq;Fg;gLj;jg;glhjjdpahh; mikg;Gfs; : Nkw;fhz ,uz;by; cs;slq;fhj Vida
njhopy;fspy; jdpahh; mikg;Gfs; kw;Wk; $l;LwTmikg;Gfs; <Lglyhk;.
kdpjNkkghl;Lf; FwpaPL (HDI) : HDI–vd;gijghfp];jhd; ehl;ilr; rhh;e;jnghUspay; mwpQh;

kÀ+g; cy; `f; (Mahbul al Haq) vd;gtUk;> ,e;jpahitr; Nrh;e;jmkh;j;jpahFkhh; nrd;
mth;fSk; 1990 ,y; Nkk;gLj;jpdh;. ,jidIf;fpaehLfs; Kd;Ndw;wjpl;lk; (UNDP)
ntspapl;lJ. ,Jvjph;ghh;f;fg;gLk; tho;ehs; FwpaPL. fy;tpf; FwpaPL kw;Wk; nkhj;jcs;ehl;L
cw;gj;jp mbg;gilapy; mikf;fg;gl;lJ.

njhopw;nfhs;if 1956 : kfyNdhgprpd; tsh;r;rpkhjphpapd; mbg;gilapy; mikf;fg;gl;lJ.

,JePz;lfhynghUshjhutsh;r;rpf;Ffdufnjhopy;Jiwapd;
Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijczh;j;jpaJnjhopw;nfhs;if 1956 ,y; njhopy;fs; %d;Wtifahfg;
gphpf;fg;gl;ld.
17 –njhopy;fs; : ,uzpy;Nt>thd;topNghf;Ftuj;J> ,uhZtj; jsthlq;fs; kw;wk;

ntbkUe;Jfs;> ,Uk;Gkw;Wk; v/F>mZMw;wy; Nghd;wnjhopy;fs; ,jpy; mlq;Fk;.
12 –njhopy;fs; : khepymuRnrhe;jkhff; nfhz;bUf;Fk;

,e;jnjhopy;fSf;Fjdpahh;JiwJizahf ,Uf;Fk; vdvjph;ghh;f;fg;gl;lJ.
%d;whtJgphpT : Nkw;fhz; njhopy;fs; jtph;j;J Vida njhopy;fs;
jdpahh;JiwNahmy;yJmuRj;JiwNahtsh;r;rpiaNehf;fkhff; nfhz;Lnray;gljilapy;iy.
GjpaNtshz; Aj;jpgy;NtWngah;fspy; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. GjpaNtshz; njhopy; El;gk;>tpij–

cuq;fs; - jz;zhP ; njhopy;El;gk; my;yJ vspjhf gRik Gul;rp vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ
myF–9 ,e;jpahtpd; Nkk;ghLmDgtq;fs;
ml;ltiz 9.1 czTg;nghUs; fopTfs; (%)

gaph;fs; $l;Ltpuaq;fs; (rjtPjq;fspy;)
jhdpaq;fs; 5–6
gUg;G tiffs; 6–8
vz;nza; tpj;Jf;fs; 3 – 10
goq;fs; kw;Wk; fha;fwpfs; 5 – 16
ghy; 1
kPd; tsk; (epyj;jpy;) 5
kPd; tsk; (flypy;) 10
,iwr;rp 3
Nfhop 7
(Mjhuk; : %y czTgjg;gLj;Jk; njhopw;rhiyapd; mikr;rfk; -
,e;jpamuR 2016)
KjyPlL
; tpyf;fy; (DIS INVESTMENT) : KjyPlL
; tpyf;fy; vd;gJnghJj;Jiw epWtdq;fs;
gq;Ffis gpw jdpahh; epWtdq;fs; my;yJ tq;fpfSf;F tpw;gJ. KjyPlL ; tpyf;fk;
KOtJkhf eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gltpy;iy.

coth; fld; ml;ilj;jpl;lk; : coth; fld; ml;il>fprhd; fpnubl; fhh;l; (KCC) vd;gJfld;
Njitg;gLfpwxUtptrhapapd; jFjpf;Nfw;gfld; kpfvspjhfkw;Wk; rhpahdNeuj;jpy;
toq;Ftjw;fhdXh; Vw;ghlhFk;. ,J 1998 Mk; Mz;by; ,e;jpaikatq;fpkw;Wk;
“tptrhakw;Wk; fpuhkg;GwNkk;ghl;Lf;fhdNjrpatq;fp”(National Bank for Agricultural and Rural
Development – NABARD)Mfpatw;why; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. tptrhapfs;
flDf;fhfKiwrhuhtq;fpfisr; rhh;e;jpUg;gijf; Fiwg;gNjmjd; Nehf;fkhFk;.
Kiwrhuhtq;fpfspy; fld; ngWtJvspJ>Mdhy; tl;btPjk; mjpfk;. ,e;jfld;
ml;iliagpuhe;jpafpuhkg;Gw> $l;LwTkw;Wk; nghJj;Jiwtq;fpfs; toq;Ffpd;wd. NkYk;
muRKCCml;iliakpd; jfty; fld; ml;ilahf (Smart card cum debit card)
khw;wptoq;fmwpTWj;jpAs;sJ.
myF– 10 CufnghUshjhuk;
];Nyl;lhpd; fpuhkq;fs; fpy;ngh;l]

; ;Nyl;lh; vd;gth; nrd;idgy;fiyf;fofj;jpd; Kjy;
nghUshjhuNguhrphpah;. ,th; jdJkhzth;fisf; nfhz;Lrpyfpuhkq;fisMa;Tnra;jhh;.
tlkiyAk; (uhkehGuk;)>fq;ifnfhz;lhd; (jpUney;Ntyp)>ghyf;Fwpr;rp (jQ;rhT+h;) kw;Wk; Jrp
(tlMw;fhL) Mfpajkpo;ehl;by; cs;srpyfpuhkq;fisMa;Tnra;J 1918 Mk; Mz;L rpy
njd;dpe;jpa fpuhkq;fs; vd;wGj;jfj;ij ntspapl;lhh;. ,jidnjhlh;e;J gy;NtW Muha;rr ; p
FOtpdUk; ,jid 1930> 1950 kw;Wk; 1960 Mk; Mz;Lfspy; Ma;Tnra;jdh;. ,jpy;
,uz;Lfpuhkq;fs; kl;Lk; 21 Mk; E}w;whz;Lf;FKe;ijafhyfl;lj;jpy; Ma;Tnra;ag;gl;ljhFk;.
,e;j kW Ma;tpy; Kf;fpakhdtuyhw;Wg; gjpTfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
,e;jfpuhkq;fisMa;Tnra;Ak; gpwMuha;rr ; pahsh;fSf;Ftopfhl;bahfmikfpwJkw;Wk;
gpw;fhyMuha;r;rpahsh;fSf;F Kd;khjphpahf tpsq;FfpwJ. ,e;jMa;tpd; %yk;
CufgFjpfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wq;fis gw;wp ehk; mwpe;Jnfhs;syhk;.
,e;jpahtpd; CufrhiygFjp 26.50 ,yl;rk; fp.kPMFk;. ,jpy; 13.5 rjtPjk; gFjpfspy;

kl;LNkrhiyfs; Nghlg;gl;Ls;sd. ,e;jpahtpd; rhiynjhlh;Gtrjpmikg;Gfs;
cyfpNyNanghpamikg;GfSs; xd;whFk;. 1950 –51 ,y; 4 ,yl;rk; fp.kPl;lh; ePskhf ,Ue;j
,e;jpar; rhiyfspd; ePsk; jw;NghJ 2018 ,y; 34 ,yl;rk; fp.kPl;lh; MFk;.
NABARD SHGtq;fp ,izg;Gjpl;lj;jpd;gbcWg;gpdh;fs;

flidrhpahfjpUg;gpnrYj;jpagjpititj;jpUf;Fk; Ra cjtpf; FOf;fs; tq;fpapy; fld; ngw
,aYk;. 2005 – 2006 Mk; Mz;by; njd; khepyq;fshdMe;jpug;gpuNjrk;>jkpo;ehL>Nfushkw;Wk;
fh;ehlfhMfpaitntw;wpfukhfnray;gl;Ls;sd. ,k;khepyq;fs; 60 % Ra cjtpf; FOf;fs;
tq;fp ,izg;Gfld; trjpiangw;Ws;sd. (jUzhkw;Wk; ahjt;> 2016)

tWikxopg;Gj; jpl;lq;fs;
jpl;lq;fs; njhlq;fg;gl;lMz;L
20 mk;rjpl;lk; 1975
xUq;fpize;jCuftsh;r;rpj; jpl;lk; (IRDP) 1978
Cuf ,isQh;fSf;fhd Ra Ntiytha;g;Ggapw;rp 1979
(TRISEM)
Ntiyf;FczTj;jpl;lk; (FWP) 1977
NjrpaCufNtiytha;g;Gj; jpl;lk; (NREP) 1980
Cufepykw;Nwhh; Ntiytha;g;GcWjpj;jpl;lk; (RLEGP) 1983
[t`h; Ntiytha;g;Gj; jpl;lk; (JRY) 1989
kfhj;khfhe;jpNjrpaCufNtiytha;g;GcWjpj;jpl;lk; 2006
(MGNREGS)
gpuhjhd; ke;jphpMjh;~; fpuhkrjf; ah[dh (PMAGSY) 2010
ghuj; eph;khd; Nah[dh 2005
,e;jpuMth]; Nah[dh 1985 – 1986
[t`h;yhy; NeUNjrpaefh;g;GwkWrPuikg;Gj; jpl;lk; (JNNURM) 2005
uh[Pt; Mth]; Nah[dh (RAY) 2009
NjrpaCufeyj;jpl;lk; 2005
NjrpaCuftho;thjhujpl;lk; 2011
NjrpaczTg; ghJfhg;Gj; jpl;lk; 2013
2009 – 10 Mk; Mz;bd;gb 1.59 kpy;ypad; Gjpa Ra cjtpf; FOf;fs; ,f;fld; ngWk;
trjpNahL ,izf;fg;gl;ldkw;Wk; tq;fpfs; %yk; Racjtpf; FOf;fSf;F&.14>453
Nfhbfldhftoq;fg;gl;lJ. 2010 khh;r; Kbtpy; 6.95 kpy;ypad; Ra cjtpf; FOf;fs; tq;fpfspy;
Nrkpg;Gfzf;ifitj;jpUe;jdh;.
,e;jpahtpy; 2015 Mk; Mz;Lr%fnghUshjhukw;Wk; rhjphPjpahdfzf;fPl;bd;gb73%kf;fs;

CufgFjpfspy; trpf;fpd;wdh;. ,jpy; 18.5% kf;fs; jho;j;jg;gl;ltFg;igr; rhh;e;jth;fs;>
11%kf;fs; goq;Fbapdh;.
gzpf;fhdgbg;G (Jobs Study) vd;wMa;tpw;fhfgPl;lh; lakz;l;>Nly; khh;bd;fd; kw;Wk;

fpwp];Nlhh; gprhhpl;]; MfpanghUhjhumwpQh;fs; 2010 Mk;
Mz;bw;fhdnghUshjhuj;jpw;fhdNehgy; ghprpidgfph;e;Jnfhz;ldh;. ,th;fs;
cUthf;fpaKiwf;Fmy;yJNfhl;ghl;bw;FDMPKiwvdg;gLk;. nghUshjhunfhs;iffs; kw;Wk;
xOq;FKiwfs; vg;gbNtiyapd;ik>Ntiyf;fhdfhypaplq;fs; kw;Wk;
$ypMfpatw;iwghjpf;fpwJvdmwpe;Jnfhs;sDMPKiwcjTfpwJ.

myF– 11 jkpo;ehl;Lg; nghUshjhuk;
ml;ltiz 11.14 cah;fy;tpapy; nkhj;jNrh;f;iftPjk;

khepyk; 2015 – 16 2016 – 17
jkpo;ehL 44.3 46.9
kfhuh~;buh 29.9 30.2
cj;jpug;gpuNjrk; 24.5 24.9
xbrh 19.6 21.0
gPfhh; 14.3 14.4
nkhj;j ,e;jpah 24.5 25.2
(Mjhuk; :midj;J ,e;jpacah; fy;tpf;fhdtpguk; -
kdpjtsNkk;ghl;Lke;jphprigapd; [dthp 2018 mwpf;if)
ml;ltiz 11.10 mZkpd; Mw;wy;

myF Vw;fdNtepWtg;gl;Ls;sjpwd; msT
$lq;Fsk; 1834 MW ( 2X 917)
fy;ghf;fk; 470 MW (2 X 235)
(Mjhuk; :kj;jpakpd; Jiwmikr;rfk; - [dthp 2017
mwpf;if)
ml;ltiz 11.13 jkpo;ehLnjhlf;ff; fy;tpGs;sptpguk;

jkpo;ehLnjhlf;ff; fy;tpGs;sptpguk; - 2014 – 15
Jtf;fg; gs;spfs; 35,514
gs;spfspd; eLepiyg; gs;spfs; 9,708
vz;zpf;if cah;epiykw;Wk; Nky;epiyg; 12,911
gs;spfs;
(Mjhuk; :jkpofmurpd; ,ilf;fhygl;n[l; 2016 – 17)
ml;ltiz 11.12 #hpa rf;jpkpd;rhuk;

juthpir khepyk; nkhj;jjpwd; 31 [dthp
2017 (nkfhthl;)
1 jkpo;ehL 1590.97
2 uh[];jhd; 1317.64
3 F[uhj; 1159.76
4 njYq;fhdh 1073.41
5 Me;jpuh 979.65
(Mjhuk; : MNRE ypUe;Jngwg;gl;ltpguk;)

%d;whk; ,lj;jpy; jkpo;ehl;bd; Rfhjhuf; FwpaPL : jkpo;ehl;bd; Rfhjhuf; FwpaPlhdJNfusk;

gQ;rhg; khepyq;fspd; thpirapy; %d;whtJ ,lj;jpy; cs;sJ. jkpofj;jpy; gr;rpsq; Foe;ij
,wg;GtPjk; 14 MFk;. ,Jgpwkhepyq;fisf; fhl;bYk; kpff; FiwT. Nkyk; 5
taJf;Fl;gl;lFoe;ij ,wg;GtPjk; 2014 ,y; 21 MfTk;> 2015 ,y; 20 MfTk; Fiwe;Js;sJ.
(Mjhuk; :Rfhjhukhepyk; - Kw;Nghf;F ,e;jpamwpf;if– 2018 –epjpMNahf;)
ml;ltiz 11.9 njd; khepyq;fspy; epWtg;gl;lkpd; gad;ghl;Lj; jpwd;

khepyk; myFfs; juk;
jkpo;ehL 26,865 MW I
fh;ehlfh 18,641 MW II
Me;jpuh 17,289 MW III
njYq;fhdh 12,691 MW IV
Nfush 4,141 MW V
nkhj;jk; 79,627 MW
(Source : Central Electricity Authority, Ministry of Power, Government of
India.Retrived Jan 2017)
ml;ltiz 11.7 jyhtUkhdk; (&ghapy;) (2015 – 16)

gpwkhepyq;fSld; xg;gPL
khepyk; jdpegh; tUkhdk; (&ghapy;)
jkpo;ehL 1,57,116
Nfush 1,53,516
fh;ehlfh 1,46,416
njYq;fhdh 1,58,360
Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; 1,37,000
(Mjhuk; :kj;jpakpd; Jiwmikr;rfk; - [dthp 2017
mwpf;if)
ml;ltiz 11.1 ghrdj;jpw;fhdMjhuq;fs;

ghrdtptuq;fs; vz;zpf;if
mizf;fl;Lfs; 81
fhy;tha;fs; 2239
FSq;fs; 41262
Foha; fpzWfs; 3,20,707
jpwe;jntspfpzWfs; 14,92,359
Source : Tamil Nadu Government Season & Crop Report 2012 - 13

ml;ltiz 11.5 cyfehLfSld; jkpo;ehl;LGSDP – Xh; xg;gPL

khepyk; / Njrk; nkhj;jcs;ehl;Lcw;gj;jp
jkpo;ehL(GSDP) $ 207.8
<uhf; (GDP) $ 171
epArpyhe;J (GDP) $ 184
,yq;if(GDP) $ 81
(Mjhuk; :IMFmTl;Yf; Vg;uy; 2017)
ml;ltiz 11.11 ntg;gMw;wy;

Mjhuk; kpy;ypad; myFfs; rjtPjk;
mdy; 13304 49.52
Gdy; 2203 8.20
mZ 986 3.67
gpw (fhw;W #hpa 10372 38.61
xsp)
nkhj;jk; 26865 100.00
(Mjhuk; :kj;jpakpd; Jiwmikr;rfk; - [dthp– 2017 mwpf;if)
ml;ltiz 11.2 fdpktsq;fs;

fdpkk; ,Ug;G (ld;fspy;) ehl;bd; ,Ug;gpy;
jkpofj;jpd; gq;F
ypf;idl; 30,275,000 87 %
Nth;Fiyl; 2,000,000 66%
fhh;ndl; 23,000,000 42%
N[h;fhd; 8,000,000 38%
fpuhigl; 2,000,000 33%
nykidl; 98,000,00 28%
&l;ily; 5,000,000 27%
Nkhdirl; 2,000,000 25%
Nkf;dirl; 73,000,000 17%
ml;ltiz 11.6 jkpofjyhtUkhdk; gpwehLfSld; xg;gPL

khepyk; / Njrk; jdpegh; tUkhdk; (lhyh;fspy;)
jkpo;ehL 2200
,e;jpah 1670
ie[Phpah 2175
epfuFth 2151
ghfp];jhd; 1443
tq;fhsNjrk; 1358
[pk;ghNt 1029
Neghsk; 729

ml;ltiz 11.8 Njrpamstpy; jkpo;ehl;bd; cw;gj;jpj;jpwd; epiy

jhdpatif Njrpamstpy; jkpofepiy
kf;fhr;Nrhsk; 1
fk;G 1
fliy 1
vz;nza; tpj;Jf;fs; 1
gUj;jp 1
Njq;fha; 2
ney; 2
fUk;G (nkl;hpf; ld;) 3
#hpafhe;jp 3
Nrhsk; 3
jplkhdjhdpaq;fs; 4
nkhj;jjhdpaq;fs; 4
ml;ltiz 11.3 kf;fs; njhif

khepyk; / ehL kf;fs; njhif (Nfhbapy;)
jkpo;ehL 7.2
,q;fpyhe;J 6.5
gpuhd;]; 6.5
,j;jhyp 5.9
njd; Mg;gphpf;fh 5.6
];ngapd; 4.7
,yq;if 2.1
(Mjhuk; : 2017 y; If;fpaehLfs; $l;likg;Gntspapl;;l cyfkf;fs; njhifgl;bay;
ml;ltiz 11.4 Rfhjhuk; kw;Wk; r%ff; FwpaPLfs;

t.vz; FwpaPL jkpo;ehL ,e;jpah
1 IMR 17 34
2 IMR 79 159
3 tho;ehs; vjph;ghh;g;G 70.6 67.9
(nkhj;jk;) 68.6 66.4
Mz;fs; 72.7 69.6
ngz;fs;
4 fy;tpawpTtPjk; (nkhj;jk;) 80.33% 74.04%
Mz;fs; 86.81% 82.14%
ngz;fs; 73.86% 65.46%
5 ghypdtpfpjk; 995 940
gpw;Nrh;f;if– 1
jkpo;ehl;Lkf;fs; njhiftsh;r;rp (2011 fzf;nfLg;gpd; gb)
 nkhj;jkf;fs; njhif - 72138958
- 36158871

 Mz;fs; - 35980087
 ngz;fs;
- 15.7
 Njhuhagpwg;Gtpfpjk; (Mapuj;Jf;F)
 Njhuha ,wg;Gtpfpjk; (Mapuj;Jf;F) - 7.4
 tsh;r;rptpfpjk; (Mapuj;Jf;F)
 mjpfkf;fs; - 8.3
njhifAilakhtl;lq;fs; - nrd;id>fhQ;rpGuk;>NtY}h;>jpUth&
 Fiwthdkf;fs; h;
njhifAilakhtl;lq;fs;
- nguk;gY}h;>ePyfphp>mhpaY}h;>Njdp
 kf;fs; njhifmlh;j;jp
(rJufpNyhkPl;lUf;F)
- 555 (2011) – 480 (2001)
 kpfmjpfmlh;j;jp
 Fiwthdmlh;j;jpcs;skhtl;lk; - nrd;id (26903)>fd;dpahFkhhp
 ghypdtpfpjk; (1000 Mz;fSf;F) (1106)
- ePyfphp (288)>jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp (602)
 mjpfghypdtpfpjk; - 995 ngz;fs; (2011), 987 ngz;fs;
nfhz;lkhtl;lq;fs; (2001)
- ePyfphp (1041 ngz;fs;)

 Fiwthdghypdtpfpjk; fd;dpahFkhp (1031 ngz;fs;)
cilakhtl;lq;fs; ehfg;gl;bdk; (1025 ngz;fs;)
- Njdp (900 ngz;fs;) jh;kGhp (946

 Foe;ijghypdtpfpjk; (0 – 6
ngz;fs;)
taJf;Fl;gl;l)
 mjpfFoe;ijghypdtpfpjk; - 946 ngz; Foe;ijfs; (2011)
nfhz;lkhtl;lq;fs; 942 ngz; Foe;ijfs; (2001)
 FiwthdFoe;ijghypdtpfpjk;
nfhz;lkhtl;lq;fs; - ePyfphp (985)>fd;dpahFkhp (964)
 vOj;jwpTtpfpjk;
- flY}h; (896)>mhpaY}h; (897)
 Mz; vOj;jwpTtpfpjk;
- 80.33% - (2011) 73.45% (2001)
 ngz; vOj;jwpTtpfpjk;
- 86.81% - (2011) 83.33% (2001)
 mjpfvOj;jwpTtpfpjk;
nfhz;lkhtl;lq;fs; - 73.86% - (2011) 64.55% (2001)
 Fiwe;jvOj;jwpTnfhz;lkhtl;lq;f - fd;dpahFkhp
s; (92.41%),nrd;id(90.33%)
- jUkGhp (64.71%),mhpaY}h;
(71.99%)

myF– 5 kf;fshl;rp
uhgh;l; lhtpd; Nfhl;ghl;by; gpd;GxUjpUj;jk; nra;ag;gl;lJ. mnkhpf;fhtpy; kf;fshl;rpnray;gLk;

tpjj;ijrpwg;ghftpthpg;gjw;fhfcUf;Fiye;jFOthl;rpvd;wNfhl;ghl;bidKd;dpwf;fme;jjpUj;jj;
ijuhgh;l; lhy; nra;jhh;.
kf;fshl;rpgw;wpamwpQh;fspd; fUj;Jf;fs; :
 kf;fshl;rpNarkjh;kj;jpw;fhdghijMFk; -fhh;y; khh;f;]; (Karl Marx)

 kf;fshl;rpkf;fshy; kf;fSf;fhfNtkf;fshyhdmurhq;fKiwMFk;.
- Mg;ufhk; ypq;fd;
 vspNahUf;Fk; typNahUf;Fk; rktha;g;Gtoq;Fjy; kf;fshl;rpapy; kl;LNk
eilngWk; vd;gNjvd; fUj;J. ,J td;Kiwaw;wtopapy; kl;LNkrhj;jpag;glNtz;Lk;
- kfhj;khfhe;jp (Mahatma Gandhi)
G+lhdpy; xUtuyhw;Wrpwg;Gkpf;fkhw;wk; : G+lhdpd; ehd;fhtJmurh; [pf;Nkrpq;fNahthq;rf; (Jigme

Singye Wangchuck) G+lhdpd; 20 khtl;lq;fSf;Fg; gazk; nra;jhh;.
xUtuyhw;Wrpwg;Gkpf;fkhw;wj;ijtpsf;fNtme;jgazk;. G+lhdpd; murh;
me;ehLguk;giuKbahl;rpapypUe;JehlhSkd;wkf;fshl;rpKiwf;FkhwNtz;bajd; mtrpaj;ij
,e;jgazj;jpy; kf;fsplk; vLj;Jiuj;jhh;. mth; 2006 Mk; Mz;Ljhd; 34
Mz;LfhykhfKiwf;FkhwpaJ. murpd; jiytuhfG+lhd; kd;dhpd; kfd; [pf;NkNfrh; ek;nfapy;
thq;rf; (Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck) nghWg;Ngw;whh;. ,g;nghOJG+lhd;
ehlhSkd;wkf;fshl;rpianfhz;Ls;sJkw;Wk; murh; [pf;NkXh; murpayikg;gpyhdkd;duhthh;.
,uz;LNfypr; rpj;jpuq;fs; $Wk; epfo;r;rpfs; :

Neghsehl;by; Vg;uy; Gul;rpAk;>kf;fshl;rpAk; : Vg;uy; khjk; 2006 Mk; Mz;L VO fl;rp
$l;lzpvd;wkf;fshl;rpiaMjhpf;fpd;wjiyth;fs; Neghsjiyefuhdfhl;khz;LitRw;wp VO
,lq;fspy; vjph;g;G $l;lq;fiselj;jkf;fSf;Fmiog;GtpLj;jdh;. mijVw;W
$bayl;rf;fzf;fhdNeghsehl;Lkf;fs;
vNjr;rhjpfhuKbahl;rpiaKbTf;Fnfhz;LtuTk;>KOikahdkf;fshl;rpianfhz;LtuTk;
Neghsehl;LKbauRld; Nghuhlj; njhlq;fpdh;. Kd;ndg;NghJk; ,y;yhjmsTf;F ,Ue;j
,e;jNghuhl;lk; murh; fpahNde;jpuhit(King Gyanendra) gjtptpyfitj;Jkf;fshl;rpf;F top
tFj;jJ.
 kf;fhsl;rpvd;Wr%fnghUshjhukw;Wk; murpay; jsj;jpy; thOk; Xh; epjh;rdk;

nka;ikahFk;. - G.D. Nfhthh;LNfhy;
 1. kf;fshl;rpvd;gJkf;fshy; elj;jg;gLk; murhq;fk; Fwpg;ghfngUk;ghd;ikkf;fshy; MFk;.
2. kf;fshl;rpmurhq;fj;jpy; Nkyhdmjpfhuk; kf;fsplk; ,Uf;Fk;. ,e;jmjpfhuj;ijkf;fs;
NehpilahfNthmy;yJkiwKfkhfNthjq;fs; gpujpepjpfisNjh;e;njLf;fgad;gLj;Jth;.
,q;FNjh;jy;fs; rPuhd ,ilntspapYk; kw;Wk; Rje;jpukhfTk; eilngWk;.
- jhk]; n[aurd;

kf;fshl;rpjj;Jtthjpfspd; tiuaiw :
 kf;fshl;rpvd;gJxUkfpo;r;rpahdmurhq;ftifahFk;. ,t;tifmurpy;
vt;tsTFog;gq;fs; ,Ue;jhYk; ve;jtpjghFghLkpd;wpmidtUk;
rkkhfelj;jg;gLtjw;Fk; mjd; %yk; rkj;JtrKjhaj;jpw;Fkhd top cs;sJ.
- rhf;uB]; (Socrates)
 Xh; murpd; kfpikNamjd; kf;fshl;rpapy; cs;sRje;jpuk; jhd;. vdNtkf;fshl;rpahdJ
,aw;ifahfNtmurpy; Rje;jpuk; ,Uf;FkhWcUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. -
gpshl;Nlh(Plato)
 Xh; kf;fshl;rpmurikg;gpd; mbj;jsNkRje;jpuk;jhd;. kf;fs; ,ijtpUk;gf; fhuzNk>
,e;jmurikg;gpy;jhd; midtUf;Fk; rkkhdmstpy; Rje;jpuk; toq;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
- mhp];lhl;by; (Aristotle)
myF– 6 murhq;fj;jpd; tifg;ghLfs;
ey;ymurhq;fk; :
 xUkpj;jfUj;jpyhdjpirg;Nghf;F
 rpwg;ghdJkw;Wk; nray;jpwd; tha;e;jJ
 rl;lj;jpd; Ml;rpiag; gpd;gw;WfpwJ
 rkePjpg;gq;fpyhdJkw;Wk; cs;slf;fpaJ
 nghWg;ghdJ
 kWnkhopgfph;jy;
 gq;Nfw;gpyhdJ
 ntspg;gilahdJ
kpfg;goikahdmurhq;fKiwvJ?
,q;fpyhe;jpd; Kbahl;rpNakpfg; goiktha;e;jmurhq;ftbtkhFk;. Kbahl;rpapy;
kd;dh; my;yJuhzpmurpd; jiytuhf ,Ug;ghh;.
,q;fpyhe;JKbahl;rpahdJmurikg;gpyhdKbahl;rpvdmiof;fg;gLfpwJ. kd;dh;
murpDilajiytuhf ,Ue;jhYk;
rl;lkpaw;wf;$bajFjpNjh;e;njLf;fg;gl;lehlhSkd;wj;jplNkcs;sJvd;gJ ,jd;
nghUshFk;.
$l;lhl;rpkw;Wk; xw;iwahl;rpmurhq;fj;jpw;fpilNaahdNtWghLfs;
t.vz; xw;wiahl;rp $l;lhl;rp
1 xUmLf;Fmurhq;fk; kw;Wk; ,uz;LmLf;Fmurhq;fk;
JizmyFfs;
2 ngUk;ghYk; xw;iwFbAhpik ,ul;ilf; FbAhpik
3 JizmyFfs; Rje;jpukhfr; $l;lhl;rpmyFfs;

nray;gl ,ayhJ kj;jpamuRf;Fcl;gl;Lnray;glNtz;Lk;

4 mjpfhug; gfph;Tvd;gJfpilahJ mjpfhug; gfph;Tvd;gJ ,Uf;Fk;
5 mjpfhuf; Ftpg;G mjpfhug; gutyhf;fk;
t.vz; ehL ehlhSkd;wk;

1 ,];Nuy; nenrl;
2 n[h;kdp gd;l];lhf;
3 [g;ghd; lal;
4 ehh;Nt ];Nlhh;bq;
5 Neghsk; uh~;bhpagQ;rhaj;J
6 ghfp];jhd; Njrpa rig
7 u~;ah ^kh
8 mnkhpf;fh fhq;fpu];
9 njd; Mg;gphpf;fh ehlhSkd;wk;
10 Rtpl;rh;yhe;J $l;lhl;rp rig
“cyftq;fpcyfNkk;ghl;Lmwpf;if 1997 :khwptUk; #oypy; murpd; epiy” :

,e;jmwpf;ifahdJNtfkhfkhwptUk; cyf #oypy; muRvt;tifapy; ehl;bd; tsh;r;rpapy;
rpwg;ghfg; gq;fspf;fyhk; vd;gijf; Fwpj;jjhFk;. muRvd;dnra;aNtz;Lk;
vt;thWnra;aNtz;Lk; vd;gJld; muRjd;idvt;thWNkk;gLj;jpf; nfhs;syhk; vd;gdFwpj;Jk;
,t;twpf;ifapy; tpthjk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. ikag;gLj;jg;gl;ljpl;lkply; kw;Wk;
fyg;GnghUshjhuk; rhh;e;jmurhq;fq;fs; jw;Nghijafhyfl;lj;jpy; re;ijrhh;e;jgq;fpidf;
Fiwj;Jf; nfhz;LtUfpd;wd. ,jw;Fj; Njhy;tpapy; KbAk; murpd; jiyaPLfs; fhuzkhFk;.
,t;twpf;ifNkw;$wpafUj;Jf;FvjpuhfrpyKf;fpakhdjUzq;fspy; murpd; jiyaPLre;ijapy;
Njitvd;gijtypAWj;JfpwJ. nghUshjhuk; rhh;e;jepWtdr; #oypy; rl;lj;jpd; Ml;rpiar;
nray;gLj;Jk; gq;Fmurpw;Fcs;sJ.
NkYk; ehl;bd; Nkk;ghl;bw;Fmurpd; re;ijrhh;e;jjiyaPLmj;jpahtrpak; vdfUJfpwJ.

murhq;fj;ijFiwe;jgl;rmurhfRUf;Ftjw;F ,J vjph;g;Gnjhptpf;fpwJ. NkYk; jdpahh;
njhopy;fs; kw;Wk; jdpkdpjh;fs; nray;ghLfSf;FjFe;jCf;fk; kw;Wk; Mjutpidey;Fk;
rpwg;ghdmuNrNkk;ghl;bw;Fj; Njitvdtpsq;FfpwJ.
,t;twpf;ifmurpw;FrpyrPh;jpUj;jq;fistypAWj;JfpwJ. Kjyhtjhf>murpd;
nray;ghLfisAk;>mjd; jpwd;fisAk; rkd;gLj;Jjypy; ftdk; nrYj;Jjy; kw;Wk;
,uz;lhtjhfmurpd; jpwd;fisNkk;gLj;Jtjw;FmuRepWtdq;fiskhw;wpaikg;gjw;fhd top
Kiwfisfz;LzuNtz;Lk;. ,t;twpf;ifapd;gb>gpd;tUk; Ie;Jmbg;gilg;
gzpfismurhq;fk; jdJNehf;fq;fshfNkw;nfhs;sNtz;Lk;. ,it ,y;iynad;why;
epiyahd>tWikapy;yhjkw;Wk; midtUf;Fkhdtsh;r;rpiaehk; miltJrhj;jpakw;wjhFk;.
mitahtd :
1. ehl;by; mbg;gilr; rl;lj;ijepWTjy;
2. Nghpay; nghUsjhuepiyj;jd;ikiaghJfhj;jy;
3. mbg;gilfl;likg;Gkw;Wk; r%fg; ghJfhg;gpy; KjyPLnra;jy;
4. r%fj;jpy; vspjpy; ,yf;fhFk; epiyapy; cs;sth;fisghJfhj;jy;
5. Rw;Wr; #oy; ghJfhg;G

ehlhSkd;wKiwmurhq;fj;jpw;Fk;>FbauRj; jiyth; Kiwmurhq;fj;jpw;Fk;

,ilNaahdNtWhLfs;
t.vz; FbauRj; jiyth; Kiwmurhq;fk; ehlhSkd;wKiwmurhq;fk;
1 FbauRj; jiyth; kf;fshy; ehlhSkd;wj;jpy;
NeubahfNjh;e;njLf;fg;gLfpwhh; ngUk;ghd;ikiaf; nfhz;lmurpay;
fl;rpapd;
jiytNugpujkke;jphpahthh;
2 FbauRj; jiytNuNkyhdmjpfhuk; kj;jparl;lkd;wNkNkyhdmjpfhuk;
ngw;wth; nfhz;ljhFk;.
3 mjpfhug; gphptpid mjpfhug;
gphptpidfpilahJmjpfhuk;
ikag;gLj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;
4 Rje;jpukhdfpisfs; xd;Wld;
xd;Wfye;jgzpfiscilaRje;jpu
khdfpisfs;
5 FbauRj; jiytNumurpd; jiytuhthh; FbauRj; jiytNumurpd;
jiytuhthh;
6 FbauRj; jiytNumurhq;fj;jpd; gpujkke;jphpNamurhq;fj;jpd;
jiytuhthh; jiytuhthh;
7 FbauRj; jiytNujiyikg; $lLj;jiyik
gzpiaVw;fpwhh;
8 FbauRj; jiyth; ehlhSkd;wj;jpw;F ehlhSkd;wj;jpy; $l;Lg;
(fhq;fpu];) nghWg;ghdth; fpilahJ nghWg;gzh;Tkw;Wk;
jdpg;nghWg;gzh;Tcz;L
t.vz; tifapdk; tiffs; ehLfs;

FbauRj; jiyth; mnkhpf;fh
Kiwmurhq;fk;
ehlhSkd;wKiwmurhq;fk; ,q;fpyhe;J> ,e;jpah
Neubkf;fshl;rp Rtpl;rh;yhe;J
kiwKfkf;fshl;rp ,e;jpah
murhq;fj;jpd; KOikahdKbahl;rp–
1
Kiwfs; g/iud;
Kbahl;rp murikg;gpyhdKbahl;r–
[g;ghd;
fhkd; nty;j; gFjpfs; -
M];jpNuypah
rh;thjpfhuk; `pl;yhpd; n[h;kdp>KNrhypapd;
,j;jhyp
kjr;rhh;gpd;ik ,e;jpah
2 rkaMl;rp ghfp];jhd;><uhd;>thbfs;>Negh
sk;
Xuitrl;lkd;wk; rPdh
epyg;gug;Grhh;e;jmjp
3 <uitrl;lkd;wk; ,q;fpyhe;J>mnkhpf;fh>
fhug; gq;fPL
,e;jpah
nrayhl;rpapd; xw;iwnrayhl;rpkhjphp mnkhpf;fh
4 tiffs; gd;iknrayhl;rpkhjphp gpuhd;];

Rje;jpukhdJ midj;Jkf;fshl;rpehLfs;
ePjpj;Jiwapd;
5 mh;g;gzpg;GcWjpailaJ Kd;dhs; Nrhtpaj; u~;a
tiffs;
FbauR
nefpohjJkw;Wk; mnkhpf;fh
vOjg;gl;lJ
murikg;gpd; jd;ik nefpOk; / nefpoh ,e;jpah
6
nefpOk; ,q;fpyhe;J
jd;ikAilaJkw;Wk;
vOjg;glhjJ
murpd; jd;ik Kjyhspj;Jtk; mnkhpf;fh
(Nehf;fk;>yl;rpak; nghJTilik fpa+gh>rPdh>tlnfhhpah
7 kw;Wk; nfhs;iffs; rkjh;kk; u~;ah
mbg;gilapyhdJ)
fl;Lg;ghLfs; kw;Wk; rkepiyfs; (FbauRj; jiyth; Kiw)
If;fpamnkhpf;fFbauR–Checks and Balances (Presidential form):
rl;lkd;wg; gphptpd; kPjhdfl;Lg;ghLfs; :
 rl;lq;fisKd;nkhopayhk;
 rl;lq;fisuj;Jnra;jy; fhq;fpurpd; rpwg;Gf; $l;lj; njhlh;fSf;Fmiof;fyhk;
 epakdq;fs; nra;jy;
 ntspehl;Lldhdcld;gbf;iffSf;fhdNgr;Rthh;j;ijapy; <LgLjy;
ePjpj;Jiwgphptpd; kPjhdfl;Lg;ghLfs; :
 $l;lhl;rpePjpgjpfisepakpf;fpwhh;
 $l;lhl;rpapYs;sFw;wthspfSf;Fg; nghJkd;dpg;Gtoq;fjy;
nrayhl;rpg; gphptpd; kPjhdfl;Lg;ghLfs; :
 FbauRj; jiythpd; uj;Jmjpfhuq;fiskPwpr; nray;gLk; mjpfhukpf;fjhFk;

 nrayhl;rpapd; epakdq;fiscWjpnra;jy;
 cld;gbf;iffSf;Fxg;Gjy; mspj;jy;
 Nghiug; gpufldg;gLj;Jjy;
 epjpxJf;fPLnra;jy;
 FbauRj; jiytiugjtpePf;feilKiwapd; %yk; mfw;Wjy;
ePjpj;Jiwg; gphptpd; kPjhdfl;Lg;ghLfs; :
 $l;lhl;rpapd; fPoikePjpkd;wq;fiscUthf;Fjy;
 ePjpgjpfisg; gjtpePf;fKiwapd; %yk; mfw;Wjy;
 ePjpj;Jiwapd; KbTfiskPWk; mjpfhuk; nfhz;lJld;
rl;lj;jpUj;jj;jpidKd;nkhopayhk;
 $l;lhl;rpePjpgjpfspd; epakdq;fismq;fPfhpj;jy;
nrayhl;rpg; gphptpd; kPjhdfl;Lg;ghLfs; :
 nrayhl;rpapd; eltbf;iffismurikg;gpw;FKuzhdjhfgpufldg;gLj;Jjy;
rl;lkd;wg; gphptpd; kPjhdfl;Lg;ghLfs; :
Fwpg;gplj;jf;fNkw;Nfhs; : “ve;jxUkdpjDk; jdf;F njhpahj my;yJmDgtk; ,y;yhj

Jiwapy; nray;gl tpUk;Gtjpy;iy>murhq;fk; vd;wfbdkhdkw;Wk; kpFjpahdjpwd;
Njitg;gLk; Jiwapy; <Lgljkf;Fj; jFjpcs;sjhff; fUjp midtUk;
nray;gltpUk;Gfpd;wdh;.”–rhf;uB];
murhq;fj;jpd; tifg;ghLgw;wpmhp];lhl;by; : mhp];lhl;by; ,uz;Lmbg;gilfspd; ,iztpy;

mth; gFg;gha;e;jmurikg;Gfistifg;GLj;jpAs;shh;.
mjpfhuj;jpy; kf;fs; eyk; Raeyk;

cs;Nshh;
vz;zpf;if
xd;W Kbahl;rp nfhLq;Nfhy; Ml;rp
rpyh; gpuGf;fs; Ml;rp rpWFOtpd; Ml;rp
gyh; J}amurpay; kf;fshl;rpmy;yJFk;gy; Ml;rp
mikg;G(Polity)
myF– 12 cs;shl;rpmurhq;fq;fs;
efuhl;rpepiy kf;fs; njhif

tifapdk; m xUyl;rKk; mjw;f NkYk;
tifapdk; M 50>000 Kjy; 1 yl;rk; tiu
tifapdk; , 50>000 f;FfPo;
cs;shl;rpmurhq;fq;fs;
efuk; fpuhkg;Gwk;
 khefuhl;rpfs;  khtl;lgQ;rhaj;J
 efuhl;rpfs;  gQ;rhaj;JA+dpad;
 efhpaq;fs;  fpuhkgQ;rhaj;J
 Ng&uhl;rpfs;  thh;L
 ghisathhpaq;fs;

gQ;rhaj;J uh[; (1959 – 2018) : jkpo;ehLefh;Gwrl;lq;fs; (ehd;fhtJrl;lj;jpUj;jk;) kNrhjh

2018 kw;Wk; jkpo;ehLgQ;rhaj;Jfs; (,uz;lhtJrl;lj;jpUj;jk;) kNrhjh 2018 ,uz;Lk;
Cufkw;Wk; efh;Gwcs;shl;rpmikg;Gfspd; rpwg;Gmjpfhuq;fspd; gjptpf;fhyj;ijNkYk; MW
khjq;fSf;FePl;bj;jJ.
15 khefuhl;rpfSk;> 152 efuhl;rpfSk;> 561 Ng&uhl;rpfSk; jkpofj;jpd;
efucs;shl;rpmikg;Gfshfcs;sd.
jkpo;ehl;by; 12>620 fpuhkgQ;rhaj;Jk;> 385 Cuhl;rpxd;wpaKk;> 30 khtl;lgQ;rhaj;Jk;
cs;sJ.
murikg;gpd; 12 tJml;ltiz : efuhl;rpapd; mjpfhuKk; - nghWg;GfSk; :
 efuj; jpl;lq;fs;>efuj;ijtbtikj;jy;
 fl;llq;fisfl;Ljy;>epyj;ijgad;gLj;JjiyxOq;FKiwg;gLj;Jjy;
 nghUshjhukw;Wk; r%fNkk;ghl;bw;Fjpl;lkply;
 rhiyfs; kw;Wk; ghyq;fisguhkhpj;jy;
 tPl;LcgNahfj;jpw;FFbePh; tpepNahfk; nra;jy;
 nghJr;Rfhjhuk; kw;Wk; Jg;guTgzpfisNkw;nfhs;Sjy;
 jPaizg;Ggzpfs;
 efh;GwfhLkw;Wk; Rw;Wg;Gwr; #oiy ghJfhj;jy;
 r%fj;jpy; eyptile;Njhh;>CdKw;Nwhh;>kdepiyFd;wpath;fs; eyd;fisghJfhj;jy;
 Fbirg;gFjpfisNkk;gLj;Jjy;>juj;ijcah;j;Jjy;
 efh;GwtWikxopg;G
 G+q;fhf;fs;>Njhl;lq;fs;>tpisahl;Likjhdq;fs; Nghd;wefh;GwtrjpfSf;FVw;ghLnra;jy;
 fy;tpkw;Wk; fyhr;rhumk;rq;fspd; tsh;r;rpiaCf;Ftpj;jy;
 ,LfhLkw;Wk; RLfhLikjhdq;fisguhkhpj;jy;
 fhy;eilfisFbePh; Fl;ilfs; mikj;jy; kpUftijiajilnra;jy;
 gpwg;G> ,wg;GMfpatw;wpd; gjpTld; $bakpfKf;fpakhdGs;sptptuq;fisr; Nrfhpj;jy;
 NgUe;JepWj;Jkplq;fs;>foptiw>rhiytpsf;FNghd;wnghJtrjpfisnra;JnfhLj;jy;
 tij$lq;fs; kw;Wk; Njhy; gjdpLk; njhopy;fisxOq;FgLj;Jjy;
fpuhk rig $l;lq;fs; Mz;bw;Fehd;FKiw [dthp 26 FbauRjpdk;>Nk 1 ciog;ghsh;

jpdk;>Mf];l; 15 Rje;jpujpdk; kw;Wk; mf;Nlhgh; 2 fhe;jp n[ae;jpMfpaehl;fspy;
elj;jg;gLfpwJ.,e;jpahtpd; 2011 – Mk; Mz;Lfzf;nfLg;gpd;gbVwj;jho 2>50>000
fpuhkgQ;rhaj;Jfs; cs;sd.
73 tJmurikg;Grl;ljpUj;jj;jpdhy; (1991) Vw;gLj;jg;gl;l %d;wLf;FgQ;rhaj;J uh[; mikg;G :
 khtl;lgQ;rhaj;Jfs; (Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;Nlhh; kw;Wk; epakpf;fg;gl;Nlhh;)

 Cuhl;rpxd;wpa FO (Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;Nlhh;)
 fpuhkgQ;rhaj;J (Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;Nlhh;)
 fpuhk rig (xUfpuhkj;jpd; midj;Jthf;fhsh;fSk;) (MNyhridmikg;G)
 r%feyk; :khw;Wj;jpwdhspfs; kw;Wk; kdeyk; Fd;wpNahh; eyk; cl;gl

 eyptile;jgphptpdhpd; eyk; Fwpg;ghfgl;baypdj;jth; kw;Wk; goq;Fbapdh;
 nghJtpepNahf Kiw rKjha nrhj;Jf;fis eph;tfpj;jy
gjpNdhuhtJml;ltizgphpT (243 G)
 tptrhak; kw;Wk; tptrhatphpthf;fgzpfs;

 epyNkk;ghL>epyr;rhP ;jpUj;jq;fismky;gLj;Jjy;>epyq;fisxUq;fpizj;jy; kw;Wk;
NgZjy;
 rpwpaePh; ghrdq;fiseph;tfpj;jy;>ePh; Mjhuq;fisNkk;gLj;Jjy;
 fhy;eiltsh;g;G>Nfhoptsh;g;Gkw;Wk; ghy; gz;iz
 r%ffhLfs; kw;Wk; gz;izfhLfs;
 rpWfhLfspd; %ykhdcw;gj;jp
 rpWnjhopy;fs;>czTgjg;gLj;Jk; njhopy;fs; cl;gl
 fhjp>fpuhkk; kw;Wk; Fbirj; njhopy;fs;
 CuftPl;Ltrjp
 FbePh;
 vhpnghUs; kw;Wk; fhy;eiljPtdk;
 rhiyfs;>rpWghyq;fs;>nghpaghyq;fs;>glF>ePh;topfs;
 Cufkpd;kakhf;fy; kw;Wk; kpd; tpepNahfk;
 kuGrhuhvhprf;jpMjhuq;fs;
 tWikxopg;Gjpl;lq;fs;
njhlf;ffy;tpkw;Wk; Nky;epiyf; fy;tp
 njhopy;El;ggapw;rpkw;Wk; njhopy; fy;tp
 E}yfq;fs;
 fyhr;rhueltbf;iffs;
 Rfhjhuk; kw;Wk; Jg;guT : kUj;Jtkidfs;>Muk;gRfhjhuikaq;fs; kw;Wk;
kUe;jfq;fs; cl;gl
 FLk;geyd;
 ngz;fs; kw;Wk; Foe;ijfs; Nkk;ghL
GQ;rhaj;J uh[; (1959 – 2009) : nghd; tpohMz;L–mf;Nlhgh; 02> 1959 Mk; ehs; gz;bj
[t`h;yhy; NeUmth;fs; uh[];jhd; khepyk; efThpy; gQ;rhaj;J uh[; - f;Fmbf;fy;
ehl;bdh;. Cuf ,e;jpahitMs;tjpy; ,J xU Gul;rpfukhd gbahFk;. fpuhkq;fspd;
KOikahdtsh;r;rpkw;Wk; kf;fspd; iffspy; mjpfhuj;ijmspj;jy; vd;w Nehf;Fldhd
,e;jgazk; md;Wnjhlq;fpaJ.,ul;ilMl;rpKiw %ykhfeph;thf Jiwfs; kj;jpamuRf;F
xJf;fg;gl;lJiwfs; vdTk; khfhzmuRfSf;Fkhw;wpjug;gl;lJiwfs; vdTk; ,U
gphpTfshfgphpf;fg;gl;lJ. fhty;>rl;lk; xOq;f>epjpNghd;wJiwfs; xJf;fg;gl;l Jiwfs;
vdg;gLk;. mitMSehpd; trk; ,Uf;Fk;. fy;tpkw;Wk; gpwJiwfs; khw;wpj;
jug;gl;lJiwfshFk;. Mit Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;l gpujpepjpfsplk; ,Uf;Fk;.

myF– 13 r%fePjp
mtuJmwpf;ifapy; NkYk; gyghpe;JiufSk; ,Ue;jd. ,e;jmwpf;ifiaghprPyj;jmuR

1892 ,y; jho;j;jg;gl;lkf;fSf;F 12 yl;rk; Vf;fh; epyj;ijgphpj;Jtoq;fpaJ.
,JgQ;rkpepyk; vdmiof;fg;gl;lJ. ,NjNghyjho;j;jg;gl;Nlhhpd;
Foe;ijfSf;fhdgs;spfismuRgQ;rkh; gs;spfs; vdmioj;jJ.
‘gQ;rkh;’vd;gJitjPfkjj;jpd;gbehd;Fth;zq;fSf;Fk; ntspNaepWj;jg;gl;lkf;fisf;
Fwpf;Fk; ngah; MFk;. vdNtgQ;rkh; gs;spfs; vdmiof;fg;glNtz;Lk;
vd;WmNahj;jpjhrgz;bjh;>k.rpq;fhuNtyh; Nghd;Nwhh; $wpdh;.ehl;by; ,Uf;Fk;
gpw;gLj;jg;gl;lgphptpdhpd; Nkk;ghl;bw;fhfKjy; Mizak; 1953 Mk;
Mz;Lmikf;fg;gl;lJ. fhfhfhNyy;fh; mth;fspd; jiyikapy; mikag;ngw;w
,JNtRje;jpu ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; gpw;gLj;jg;gl;Nlhh; Mizak;.
jho;j;jg;gl;NlhUf;fhdKd;Dhpikfs; :
nrd;idkhfhzmuRjho;j;jg;gl;lkf;fSf;fhdepjpcjtpj;jpl;lq;fis 1885 ,y; mwptpj;jJ.
rpy ,lq;fspy; jho;j;jg;gl;NlhUf;fhdgs;spfismuNrjpwe;jJ.
,jw;fpilNanrq;fy;gl;Lkhtl;lMl;rpah; jphpnkd;fPNuvd;gth;
nrq;fy;gl;Lkhtl;ljho;j;jg;gl;lkf;fs; Fwpj;JxUmwpf;ifjhf;fy; nra;jhh;. mjd; RUf;fk;
tUkhW : jho;j;jg;gl;lkf;fs; r%f>nghUshjhu>fy;tphPjpahfkpfTk; Nkhrkile;Js;sdh;.
mth;fSf;Fepyk; kWf;fg;gLfpJ. tPLfl;bf;nfhs;sf; $l mDkjpf;fg;gltpy;iy.
fy;tpepuhfhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. jho;j;jg;gl;lkf;fs; mbilfshftpw;fg;gLfpwhh;fs;. Vuhskhdepyk;
Ntz;Lnkd;Nwjhprhfg; Nghlg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,jdhy; muRf;FtUtha; FiwfpwJ.
,e;jepyq;fisjho;j;jg;gl;lkf;fSf;Fgphpj;Jtoq;fyhk;.
1979 Mk; Mz;L ,e;jpamurhq;fj;jhy; gpd;jq;fpatFg;gpw;fhd ,uz;lhtJ Mizak; gp.gp

kz;ly; jiyikapy; cUthf;fg;gl;lJ. gpd;jq;fpakf;fspd;
r%f>fy;tpapidNkk;gLj;jtopKiwfs;>jpl;lq;fs; gw;wpghpe;Jiufs; Nfl;fg;gl;ld. ,e;j
Mizak; muRgjtpfspy; 27 rjtPjk; r%fkw;Wk; nghUshjhuj;jpy;
eyptile;jgpd;jq;fpatFg;igNrh;e;jkf;fSf;Fmspf;fg;glNtz;Lk; vd;Wghpe;Jiuj;jJ. 1980
Mk; Mz;Lbrk;gh; khjk; kz;ly Mizak; mjd; mwpf;ifiacs;Jiwmikr;ruhf ,Ue;j
n[apy; rpq;fplk; rkh;gpj;jdh; mg;NghJgp.gp.kz;ly; “,e;jmwpf;ifiajahh; nra;tjpy;
mjpfkhdciog;ignfhLj;Js;Nthk;. kpfrhpahf $wpdhy; ehk;
cd;djkhdrlq;ifnra;Js;Nshk;”vd;W $wpdhh;. mLj;jgj;jhz;LfSf;F ,e;jkz;ly
Miz mwpf;ifcs;JiwmYtyfj;jpNyNa ,Ue;jJ. mijNjrpaKd;dzpmurpy; gpujkuhf
,Ue;jtp.gp.rpq; (1938 – 2001) 1990 Mk; Mz;LeilKiwg;gLj;jpdhh;. me;jNeuj;jpy; kz;ly;
Miza ghpe;Jiufs; ngUk; tpthjq;fisehLKOtJk; Vw;gLj;jpaJ. Njrpamurpaypy;
ngUk; Fog;gq;fs; Vw;gl;ld. re;jh;g;gj;ijmurpaiynra;tjhf tp.gp. rpq;
Fw;wQ;rhl;lg;gl;lhh;. ve;jxUnghpaNjrpafl;rpAk; kz;ly; Miza ghpe;JiufSf;FMjuthf
,y;iy. rpymikg;Gfs; kw;Wk; gphptpdh; ,e;jghpe;Jiufisvjph;j;Jcr;rePjpkd;wj;jpy;
tof;FnjhLj;jdh;. ,Ujug;Gthjq;fisAk; gjpNdhUePjpgjpfisf;
nfhz;lcr;rePjpkd;wmkh;TNfl;lgpd;Gcr;rePjpkd;wk; ,e;jkz;ly; Mizaj;jpd; ghpe;Jiufs;
nry;Yk; vdjPhg ; ;gspj;jJ...

,e;jpuhrfhdp V. ,e;jpaA+dpad; AIR 1993 SC 477 :
 ,Jkz;ly FO tof;FvdTk; miof;fg;gLk;

 gpujkke;jphpnkhuhh;[pNjrha; jiyikapy; 1979 Mk; Mz;L [dthpapy; gp.gp.kz;ly;
jiyikapy; rl;lg;gphpT 340 d; gbgpd;jq;fpatFg;gpdUf;fhd ,uz;lhtJ Mizak;
Vw;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
 gl;bay; ,dj;jth; kw;Wk; goq;Fbapd; (SC/ST) kf;fisjtph;j;J> ,jugpw;gl;ltFg;gpdh;
nkhj;jkf;fs; njhifapy; 52% ,lk; ngw;Ws;sdh;. muRgjtpapy; 27 rjtpfpjk;
,lxJf;fPLnra;jhy;jhd; mJgl;bay; ,dj;jth; kw;Wk; goq;Fbapdh; (SC/ST)
,jugpw;gl;ltfg;gpdUf;fhd(OBC) nkhj;j 50 rjtpfpj ,l xJf;fPLMFk; vd ,e;j
Mizak; ghpeJiunra;jJ.
 kz;ly Miza mwpf;ifrkh;gpj;jgpwFve;jxUeltbf;ifAk; kw;Wk; nray;ghLk;
,y;iy>ghuhSkd;wj;jpy; ,UKiw 1982 kw;wk; 1983 Mk; Mz;Lfspy; kz;ly;
Mizak; mwpf;ifkPJtpthjk; kl;LNkeilngw;wJ.
 1990 Mk; Mz;LMf];l; 13 Mk; Njjptp.gp.rpq; murhq;fk; xUMizapd; %yk; kz;ly;
Mizak; mwpf;ifapd; ghpe;JiuiaVw;Wf;nfhz;L 27 rjtpfpj ,l xJf;fL P r%fj;jpy;
gpw;gl;ltFg;gpdUf;F ,e;jpamuRg; gzpfspy; toq;fpaJ.
NtWehLfspy; ,Ue;JGyk; ngah;e;Jte;jkf;fSf;Fk; rpymbg;gilchpikfisgyehLfs;

cWjpnra;Js;sd. Gfyplk; Nfhhpakf;fs;>jQ;rk; mile;jkf;fs;>gyjug;gl;lkf;fSf;Fk;
chpikfs; cs;sd. If;fpaehLfs; kd;wj;jpd; cWg;GehLfs; gyUk; mq;ffP hpj;Js;sdh;.
[hd; uhy;]; rpw;ejgilg;Gfs; :
 ePjpNfhl;ghL– 1971
 Neh;ikahdePjp– 1985
 murpay; jhuhstpay; - 1993
 kf;fspd; rl;lk; - 1993
,d>kj>nkhoprpWghd;ikapdUf;fhd I.eh gpufldk; - brk;gh; 18> 1992 :

gpufldj;
t.vz; jpd;nrd; Kf;ifdkhfhzk;
pamk;rq;fs;-: Kjyikr;rh;fs; Mz;L
1 rpWghd;
m. Rg; g uhaY 1920 – 1921
ikkf;fs; jdpg;gl;lKiwapYk; nghJtho;tpYk; ve;jtifahdghFghLk;
2 FWf; gdfy;
fPLk; uh[{ ,d;wpRje;jpukhfjq;fs; gz;–ghl;
1921 1926
ilg; gpd;gw;wTk;>kjj;ijf;
3 filgpbf;
gp.Rg;guhad; 1926 – 1930
fTk;>gpur;rhuk; nra;aTk;>nkhopiag; gad;gLj;jTk; chpikngw;wth;fs; Mth;.
4 rpWghd;
gp. KDrhkp 1930 – f1932
ikkf;fs; jq;fSf;fhdmikg;GfiscUthf; Tk; guhkhpf;fTk; chpikcz;L
5 nghg;gpyp uh[h 1932 – 1937
 rpWghd;ikapdh; jq;fs; tuyhW>kuGfs;>nkhopkw;Wk; gz;ghLgw;wpamwpittsh;j;Jf;
6 gp.b.,uhrd; 1936
nfhs;sTk; xl;Lnkhj;jrKjhak; gw;wpmwpe;Jnfhs;tjw;Fk;
7 Nf.tp. nul;b 1937
rpWghd;ikkf;fSf;Fchpatha;g;Gfs; mspf;fglNtz;Lk;
8 rp. ,uh[h[p 1937 – 1939
 Vw;fdNtcs;skdpjchpikfs; kw;Wk; mbg;gilRje;jpuj;jpw;F ,e;jg; gpufldk;
(Fwpg;G : jkpo;ehLmuRkhwpyMSehpd; fl;Lg;ghl;bd; fPo; nray;gl;ltUlk; 1946
mf;Nlhgh;ve;j
20tifapYk;
Kjy; Vg;uCWy; 30)tpistpg;gjhf mikaf; $lhJ.
9 j. gpufhrk; 1946 – 1947
10SAIS ACADEMY
X.gp. ,uhkrhkp 1947 – 1949 Page 195
Kjyikr;rh;fs; (Njh;jy; eilKiwf;Fg; gpwF)
11 gp.v];. Fkhurhkp 1949 – 1952
myF– 14 jkpofj;jpy; murpay; tsh;r;rp
myF– 14 jkpofj;jpy; murpay; tsh;r;rp

t.vz; nrd;idkhfhzk; - Kjyikr;rh;fs; Mz;L
1 m. Rg;guhaY 1920 – 1921
2 gdfy; uh[{ 1921 – 1926
3 gp.Rg;guhad; 1926 – 1930
4 gp. KDrhkp 1930 – 1932
5 nghg;gpyp uh[h 1932 – 1937
6 gp.b.,uhrd; 1936
7 Nf.tp. nul;b 1937
8 rp. ,uh[h[p 1937 – 1939
(Fwpg;G : jkpo;ehLmuRkhwpyMSehpd; fl;Lg;ghl;bd; fPo; nray;gl;ltUlk; 1946
mf;Nlhgh; 20 Kjy; Vg;uy; 30)
9 j. gpufhrk; 1946 – 1947
10 X.gp. ,uhkrhkp 1947 – 1949
Kjyikr;rh;fs; (Njh;jy; eilKiwf;Fg; gpwF)
11 gp.v];. Fkhurhkp 1949 – 1952
12 rp. ,uh[h[p 1952 – 1954
13 F. fhkuh[; 1954 – 1957
14 F. fhkuh[; 1957 – 1962
15 F. fhkuh[; 1962 – 1963
16 vk;.gf;jtr;ryk; 1963 – 1967
17 rp. vd;.mz;zhJiu 1967 – 1969
18 K. fUzhepjp 1969 – 1971
19 K. fUzhepjp 1971 – 1976
20 vk;. [p. ,uhkr;re;jpud; 1977 – 1980
21 vk;. [p. ,uhkr;re;jpud; 1980 – 1984
22 vk;. [p. ,uhkr;re;jpud; 1985 – 1987
23 [hdfp ,uhkr;re;jpud; 1988
24 K. fUzhepjp 1989 – 1991
25 n[. n[ayypjh 1991 – 1996
26 K. fUzhepjp 1996 – 2001
27 n[. n[ayypjh 2001 –2001
28 X. gd;dhP ;nry;tk; 2001– 2002
29 n[. n[ayypjh 2002– 2006
30 K. fUzhepjp 2006 – 2011
31 n[. n[ayypjh 2011
32 X. gd;dhP ;nry;tk; 2012 (,ilf;fhy)
33 n[. n[ayypjh Nk 16> 2016 –brk;gh; 5> 2016

34 X. gd;dhP ;nry;tk; brk;gh; 2016 –gpg;uthp 2017

35 f. godprhkp gpg;uthp 2017 –njhlh;fpwhh;
1956 ,y; khepy kWrPuikg;Gr; rl;ljjpd; %ykhfnrd;idkhfhzj;jpy; ,Ue;J

kiyahsg; gFjpfs; Nfushtpw;Fk;>njYq;F gFjpfs; Me;jpug; gpuNjrj;jpw;Fk
;>fd;dlg; gFjpfs; ik#h; khepyj;jpw;Fk; jug;gl;lJ. ,q;qdk; nrd;idkhfhzk;
jkpoh;fspd; khepykhfcUthdJ. fhkuh[h; Xh; epiyahd Ml;rpiaj; je;jhh;.
jkpo; Mh;tyh;fshy; vy;yp]; jkpioNerpg;gtuhfTk;>ts;Sthpd; FwiskpfTk;

tpUk;GgtuhfTk; ghuhl;lg;gLfpwhh;. ,th; gpwjkpo;g; gilg;GfisAk; Nerpg;gtuhf
,Ug;gpDk;>vy;yprpd; fhydpakw;Wk; kjg; gpd;dzpmwpag;gltpy;iy. gpwg;G : Nk 7>
1814 fpshb> ,q;fpyhe;J
,wg;G : Mf];l’ 20> 1891 nfhilf;fhdy;> ,e;jpah
myF– 15 jkpofmurpay; rpe;jidfs;
nghpahh; Xh; flTs; kWg;Gf; nfhs;ifAilaKw;Nghf;fhdr%fjPh;jpUj;jthjp :

nghpahhpd; gilg;Gfs; kw;Wk; kuG : ruhrhpj; jkpoDf;Fg; nghpahh; Xh;
nfhs;ifahfcs;shh;. r%f>rkj;Jtk;>Rakhpahijkw;Wk; nkhopapd;
ngUikiaKd;dpWj;Jk; murpaiy top elj;jpdhh;. Xh; r%frPh;jpUj;jthjpahfmth;
r%fk;>gz;ghLkw;Wk; ghypdrkj;Jtkpd;ikNghd;wtw;wpy; ftdk; nrYj;jpdhh;. mth;
kf;fs; jq;fs; tho;f;ifj; JiziaNjh;e;njLf;Fk; NghJgFj;jwptpd; mbg;gilapy;
nray;gltypAWj;jpdhh;. ngz;fs; midtUk; Rje;jpukhf ,Ug;gJld;
gps;isngw;WnfhLg;gjw;fhfvDk; epiyiakhw;wpmth;fSf;FNtiyRakhpahij
,af;fk;>rlq;Ffsw;wjpUkzq;fisCf;Ftpj;jJld; ngz;fSf;Fnrhj;Jhpikkw;Wk;
tpthfuj;Jnra;Ak; chpikfSk; toq;fNtz;Lk; vdg; Nghuhbdhh;. mth; kf;fs; jq;fspd;
ngaUf;F gpd; cs;srhjpg; ngaiuiftpLkhWk; mjidf; Fwpg;gplNtz;lhk; vdTk;
Ntz;LNfhs; tpLj;jhh;. 1930 –fspy; gl;bay; ,dj;jtuhy;
rikf;fg;gl;lczitnghJf;$l;lq;fspd; gpd;dh; rkge;jpahfelj;jpf; fhl;bdhh;.
fhyg;Nghf;fpy; rhjp>kjmurpay; NtWghLfisf; fle;jngUkjpg;Gld;
‘nghpahh;’etPdjkpofj;jpd; je;ijnadmiof;fg;gLfpwhh;.
- ed;wpmUz; [dhh;j;jdd;>jp. epA+ ,e;jpad; vf;];gpu]; 13.3.2018

ghujpahhpd; “ghQ;rhyprgjk;”vd;gJ Xh; jiy rpwe;j gilg;ghFk;. ,J ,e;jpahit
jpnusgjpahfTk;>Mq;fpNyaiu nfsuth;fshfTk; Rje;jpu Nghuhl;ltPuh;fis
ghz;lth;fshfTk;>cUtfg;gLj;jpapUe;jhh;. jpnusgjpapd; Nghuhl;lk; %ykhfmth; ,e;jpajha;
Mq;fpNyah; Ml;rpapd; fPo; mbikg;gl;Ls;sij kiwKfkhf ntspg;gLj;Jfpwhh;.
ghujpahh; nrg;lk;gh; gjpNdhuhk; ehs; 1921 Mk; Mz;L ,aw;ifva;jpdhh;. Mdhy; ,thpd;
,Wjprlq;fpy; gjpdhd;Fegh;fs; kl;LNkgq;Nfw;wdh;. ,jw;Frhjpiatpl;Ljs;spitf;fg;gLNthk;
vd;gJld; Mq;fpNyamurhq;fj;jpd; mlf;FKiwapdhy; Vw;gl;lgaNkfhuzkhFk

jpUf;Fws; Xh; kjr;rhh;gw;w E}y; : jpUf;Fwisehk;

gbf;fMuk;gpj;jclNdNamJxUkjr;rhh;gw;w E}y; vd;wcz;ikiaehk; mwpayhk;.
jpUts;Sth; tho;e;jfhyj;jpy; ngsj;jkjk;>rPf;fpakjk;>i[d kjk; kw;Wk; ,e;Jkjk;
Nghd;wgykjq;fs; ,Ue;jd. mijg; NghyNt ,iwkWg;ghsh;fSk; ,Ue;Js;sdh;. Mdhy;
kjr;rhh;gw;wjd;ikvDk; fUj;jhf;fj;ijahUk; mwpe;jpUf;ftpy;iy.
ts;StNukjek;gpf;ifcilath; jhd;. flTisg;
Gfo;e;Njgj;JFws;fisnfhz;lxUmjpfhuj;ijgilj;Js;shh;. mtUk; xUkjj;jpy;
,Ue;jpUf;fyhk;. Mdhy; ve;jxUkjj;Jf;Fk; Mjhukhf ,e;E}y; ,y;iy.
Fwpg;ghfnrhy;tnjd;why; ve;jkjj;ijg; gw;wpAk; Fwpg;gpltpy;iy.
[hjpkjq;fisg; ghNuhk; - cah;
[d;kk;,j; Njrj;jpy; va;jpduhapd;
NtjpauhapDk; xd;Nw–md;wp
NtWFyj;jpduhapDk; xd;Nw
ehk; rhjpkjq;fisg; ghh;f;fNtz;lhk;> ,e;jepyj;jpy; thOk; midj;Jkdpjh;fSk;
xd;Nwmth;fs; ve;jrhjpapdiurhh;e;jpUe;jhYk; my;y
; Jve;jNtjj;ijNghjpg;gtuhf ,Ue;jhYk;
ehk; midtUk; xd;NwmJkdpjFyk; MFk; - Rg;ukzpaghujpahh;
tpNtfhde;jhpd; rPluhdrNfhjhpepNtjpjhTldhdghujpahhpd; re;jpg;Gngz;fSf;fhdchpikfs;

gw;wprpe;jidiag; ghujpahhplk; Vw;gLj;jpd. ,Jrhjpag; gpur;ridfspypUe;JRje;jpuk; tiuf;Fk;
kw;Wk; Md;kPfk; tiughLgl;lth;. ,th;
jw;fhyngz;fSf;Frf;jpvd;fpwmilahsj;ijVw;gLj;jpath;. Fwpg;ghfetPdngz;fspd;
mjpfhuk;>gykhd>Rje;jpukhdkw;Wk; Mz;fSf;Frkkhdgq;Fjhuh; vd;Wngz;fisFwpg;gpLfpwhh
“Rauh[;a jpdk;”nfhz;lhLtjw;fhf 1908 Mk; Mz;Lnrd;idapy; kpfg;nghpanghJf; $l;lj;jpw;F

,th; Vw;ghLnra;jhh;. “te;Njkhjuk;”“ve;ijAk; jhAk;”> n[a ghuj;”Nghd;wghujpahhpd; ftpijfs;
mr;rpl;L ,ytrkhfkf;fSf;FtpepNahfpf;fg;gl;ld. “MZk; ngz;Zk; rkkhff; fUjg;gl;lhy;
kl;LNk ,t;Tyfk; mwpTkw;Wk; Gj;jpf; $h;ikapy; rpwg;GWk;”–ghujpahh;
<.Nt.uhkrhkpvd;w ,aw;ngaiuf; nfhz;lje;ij nghpahh; <Nuhl;by; nry;tr; nropg;Gs;s tzpff;

FLk;gj;jpy; 1879 ,y; gpwe;jhh;. ,sikg; gUtj;jpNyNajdJ FLk;gj;jpYk;>Rw;wpAs;s
rKjhaj;jpYk; epytpa %l ek;gpf;ifiavs;speifahbanghpahh;>njhlf;fj;jpy; jPtpumurpaypy;
<Lgltpy;iy. MdhYk; <NuhLefh; kd;wj;jiyth; Nghd;w nghWg;Gfis tfpj;jhh;.

Rg;ukzpaghujpahh; (brk;gh;) gjpNdhuhk; ehspy; 1882 Mk; Mz;Lvl;laGuk; vd;Dk; fpuhkj;jpy;

gpwe;jhh;. ,e;j Ch; jkpo;ehl;by; cs;sjpUney;Ntypkhtl;lj;jpy; cs;sJ.
,tUilaFoe;ijgUtngah; Rg;igah MFk;. ,tuJje;ijahh; rpd;drhkp>jhahh;
yl;Rkpmk;khs; Mthh;. ghujpahh; VO tajpy; jkpo;f; ftpijfisvOjMuk;gpj;jhh;.
jd;DilagjpNdhuhk; tajpy; mtUilagilg;Gfs; kw;Wk; jpwikfs; fw;wwpe;jmwpQh;fshy;
Gfog;gl;lJ. gjpNdhuhk; tajpy; Rg;igahmidj;JngUkf;fs; kw;Wk; mwpQh;fs; $bapUf;Fk;
rigapy; Xh; rthy; tpl;lhh;. ahNuDk; vd;Dld; ve;jtpjKd;dwptpg;Gkw;Wk; gapw;rp ,y;yhky;
ve;jjiyg;gpy; Ntz;LkhdhYk; Ngrjahuh? vdrthy; tpl;lhh;.
,e;jNghl;bvl;ilaGumuritapy; Xh; rpwg;Gmkh;thfvl;laGumurhpd; jiyikapy; eilngw;wJ.
rthypy; Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;ljiyg;Gfy;tpMFk;. Rg;igahNgr;Rg; Nghl;bapy; ntd;whh;.
,JRg;igahtpd; tho;f;ifapy; Xh; jpUg;G Kidahf mike;jJ.
,e;jkwf;fKbahjepfo;Tf;FgpwF‘vl;laGu Rg;igah’vd;Wmiof;fg;gl;lmth; ‘ghujp’vd;Wk;
gpw;fhyj;jpy; ghujpahh; vd;Wk; khpahijAld; miof;fg;gl;lhh;. ‘ghujpahh;’vd;wngah;
midtuhYk; Fwpg;ghfNjrthjpfshYk; cynfq;fpYk; cs;sNfhlhdNfhbjkpo;g;
gw;whsh;fshy; khpahijAlDk; epidT $wg;gLfpwJ. [{d; 1897 ,y;
ghujpahUf;Fgjpide;JtaJepuk;gpapUe;jNghJnry;ykhSld; jpUkzk; ele;jJ. ,jd;
gpwFghujpahh; fhrpf;Fnrd;whh;. mq;FjdJmj;ijFg;ghs; kw;Wk; khkhfpU~;zrptDld;
,uz;LMz;Lfs; ,Ue;jhh;. mq;fpUe;jNghJjhd; rk];fpUjk;> ,e;jpkw;Wk;
Mq;fpynkhopawptpidngw;whh;. myfhghj; gy;fiyf;fofEioTj; Njh;tpy; mth; ntw;wpngw;whh;.
fhrpapy; jq;fpapUe;jJghujpapd; MSikapy; ngUk; khw;wq;fisVw;gLj;jpaJ.
KWf;FkPir>rPf;fpah;fspd; jiyg;ghifkw;Wk; tPWnfhz;leilapidjdf;Nfchpj;jhf;fpdhh;.
,j;jifantspg;gilahdkhw;wq;Sk; ghujpahhplk; Vw;gl;ld.

12k;tFg;
G
c q;
fS f;
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jfty;Ngio
rp
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ltiz fs;
kdtiug;
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;
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e;
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Nthk;
myF–1 ,e;jpahtpy; Njrpaj;jpd; vOr;rp
xg;ge;jj; njhopyhsh; Kiw: ciog;Gld; $bafLq;fhty; jz;lidNghd;w ,t;nthg;ge;jf;

$ypj;njhopyhsh; Kiwapd; fPo; njhopyhsh;fs; Ie;JtUlfhyj;jpw;Fxg;ge;jk; nra;ag;gl;ldh;.
,Wjpapy; mth;fs; Fiwe;jmsT $ypiag; ngw;Wf; nfhz;LtPLjpUk;gyhk;. tWikapy;
cod;wgytptrhapfSk; nerthsh;fSk; XusTg; gzk; rk;ghjpf;Fk; ek;gpf;ifAld;
nrd;wdh;. Mdhy; mJmbikj; njhopiytplTk; Nkhrkhfmike;jJ. tWikapy;
thbaVioj; njhopyhsh;fisr; #o;rr ; papd;
%yNkhmy;yJflj;jpNahnfhz;LtumuRjdJKfth;fis (fq;fhzpfs;) mDkjpj;jJ. ePz;l
fly; gazj;jpy; njhopyhsh;fs; ngUe;Jauq;fSf;Fs;shapdh;. gyh; topapNyNa ,we;jdh;.
1856 –1857 ,y; fy;fj;jhtpypUe;Jbhpdplhl; nrd;wfg;gypy; gazk; nra;jxg;ge;jf;
$ypj;njhopyhsh;fspd; ,wg;Gtpfpjk; gpd;tUkhW : Mz;fspy; 12.3
tpOf;fhl;bdUk;>ngz;fspy; 18.5 tpOf;fhl;bdUk;> 28%rpWth;fSk;> 36%rpWkpfSk;>
55%Foe;ijfSk; ,we;Jtpl;ldh;.
Njrpak; :tphpthdjsj;jpy; Njrpankd;gJxUehl;bw;FtpRthrkhfTk; gf;jpNahLk; ,Uj;jy;

vdg; nghUs; nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ. mJjdJehl;il Vida ehLfisf; fhl;bYk; cah;thd
,lj;jpy; itj;Jg; ghh;j;Jmy;yJ Vida ehLfSf;Fg; Nghl;bahfjdJehl;bd; gz;ghLk;
kw;Wk; tpUg;gq;fspd; tsh;r;rpapy; rpwg;Gf; ftdk; nrYj;Jk; xU Njrpa czh;T my;yJ
kdg;Nghf;fhFk;.
myF– 2 jPtpuNjrpathjj;jpd; vor;rpAk; RNjrp

,af;fKk;
NguurUf;fvjpuhdt.c.rp. Rg;ukzparpthtof;fpy; toq;fg;gl;ljPh;g;gpd; rpygFjpfs; (etk;gh; 4>

1908). Ml;rpf;Fvjpuhfkf;fisj; J}z;LtJmJvg;NghjhdhYk;
rhpkpfNkhrkhdFw;wnkd;Nwvdf;Fj; Njhd;WfpwJ. ,k;khfzj;jpy; ,t;tifg;gl;ltof;Ffspy;
,JNtKjy; tof;Fvd;gJcz;ik. Mdhy; ,f;Fw;wk; fhy;
Cd;Wtjw;Fve;jkhfhzq;fspnyy;yhk; ,lj;ijg; ngw;Wtpl;lNjh>mitfspy; epyTk;
,g;Nghijaepiyikfs;>kpjkhdjz;lidfshdrpykhjq;fs;
rpiwjz;lidmy;yJxd;Wmy;yJ ,uz;lhz;Lfs; rpiwjz;lidfshdJjFjpaw;NwhUf;F
toq;fg; ngw;wrYiffs; vdr; Rl;bf;fhl;Ltjha;j; Njhd;WfpwJ. jz;lidapd;
Fwpf;NfhshdJ Fw;wthspf;F kl;Lky;y>mtUilaKd;Djhuzj;ij gpd;gw;wtpioAk;
kw;wth;f;Fk; mr;r%l;Ltjha; mikaNtz;Lk;. Vwj;jho xU Gul;rpahf Kbe;Jtpll; xUmuR
vjph;g;gpaf;fj;ijf; ifahs Ntz;bAs;sJ. fyfq;fis mlf;Fk; NghJ ,of;fg;gl;l
caph;fSf;F jhh;kPf mbg;gilapy; ,th;fNsnghWg;ghth; vd;gJmth;fisf; ifJnra;jypy;
cWjpahfptpl;lJ.

tl;lhunkhopapy; fy;tp>vDk; fUj;JRNjrp ,af;fj;jpw;FntFKd;dNu 1902 ,y; rjP~;

re;jpuKfh;[pahy; tpbnts;spf; fofk; (Dawn Society) epWtg;gl;lNghNjcUthfptpl;lJ.
1905 ,y; xUrkak; mutpe;j; Nfh~plk; xUth; vt;thWehl;Lg;gw;WcilatuhfMtJ? vdf;

Nfl;lhh;. Rthpy; njhq;fpa ,e;jpatiuglj;ijr; Rl;bf;fhl;bamutpe;jh;>“ePme;jtiuglj;ijg;
ghh;j;jhah? mJ xUtiu glky;ykhwhf ghujkhjhtpd; cUtg;glk;
mjDilaefuq;fSk;>kiyfSk;>MWfSk;>fhLfSk; mtSila Foe;ijfNs
mtSilanghpJk; rpwpaJkhdeuk;Gfs;....... ghujj;ij tho;fpd;wjhahf epidj;j ftdk;
nrYj;jp xd;gJ klq;F mjpfgf;jpAld; mtistopgL”vdgjpYiuj;jhh;.
RNjrprpe;jidapd; ghpzhktsh;r;rp : tpLjiyg; Nghuhl;lj;jpd; NghJRNjrp ,af;fk;

vd;wvz;zk; Kjd; Kjyhf 1905 ,y; xUrpyfhq;fpu]; jiyth;fshYk;>gpd;dh; 1920
fspy; kfhj;khfhe;jpabfspd; jiyikapYk; xUjj;JtkhdJ. ‘RNjrp’vd;gjd; nghUs;
‘xUtuJnrhe;jehL’vd;gjhFk;. ,j;jj;Jtj;jpd; Njhw;wkhdJ 1872 ,y; G+dhtpy; kfhNjt;
Nfhtpe;j; uhdNljdJnjhlh; nrhw;nghopTfspd; %yk; ,r;rpe;jidiag;
gpugyg;gLj;jpajpypUe;Jj; njhlq;FfpwJ. uhdNlapd; fUj;Jg;gbxUtuJnrhe;jehl;by;
cw;gj;jpnra;ag;gLk; nghUl;fSf;Fmg;nghUl;fspd; gad;ghLFiwthdkdepiwitf;
nfhLj;jNghjpYk; Kd;Dhpiktoq;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. 1920 fspy; fhe;jpabfs;
,ijmidj;J ,e;jpah;fSk; jhq;fs; gpwe;jehl;bw;Fr; nra;aNtz;baflikfNshL
,izj;Jr; RNjrprpe;jidf;Fg; GjpanghUisf; nfhLj;jhh;. fhe;jpabfisg;
nghUj;jkl;by; RNjrpvd;gJxUth; jdJnrhe;jehl;by; cw;gj;jpnra;ag;gLk;
nghUl;fiskl;Lk; gad;gLj;JtJvd;gJkl;Lky;y. mth; gpd;tUk; thh;j;ijfspy;
RNjrpiatpsf;Ffpwhh;. RNjrpvd;gJekf;Fs;spUf;Fk; Md;kgyk;
mJntFnjhiytpypUe;Jfpilg;gdtw;iwxJf;fpitj;Jekf;FntFmUNfAs;sRw;Wg;Gwj;jp
ypUe;Jfpilf;Fk; gad;fisAk; NritfisAk; gad;gLj;Jk; tz;zk;
,q;Fcs;sth;fshy; jahh; nra;ag;gLk; nghUl;fiskl;LNkehk; gad;gLj;jNtz;Lk;.
mg;gbahdnjhopy;fs; vq;FNjitg;gLfpd;wdNthmq;Nfmitfs; jpwk;glTk;
KOikahfTk; nray;glr; Nritnra;aNtz;Lk;.
myF–3 ,e;jpatpLjiyg; Nghhpy; Kjy; cyfg;Nghhpd; jhf;fk;
gphpl;b~; murpd; fPo; ,e;jpahjd;dhl;rpngWtJmy;yJfdlh> M];jpNuypahMfpatw;wpd;

topapy; jd;dhl;rpg; gFjpj; (nlhkpdpad;) jFjpiag; ngWtJMfpatw;Wf;fhfg; gphpl;b~;
ehlhSkd;wcWg;gpdh;fspd; Mjuitf; NfhUtjw;fhf ,e;jpafhkd;nty;j; yPf; vd;Wjd;dhl;rp
,af;fk; ngah; khw;wk; nra;ag;gl;lJ. gpd;dh; 1929 ,y; ,e;jpayPf; vd;Wtp.Nf. fpU~;zNkdd;
khw;wk; nra;jhh

njd;dhg;gphpf;fhtpy; Mw;wpakdjhgpkhdg; gzpfSf;fhffhe;jpbfSf;Fnfa;rh; - , -

`pe;j; jq;fg;gjf;fk; toq;fprpwg;gpf;fg;gl;lJ. 1906 ,y; Mk;Gyd;]; gilapy;
,e;jpaMh;tyh;fspd; xUmjpfhhpahfr; nray;gl;lmtuJNritfisg; ghuhl;b [{Y Nghh;
nts;spg;gjf;fk; fhe;jpabfSf;Ftoq;fg;gl;lJ. 1899 – 1900 fspy; Nghah; Nghhpd;NghJ
J}f;FgLf;if (Stretcher) nfhz;Lnry;Nthh; gilapy; ,e;jpaMh;tyh;fspd; Jizf;
fz;fhzpg;ghsuhfNritGhpe;jikf;fhfNghah; Nghh; nts;spg;gjf;fk; mtUf;Ftoq;fg;gl;lJ.
fpyhgj; ,af;fj;jpd; njhlh;gpy; xj;Jioahik ,af;fj;ijf; fhe;jpabfs;
njhlq;fpaNghJ>midj;Jg; gjf;fq;fisAk; jPUk;gxg;gilj;jmth; ,t;thWnjhptpj;jhh;.
fle;jxUkhjfhykhfele;jepfo;Tfisg; ghhf;Fk;NghJfpyhgj; ,af;ftpraj;jpy;
Vfhjpgj;jpamuRNeh;ikaw;w>epahakw;wtifapYk; kw;Wk; fphpkpdy; NghyTk;
ele;Jnfhz;lJld;>jq;fs; Neh;ikaw;wj; jd;ikiag; ghJfhf;fj; jtWf;FNky; jtWnra;jd.
,j;jifamuRkPjhdkjpg;igNahmy;yJmd;igNahvd;dhy; ,Ug;Gitf;f ,aytpy;iy.
jd;dhl;rp : kj;jpamy;yJgpuNjrmurplkpUe;Jmjidr; rhh;e;jmurpay; gFjpfSf;Fmq;FthOk;

kf;fs; mjw;Fmurpay; hPjpahftpRthrkhf ,Ug;ghh;fs; vd;wepge;jidAld; toq;fg;gLk;
jd;dhl;rpmjpfhuj;ijf; Fwpf;fpwJ. goq;fhyNuhkhdpamurpYk;>etPdMq;fpNyamurpYk; ,J
nghJg;gilahdmk;rkhf ,Ue;jJ. 1880 fspy; mah;yhe;jpy; jd;dhl;rp ,af;fk; KLf;fk;
ngw;wijmLj;Jmah;yhe;JmuRrl;lj;jpd; (1920) fPo; tlmah;yhe;jpd; MW ehLfspYk;
gpwFnjw;fpy; Mq;fpNyh–mah;yhe;Jxg;ge;jj;jpd; (1921) fPo; vQ;rpa 26 ehLfspYk;
jd;dhl;rpmikag;ngw;wJ.
Nrh`d; rpq; gf;dhitj; jiytuhff; nfhz;Lgrpgpf; gpuNjr ,e;J];jhd;

mikg;igrhd;gpuhd;rp];Nfhtpy; trpj;Jte;jyhyh `h;jahs; 1913 ,y; epWtpdhh;.
,e;jmikg;Gfjhh; fl;rpvd;Wmiof;fg;gl;lJ. (cUJnkhopapy; fjhh; vd;why;
fpsh;rr
; pvd;WnghUs;) mnkhpf;fhkw;Wk; fdlhtpy; FbNawparPf;fpah;fNsngUk;ghYk; ,e;jf;
fl;rpapy; ,lk; ngw;wpUe;jdh;. ‘fjh;’vd;wgj;jphpifiaAk; ,f;fl;rpntspapl;lJ. 1913 etk;gh;
Kjy; Njjprhd; gpuhd;rp];Nfhtpy; ,J gjpg;gpf;fg;gl;LntspahdJ. gpd;dh; cUJ>gQ;rhgp>
,e;jpkw;Wk; ,junkhopfspYk; mJntspahdJ. ,e;jpaRje;jpug; Nghuhl;lj;jpy; fjhh; ,af;fk;
kpfKf;fpamj;jpahakhFk;. NfhkflkU (Comagatamaru) vd;Wngahplg;gl;lfg;gy; ,e;jpahtpy;
,Ue;JFbNawpath;fSld; fdlhtpy; ,Ue;JjpUk;gpaJ. ,e;jpahjpUk;gpaTld; gphpl;b~;
NghyprhUld; Vw;gl;lNkhjypy; me;jf; fg;gypy; ,Ue;jgygazpfs; nfhy;yg;gl;ldh;
my;yJifJnra;ag;gl;ldh;. ,e;jepfo;T ,e;jpaNjrpa ,af;fj;jpw;FMokhdtLitVw;gLj;jpaJ.

myF– 4 fhe;jpabfs; Njrpaj;

jiytuhfcUntLj;Jkf;fisxd;wpizj;jy;
fhy;rhMjutw;Nwhh; fhg;gfj;jkpy; tsh;f;fg;gl;lrPf;fpagjpd;gUt ,isQuhdcjk; rpq;

,e;jepfo;itjdJfz;fshy; fz;lhh;. [hypad; thyhghf; gLnfhiyfSf;Fg; gopjPh;f;Fk;
tpjkhf 1940 khh;r; 30 ,y; yz;ldpd; fhf;];ld; muq;fpy; ikf;Nfy; X ilaiucjk; rpq;
gLnfhiynra;jhh;. yz;ldpd; ngz;Nlhd;tpy;Nyrpiwapy; cjk; rpq; J}f;fpyplg;gl;lhh;.
[hypad; thyhghf; gLnfhiyf;Fg; gpwF ,utPe;juehj; jh$h; jdJmurg;

gl;lj;ijcldbahfj; Jwe;jhh;. 1919 Mk; Mz;LNkkhjk; 31 Mk; Njjpmurg;gpujpepjpf;F
; f; fbjj;jpy; jh$h; ,t;thWvOjpdhh;. “,zf;fkw;w #oy; epyTk;
(itrpuha;) mDg;gpavjph;gG
Ntisapy; mtkhdj;jpd; rpd;dkhf ,e;jkjpg;Gf;Fhpagl;lk; jpfo;fpwJ. kdpjh;fshff; $lf;
fUjKbahjepiyapy; kjpg;gpoe;JNghdvdJehl;Lkf;fSf;FMjuthfvdJjug;gpy; ehd;
Nkw;nfhs;Sk; nrayhf>vdf;F toq;fg;gl;l midj;J rpwg;Gg; gl;lq;fisAk;
jpUk;gxg;gilf;fpNwd;”.
gy;NtWrhjp>gpuNjrq;fs;>kjq;fs; Mfpatw;iwr; Nrh;e;j ,e;jpah;fSf;Feyg;gzpfspy;

gapw;rptoq;f ,e;jpagzpahsh; rq;fj;ijNfhghyfpU~;z NfhfNy 1905 ,y; epWtpdhh;.
gpd;jq;fpa>Cufkw;Wk; goq;Fbapdkf;fspd; Nkk;ghl;Lf;fhfj; jd;idmh;gg ; zpj;Jf;
nfhz;lehl;bd; KjyhtJkjr;rhh;gw;wmikg;G ,JthFk;. epthuzg; gzp>fy;tpawpT+l;ly;
kw;Wk; ,jur%ff; flikfspy; cWg;gpdh;fs; jq;fis<LgLj;jpf; nfhz;ldh;.
Ie;jhz;Lfhyj;Jf;Fgapw;rpngwNtz;bacWg;gpdh;fs; Fiwthdrk;gsj;Jf;Fg;
gzpahw;wxg;Gf;nfhs;fpNwhk;. ,e;jmikg;Gf;Fj; jiyikafk; kfhuh~;buhtpd;
G+dhtpYk;>nrd;id (kjuh];)>Kk;ig (gk;gha;)>myfhghj; kw;Wk; ehf;G+hpy; Kf;fpafpisfSk;
,Ue;jd.
myF– 5 Vfhjpgj;jpaj;jpw;FvjpuhdNghuhl;lq;fspy;
Gul;rpfuNjrpathjj;jpd; fhyk;
`pe;J];jhd; Nrhryp];l; hpgg;spfd; mNrhrpNa~d; vd;gJ `pe;J];jhd; hpgg;spfd;

mNrhrpNa~dpd; GJg;gpf;fg;gl;lXh; mj;jpahaNkMFk;. Kjyhspj;Jt>Vfhjpgj;jpamuirj;
J}f;fpvwpe;JGul;rpxd;wpd; %ykhfxUNrhryprr; r%fj;ijepiyehl;LtNjmjd;
Fwpf;NfhshFk;. `pe;J];jhd; Nrhryp];l; hpgg;spfd; mNrhrpNa~d; yh$hpy;
rhz;lh;]pidf; nfhd;wJNghd;wgyeltbf;iffspy; jd;id<LgLj;jpf; nfhz;lJ. 1928
brk;gh; khjj;jpy; y[gjpuha; kPJnfhLe;jhf;Fjy; elj;jpajw;Fk; mjidj; njhlh;e;juhapd;
kuzj;jpw;Fk; nghWg;ghdyh$h; fhty;Jiwf; fz;fhzpg;ghsh; N[k;]; V. ];fhl;Lf;Fg;;
gjpy; jtWjyhfrhz;lh;]; gypahdhh;. 1928>brk;ghpy; ,h;tpd; gpuG (1926 – 1931 Mk;
Mz;Lfspy; fth;dh; n[duyhfTk; it];uhahfTk; ,Ue;jth;) gazk;
nra;Jnfhz;bUe;juapiyf; nfhSj;Jk; Kaw;rpapYk; mth;fs; <Lgl;ldh;. 1930 Mk;
Mz;by; gQ;rhgpYk; cj;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpYk; ,JNghd;wvz;zw;weltbf;iffs;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;ld.

tprhuiziakPul; efhpy; elj;Jtnjd;Wgphpl;lhdpamurjPh;khdpj;jJ. (v.fh : Fw;wk;

rhl;lg;gl;lth;fspy; mjpfkhdthfs; gpbgl;lgk;gha; Nghd;w ,lq;fspy; my;yhky;).
vdNtmth;fs; eLth; tprhuizvd;wrYifiag; ngwKbe;jJ. eLth; tprhuizFw;wk;
rhl;lg;gl;lth;fSf;FmDjhgj;ijcUthf;ff; $Lk; vd;Wmth;fs; mQ;rpdh;.
“ehd; gbf;f Muk;gpj;Njd;. vd;DilaKe;ijaek;gpf;iffSk; jPh;khdq;fSk;

xUFwpg;gplj;jf;fmstpy; khw;wj;jpw;Fcs;shdJ. kpfTk; Kf;fpakhfekJKd;NdhbfspilNa
epytpatd;Kiwr; nray;ghLfs; kPjhdNkhfk; jPtpukhdrpj;jhe;jq;fspd; %yk; khw;wPL
nra;ag;gl;lJ. ,jpy; khaj;jpw;F ,lkpy;iy. fz; %bj;jdkhd ek;gpf;iff;Fk; ,lkpy;iy.
ajhh;j;jkhdmZF KiwNa ekJxOq;F Kiw MdJ. jPtpukhdNjitVw;gLk; gl;rj;jpy;
kl;LNktd;Kiwiaf; ifahs;tJepahag;gLj;jf; $bajhf ,Uf;Fk;. midj;JntF[d
,af;fq;fSf;Fk; nghUe;jf;$baxUnfhs;ifahfmfpk;ir ,Uf;Fk;. topKiwfs; Vuhskhf
,Uf;fpd;wd. ehk; ve;jyl;rpaj;jpw;fhfg; Nghhpl;NlhNkhmjd; J}a
fUJNfhNskpfKf;fpakhdJ”. gfj;rpq;fpd; “ehd; Vd; ehj;jpfdhf ,Uf;fpNwd;? vd;Dk;
E}ypypUe;J.
fhd;G+h; rjptof;fpy; Muk;gj;jpy; 13 Ngh; kPJFw;wk; rhl;lg;gl;lJ. 1) vk;.vd;.uha;

2) Krhgh; mfkJ 3) rTfj; c];khdp 4) Fyhk; `{ird; 5) v];. V. lhq;Nf 6) vk;.
rpq;fhuNtyh; 7) Mh;. vy; rh;kh 8) espdpFg;jh 9) ~Kj;jpd; `hrd; 10) vk;.
Mh;.v];.NtyhAjd; 11) lhf;lh; kzpyhy; 12) rk;G+h;zee;jh 13) rj;agf;jh. 8 Ngh;
kPNjFw;wg;gj;jphpifjhf;fy; nra;ag;gl;lJ. vk;.vd;.uha;>Krhgh; mfkJ> v];. V.
lhq;Nf>espdpFg;jh>Fyhk; `{ird;>rpq;fhuNtyh;>rTfj; c];khdp>Mh;. vy;.rh;kh. Fyhk;
`Pird; muRj; jug;Gr; rhl;rpahf (mg;&th;) khwptpl;ljhy; mth; tpLtpf;fg;gl;lhh;.
vk;.vd;.uha;>Mh;.vy;.rh;khMfpNahh; KiwNa n[h;kdpapYk; ghz;br;NrhpapYk; (xUgpnuQ;Rg;
gpuNjrk;) ,Ue;jjhy; Nehpy; tutiof;fhky; Fw;wg;gj;jpiffs; mDg;gpitf;fg;gl;ld.
rpq;fhuNtyh; Nkhrkhdcly;epiyfhuzkhfg; gpizapy; tpLtpf;fg;gl;lhh;. filrpahf>me;jg;
gl;baypy; ey;th; kl;LNkvQ;rpapUe;jdh;.
vk;.rpq;fhuNtyh; (18 gpg;uthp 1860 – 11 gpg;uthp 1946) kjuhrpy; gpwe;jth;. ,th; ,sikf;
fhyjjpy; Gj;jkjj;ijj; jOtpath;. gpwfk;A+dp];l; ,af;fj; jiyth;fs; gyiiug; Nghd;W
,tUk; Muk;gj;jpy; ,e;jpaNjrpafhq;fpurpy; ,ize;Jnray;gl;lth;. vdpDk; rpyfhyj;jpw;Fg;
gpwFmth; Gul;rpfuNjrpathjg; ghijiaj; Njh;e;njLj;jhh;. jpU. tp. fy;ahzRe;juj;Jld;
,ize;Jnjd;dpe;jpahtpy; gynjhopw;rq;fq;fis ,th; Njhw;Wtpj;jhh;. 1923 Mk;
Mz;LNkkhjk; Kjy; ehs; Kjd;Kiwahfehl;by; Nkjpdj;ijf; nfhz;lhbdhh;. 1928 Mk;
Mz;Lnjd;dpe;jpauapy;NtNtiyepWj;jj;ij (nghd;kiy>jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp) Vw;ghLnra;jjpy;
,th; Kf;fpag; gq;Ftpfj;jhh;. mjw;fhfj; jz;lidngw;whh;.

Nghh;j; jsthlf;fplq;Fj; jhf;Fjypd; NghJjg;gpjj ,Uth; 1932 [{d; 13 ,y; muRg;

gilfSf;FvjpuhfNeUf;F Neh; Nkhjy; Vw;gl;lNghJnfhy;yg;gl;lsh;. mNjNtisapy; mth;fs;
jy;fhl; fpuhkjjpy; muRg;gilfspd; jsgjpNfg;ld;
Nfk&idxUViogpuhkztpjitahdrhtpj;hp Njtp vd;gthpd; tPl;by; nfhd;wdh;.
,e;jrk;gtj;jpw;Fg; gpwFmt;tpjitg; ngz;kzpmtuJFoe;ijfSld; ifJnra;ag;gl;lhh;.
tprhuizapd; NghJmg;ngz;kzpf;FNtz;basTcjtpnra;tjhfj; J}z;bAk;
mthplkpUe;JxUthh;j;ijiaf; $l fhty;Jiway; ngwKbatpy;iy.
gbg;gwptw;wVioahapUe;Jk; jq;fk; Nghd;wg; nghUs;fSf;FMirg;glhky;
jaf;fkpd;wpmj;jidf; nfhLikfisAk; gopiaAk; jhq;fpf;nfhs;sKbe;jJ. fy;gdhjj;jpd;
Rarhpijapy; ,Ue;J (Chittagong Amoury Raiders Reminiscences)
myF – 6 Njrpathjmurpaypy; tFg;Gthjk;
ghfp];jhd; vd;wvz;zNthl;lk; 1940 ,y; K];ypk; yPf; NkilfspypUe;Jntspg;gl;lhYk;

gj;JMz;LfSf;FKd;ghfNtftpQUk; mwpQUkhdKfkJ ,f;ghyhy; rpe;jpf;fg;gl;ljhFk;. 1930
,y; myfhghj;jpy; eilngw;w K];ypk; yPf;fpd; Mz;Lkhehl;by; ,f;ghy;
xUq;fpizf;fg;gl;ltlNkw;F ,e;jpa K];ypk; muirj; jhd; fhztpUk;Gtjhff; $wpdhh;.
,Jgpd;dh; Nfk;gphpl;[; khzth;fspy; xUtuhdufkJmypahy; tYthfntspg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
yPf;fpd; mbg;gilf; Nfhhpf;ifahdJ‘,U ehLnfhs;if’MFk;. ,jidKjypy; rh; thrph; `rd;
vd;gth; jhd; 1937 ,y; eilngw;wgk;gha; yPf; khehl;by; jdJjiyikciuapy; Fwpg;gpl;lhh;.
,g;gue;jfz;lj;jpy; thOk; ,e;Jf;fSk; K];ypk;fSk; ,uz;Lr%fq;fs; my;y>Mdhy;
gytopfspy; ,U ehl;bduhffUJjy; Ntz;Lk; vd;whh;.
Kjy; cyfg;NghUf;FKd;dh; fyP/ghfhgh (,];yhkpar; rkaj;jpd; Gdpjkhd ,lk;)

Mfpatw;wpd; eyd;fisg; ghJfhg;gjhf ,q;fpyhe;Jthf;FWjptoq;fpapUe;jJ. Mdhy; Kjy;
cyfg;Nghhpy; JUf;fpad; Njhy;tpf;Fg; gpd;dh; mt;thf;FWjpiaepiwNtw;wkWj;Jtpl;lJ.
jpifj;Jg;Nghd K];ypk; r%fj;jpdh; Mq;fpNyaUf;Fj; jq;fs; Nfhgj;ijf;
fhl;lTk;>JUf;fpapd; fyP/ghitghJfhf;fTk;>fpyhgj; ,af;fj;ijnjlq;fpdhh;.
jdpj; njhFjpmy;yJtFg;Gthhpj; njhFjp : ,e;jtifahdKiwapy; K];ypk;fs; kl;LNk

K];ypk; Ntl;ghsUf;Fthf;fspf;fKbAk;. 1909 Mk; Mz;Lkpz;Nlh–khh;yprl;lk;.
NguuRrl;lkd;wj;jpy; mYtyuy;yhj 27 cWg;gpdh;fSf;fhd ,lq;fspy; vl;L ,lq;fis
K];ypk;fSf;Ftoq;fpaJ. khfhzrl;lkd;wq;fspd; ,lq;fis K];ypk; Ntl;ghsh;fSf;Fg;
gpd;tUkhWxJf;fpapUe;jJ. mitahtd :kjuh]; 4>gk;gha; 4>tq;fhsk; 5.
“,e;J– K];ypk; tFg;Gthjk;>eLj;jutFg;GfSf;fpilNaele;jNkhjy;fspd; tpisNtMFk;.

kdrhl;rpAs;s ,e;Jkw;Wk; K];ypk; nghJkf;fs; ,j;jifatFg;Gthjj;jpypUe;JKw;wpYk;
tpyfpNa ,Ue;jdh;.” – [t`h;yhy; NeU

gphptpidthjNjrpaj;jpd;
tsh;r;rpFwpj;jjdJkdNtjidiafhe;jpgpd;tUkhWntspg;gLj;jpdhh;. “jdpkdpjh;fspd;
vz;zpf;ifiag; NghyNtgykjq;fs; cs;sd”. Mdhy; Njrpaj;jpd;
Md;khFwpj;jtpopg;Gzh;Ts;sth;fs; kw;wth;fspd; kjq;fspy; jiyaplkhl;lhh;fs;.
,e;jpahtpYs;smidtUk; ,e;Jf;fshfkl;LNk ,Uf;fNtz;Lnkd ,e;Jf;fs; ek;gpdhy;
mth;fs; fdTyfpy; tho;fpwhh;fs; vd;NwnghUs;. jq;fs; ehl;ilcUthf;fpa
,e;Jf;fs;>rPf;fpah;fs;>Kfkjpah;fs;>ghh;rpfs;>fpwpj;Jth;fs; MfpamidtUk; ehl;bd rf
kdpjh;fNs. jq;fSilaeyd;fSf;fhfmth;fs; xw;WikAld; tho;e;jjhfNtz;Lk;.
cyfj;jpd; ve;jnthUgFjpapYk; xUehl;LhpikAk; xUkjKk; xNunghUisj;
jUfpwthh;j;ijfshf ,y;iy. ,e;jpahtpy; mt;thWvg;NghJNk ,Ue;jjpy;iy.
myF – 7 ,e;jpaNjrpa ,af;fj;jpd; ,Wjpf;fl;lk;
khh;r; 23> 1940 ,y; epiwNtw;wg;gl;ljPh;khdk; gpd;tUkhW $WfpwJ. ‘G+NfhshPjpapy;

njhlh;r;rpahfmikag;ngw;wgFjpfs; gphpf;fg;gl;Lk; Njitf;Nfw;g ,e;jpahtpd; tlNkw;fpYk;
fpof;Fg; gFjpapYk; vz;zpf;ifmstpy; ,];yhkpag; ngUk;ghd;ik ,Ug;gJNghd;wg;
gFjpfiscUthf;fp ,itahtw;iwAk; ,izj;jjd;dhl;rpak; ,iwahz;ikAk;
nfhz;litfshfkhw;wpmjpypUe;JxUjdpehl;ilcUthf;fNtz;Lk;.’ (%yk; :Rkpj;
rh;f;fhh;>khlh;d; ,e;jpah 1885 – 1947 (Mq;fpyk;)>gpah;rd;> 2018>gf;fk; 324)
tq;fhsfhq;fpu]; fkpl;bj; jiyth; cl;gl;lmidj;Jg; gjtpfspy; ,Ue;Jk; Mf];l; 1939

,y; ,e;jpaNjrpafhq;fpurhy; tpLtpf;fg;gl;lNgh];>jdf;FmjuTjpul;b ,e;jpahKOtJk;
Rw;Wg;gazk; Nkw;nfhs;syhdhh;. ,e;jpaghJfhg;Gr; rl;lj;jpd; fPo; 1940 [{iy 3
md;WifJnra;ag;gl;Lmth; njhlh; fz;fhzpg;gpy; itf;fg;gl;lhh;. Nkw;nfhz;LINuhg;ghtpy;
njhlh;e;Jele;jg; Nghhpy; n[h;kdpNanty;Yk; vd;WNgh]; ek;gpdhh;. mth;
mr;RehLfNshLiff; Nfhh;gg ; jd; %yk; ,e;jpahRje;jpuk; ngwKbAk;
vd;wrpe;jidiatsh;j;njLj;jhh;. fy;fj;jhtpypUe;J 1941 [dthp 16 – 17 ,d; es;sputpy;
jg;gpamth; fhG+y; kw;Wk; Nrhtpaj; ehLtopahfxU ,j;jhypaf; flTr;rPl;ilf;
nfhz;Lkhh;r; khjj;jpd; filrpapy; ngh;ypd; nrd;WNrh;e;jhh;. mq;F `pl;yiuAk;
Nfhagy;i]Ak; re;jpj;jhh;. ,Uehrprjiyth;fSk; nghpjhf
,e;jpaMjuTepiyg;ghl;ilvLf;ftpy;iyvd;whYk; Mrhj; `pe;j;
NubNahitcUthf;fmDkjptoq;fpdh;. `pl;yiuAk;>mtUf;FneUf;fkhdmurpay;
jiyth;fisAk; re;jpj;jNghJk; Ngh]hy; nghpakhw;wj;ijcUthf;fKbatpy;iy. Nghhpy;
n[h;kdpf;FVw;gl;lgpd;dilitmLj;J>Ngh]; 1943 [{iyapy; rpq;fg;G+h; nrd;WNrh;e;jhh;.

myF – 8 fhydpaj;Jf;Fg; gpe;ija ,e;jpahtpd;

kWfl;likg;G
gQ;rrPyf; nfhs;if :
1. ,UehLfSk; xd;Wf;nfhd;Wmtw;wpd; epyvy;iykw;Wk;
,iwahz;ikiakjpj;Jelj;jy;.
2. ,UehLfSk; xd;iwnahd;WMf;fpukpf;fhky; ,Uj;jy;.
3. xUehLkw;nwhUehl;bd; cs; epfo;Tfspy; jiyaplhky; ,Uj;jy;.
4. ,UehLfSf;F ,ilNaahdrkj;Jtk; kw;Wk; xd;Wf;nfhd;Wgadiltjw;fhd
$l;LwT
5. rkhjhdrftho;T
,izg;GWjpMtzk; : ,e;jpamurhq;fr; rl;lk; 1935 fPo;

cUthf;fg;gl;lxUrl;lg;G+h;tkhdMtzk; MFk;. ,e;jMtzNkgphptpidapd;NghJ
,e;jpaRNjrmurh;fs; ,e;jpahmy;yJghfp];jhd; MfpaVNjDk; xUehl;Lld;
,iztjw;fhdxg;ge;jkhfTk; gad;Lj;jpf; nfhs;sg;gl;lJ.[t`h;yhy; NeU 1947 Mf];l; 14
– 15 ,ilg;gl;lehsd;Wes;sputpy; murikg;Geph;za rig cWg;gpdh;fsplk; ciuahw;wpdhh;.
mjpy; mth; Rje;jpu ,e;jpahtpw;fhdjpl;lj;ijAk; mjd; yl;rpaq;fisAk;
Fwpg;gpl;lNjhLmj;jifaghijiaNjh;e;njLj;jjw;fhdjtph;f;fKbahjfhuzq;fisAk;
nghUj;jkhftpsf;fpdhh;. “ePz;lfhyj;jpw;FKd;dh; ehk; tpjpNahLXh; xg;ge;jk; nra;Njhk;.
,g;NghJme;jthf;FWjpfisKOikahfmy;yJ KO mstpy; Mdhy; kpfTk;
fzprkhfkPl;Fk; Neuk; te;Jtpl;lJ”. Mrphpah;fs; [t`h;yhy; NeUtpd; KO ciuiaAk;
khzth;fisf; Nfl;fr; nra;ayhk
,e;jpamurpayikg;gpd; cWg;G 3 (Article 3) gpd;tUkhWnjhptpf;fpwJ : ehlhSkd;wk;

rl;lj;jpd; %yk; gpd;tUk; eltbf;iffisvLf;fyhk;.
(m) xUkhepyj;jpypUe;Jepyg;gFjpiag; gphpj;Njhmy;yJ
,uz;Lmy;yJmjw;FNkw;gl;lkhepyq;fismy;yJkhepyq;fspd; gFjpfis
,izj;Njhmy;yJVNjDk; epyg;gFjpiakhepyg; gFjpfNshL
,izj;NjhGjpakhepyj;ijcUthf;fyhk;.
(M) ve;jkhepyj;jpd; epyg;gFjpiaAk; mjpfhpf;fyhk;
(,) ve;jkhepyj;jpd; epyg;gFjpiaAk; Fiwf;fyhk;
(<) ve;jkhepyj;jpd; vy;iyiaAk; khw;wpaikf;fyhk

;
tuyhw;WmwpQh; QhNde;jpughz;Nl $w;Wg;gb 1947 – 48 ,y; 5 ,yl;rk; K];ypk;
my;yhjmfjpfs; (,e;Jf;fs; kw;Wk; rPf;fpah;fs;) gQ;rhg; kw;Wk; jpy;ypf;F
,lk;ngah;e;Jnfhz;bUe;jdh;. jpy;ypapy; trpj;jgy;yhapuf;fzf;fhd K];ypk;fs;
mh;fsJtPLfspypUe;Jfhypnra;ag;gl;ldh;. td;Kiwf; Fk;gypd;
jhf;FjypypUe;Jjg;gnrq;Nfhl;ilkw;Wk; Guhz`pyhNfhl;ilfspypUe;jKfhk;fspy; kf;fs;
jQ;rk; GFe;jdh;. mfjpKfhk;fs; Vw;gLj;jg;gl;bUe;jNghjpYk; mtw;wpy; NghJkhdjz;zPh;
kw;Wk; Rfhjhutrjpfs; ,y;iy
myF– 9 Xh; Gjpar%f–nghUshjhuxOq;fikitvjph; Nehf;Fjy;
1951 Mk; Mz;LKjy; 2017 Mk; Mz;Ltiuapyhdfhyg;gFjpapy;

gd;dpnuz;LIe;jhz;Ljpl;lq;fs; nray;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. ,jpy;
gd;dpnuz;lhtJIe;jhz;Ljpl;lNk (2012 – 2017) ,Wjpahdjpl;lkhFk;. 2015 ,y; jpl;lf; FO
fiyf;fg;gl;L mjw;Fg; gjpyhf epjpMNahf; (NITI Aayog) vDk; mikg;G
cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Mq;fpNyah;fshy; %d;WtifahdtUtha; t#y; KiwmwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.

tq;fhsk; kw;Wk; tl,e;jpahtpd; ngUk;gFjpfspy; mwpKfk;
nra;ag;gl;lepue;juepythpj; jpl;lj;jpd; fPo;>epythpianrYj;Jk; nghWg;G [kPdj
; hh;fs;
vdg;gLk; Fj;jifjhuh;fsplk; tplg;gl;lJ. njd;dpe;jpahtpy; uaj;Jthhp (uaj;
vd;why; tptrhapvd;WnghUs;) Kiwapd; fPo; tptrhapfs;
epythpiaNeubahfmurhq;fj;jplk; nrYj;jpdh;. %d;whtJKiwehl;bd; xUrpy
,lq;fspy; kl;Lk; fhzg;gl;lkfy;thhhpKiw. ,jpy; epythpiar;
nrYj;JtJfpuhkj;jpd; $l;Lg; nghWg;ghFk;.
myF– 2 NjrpatUtha;
xUehl;by; nkhj;jcs;ehl;Lcw;gj;jp(GDP) apy; tiuaWf;fg;gl;lepiyapy;

NjrpatUkhdk; mstplg;gLtjpd; %yk; me;ehl;bd; eyj;ijmwpaKbAk;.
mjpftsh;r;rpf;fhd ,yf;Ffs; vjw;fhfvg;gbvd;gijtiuaWf;fNtz;Lk;.
“xUehl;by; cs;sciog;Gk; Kjyk; Nrh;e;Jmq;Fs;s ,aw;iftsq;fisg;

gad;gLj;jpgz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; gzpifsg; gad;gLj;jfpd;wd. ,JKNtme;ehl;bd;
epfuMz;LtUkhdk;>NjrpatUtha; my;yJNjrpa<TjnjhifMFk;”
–My;/gpul; khh;~y; (Alfre Marshall)

“Xh; Mz;by; nghUshjhuj;jd; cw;gj;jpmikg;gpy; ,Ue;Jgz;lq;fSk; gzpfSk;

cw;gj;jpnra;ag;gl;LepfuntspaPlhfmit ,WjpepiyEfh;Nthhpd;
iffSf;Fnry;fpd;wdmy;yJme;jehl;by; ,Uf;ff; $ba %yjdg; nghUl;fspd;
,Ug;gNjhLepfu $Ljyhfr; Nrh;fpwJ”. - irkd; F];el;];
2.41 GDP 2.4.2 GNP 2.4.3 NNP
2.4.4 fhuzpr; nrytpy; epfuNjrpacw;gj;jp (NNP at factor cost)
2.4.5 jdpegh; tUkhdk; (Personal Income)
2.4.6 nrytopf;ff; $batUkhdk; (Disposable Income)
2.4.7 jyhtUkhdk; (Per capita Income)
2.4.8 cz;iktUkhdk; (Real Income)
2.4.9 GDP Fiwg;ghd; (GDP Deflator)
jdpegh; tUkhdk; =NjrpatUkhdk; - (r%fghJfhg;Ggq;fspg;Gkw;Wk;

gfpug;glhjfhh;gNul; ,yhgk;) +khw;WnrYj;Jjy;fs;
NNP = GNP – Nja;khdfopT
nryTKiwiag;gad;gLj;jpfzf;fplg;gLk; CDC = C + I + G + (X – M)
,jpy; C =Efh;Tgz;lq;fs;>I =KjyPlL

; gz;lq;fs;>G =murpd; thq;Fjy;fs;
epfucs;ehl;Lcw;gj;jp= GDP – Nja;khdk;
re;ijtpiyapy; GNP =re;ijtpiyapy; GDP +ntspehl;bypUe;Jfpilf;Fk;

epfutUkhdk;.
jyhtUkhdk; =NjrpatUkhdk;
kf;fs; njhif
fhuzpnrytpy; NNP =re;ijtpiyapy; NNP –kiwKfthp +khdpak;
epiyahdtpiyapy; NjrpatUkhdk; =elg;Gtpiyapy; NjrpatUtha;
P1 =elg;GMz;Ltpiyf; Fwpg;gpL P0 = mbg;gilMz;bd; tpiyf;FwpaPL
GDPFiwg;ghd; =gzkjpg;GGDP 100
cz;ikGDP

GDP (nryT GDP (fhuzptUtha; Kiw) GDP (cw;gj;jpKiw)

$l;LKiw)
 Efh;rr; p  kf;fspd; rk;gsk;>  nghUshjhuj;jpd;
 muRnrytpdq;f $yp>RaNtiynra;NthUf;f xt;nthUJiwap
s; hdrk;gsk; Yk;
 KjyPlL ; r;  jdpahh; Jiwtpahghuk; $l;lg;gl;lkjpg;G
nrytpdq;fs; %yk; fpilf;Fk; ,yhgk;  ,j;Jiwfs;
 ,Ug;Gfspd;  epychpikahsh;fs; ngWk;  Kjd;ik
kjpg;Gkhwy; thlif  ,uz;lhk; epiy
 Vw;Wkjp -  jahhpg;G
,wf;Fkjp =  JizepWtdq;f
nkhj;jcs;ehl;L s;
cw;gj;jp
NjrpatUtha; fzf;fPl;by; cs;srpukq;fs; :

(m) khw;Wr; nrYj;jy;fs; (M) Nja;khdq;fs; kjpg;gPLnra;tjpy; rpukk; (,) gzk;
nrYj;jg;glhjNritfs; (<) rl;ltpNuhjeltbf;iffshy; fpilf;Fk; tUkhdk; (c)
nrhe;jEfh;Tf;fhdcw;gj;jpkw;Wk; tpiykhw;wk; (C) %yjd ,yhgk; (v) Gs;sptptur;
rpf;fy;fs;
myF– 5 gztpay; nghUspay;
gz;lkhw;WKiwapd; tuyhW 6000 BC apy; Jtq;fpaJ
 nkrgNlhkpahgoq;Fbapduhy; gz;lkhw;WKiwgad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ
 NghadPrpah;fshy; fly; fle;Jgy;NtWefuq;fspy; ,k;Kiwgad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ
 ghgpNyhdpah;fs; nghUl;fSf;Fg; nghUl;fiskhw;Wk; gz;lkhw;WKiwiagad;gLj;jpdh;
gzf; FwpaPL
,e;jpanjhopy;El;gf; fofk; (IIT) Kk;igapy; KJfiyg; gl;lk; ngw;wjpU. D.

cjaFkhuhy; tbtikf;fg;gl;llGjpagzf;FwpaPL [{iy 15> 2010 Mk; Mz;by;
kj;jpamikr;ruitf; $l;lj;jpy; Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;lJ. NjtehfhpvOj;J‘uh’ Tk; Nuhkd; vOj;J ‘R’
,y; nrq;Fj;Jf;NfhL ,y;yhkhYk; cs;stbtikg;ghFk;. mnkhpf;fh>gphpl;ld;>
[g;ghd;>INuhg;ghehLfSf;Fg;gpd; ,e;jpahjdpg; gzf; FwpaPLnfhz;lehlhftpsq;Ffpd;wJ.

gzj;jpd; gzpfs;
Kjy;epiyg ,uz;lhk; Jizg; ,jugzpfs;

zpfs; epiygzpfs; gzpfs;
MV = PT
M =nkhj;j (fhfpj) gzmsT V =gzj;jpd; Row;rpNtfk;
P =nghJtpiykl;lk; T =thzpgj;jpd; msT
MV = PT
gzmspg;G=gzj;Njit
21 Mk; E}w;whz;bd; Kjy; cah; gztPf;fk; Kd;ndg;nghOJk; ,y;yhjmsthf

[pk;ghg;Ntehl;by; Mz;bw;F 3714 rjtPjkhfVg;uy; 2007 ,Wjpapy; cah;e;jJ.
myF– 6 tq;fpapay;
,e;jpatq;fpfsd; tuyhW :
 `pe;J];jhd; tq;fp (Bank of Hindustan) ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; tq;fp (1770)

(nts;isah; Ml;rpapy;)
 ,e;jpahtpy; cs;stq;fpfs; mikg;Ggpurpnld;rptq;fpfshy; (Presidency
Banks)fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;Lk; Mjpf;fk; nrYj;jg;gl;Lk; te;jJ.
%d;Wgpurpnld;rptq;fpfs; ,Ue;jd
1. tq;fhstq;fp(Bank of Bengal) (1809)

2. Kk;igtq;fp(Bank of Bombay) (1840)
3. nrd;idtq;fpBank of Madras) (1843) - ,itfs; gpurpnld;rptq;fpfs;
vd;Wmiof;fg;gl;ld. vy;yhk; xUq;fpizf;fg;gl;lJ (1921). khw;wg;gl;lJ (1955)
,e;jpa ];Nll; tq;fp (State Bank of India SBI)

tzpftq;fpfspd; gq;F :
%yjdjpul;rp (2) fld; cUthf;fk; (3) epjpiaKiwg;gLj;Jjy; (4)
rhpahdtifnjhopy;fisCf;fg;gLj;Jjy; (5) fld;fisg; gzkhfkhw;Wjy; (6)
muRf;Fepjpmspj;jy; (7) Ntiytha;g;GfiscUthf;Fjy; (8) njhopy;
KidNthiuCf;fg;gLj;Jjy;
,e;jpahprh;t; tq;fp
tuyhW eph;thfk; gzpfs;
 1934 Mk;  ikatq;fp /  fhfpjg; gzk;
Mz;Lrl;ltpjpg;gb kw;w ntspapLjy;
1935 Mk; ,e;jpatq;fpfspd;  murpd; tq;fpahfr;
Mz;LVg;uy; 1 Mk; newpahsh; nray;gLjy;
Njjpmikf;fg;gl;lJ  filrpepiyf; (murpw;fhdepjptUthi
 [dthp 1 Mk; Njjp fld; <Nthd; ag; ngw;Wf;
1949 Mk;  MSeh;>ehd;FJi nfhs;Sjy; kw;Wk;
Mz;LNjrpakakhf; zMSeh;fs; murpd;
fg;gl;Lkj;jpamuRf; kw;Wk; nrytpdq;fSf;Fg;
Fr; nrhe;jkhdJ. ikamurhy; gzk; toq;Fjy;)
 1937 ,y; epakpf;fg;gLk;  ,e;jpatq;fpmikg;Gfi
jiyikmYtyfk; ikaeph;thff; snewpg;gLj;Jjy;
fy;fj;jhtpypUe;JK FO  me;epar; nryhtzpapd;
k;igf;Fkhw;wg;gl;lJ cWg;gpdh;fs; ghJfhtyd;
.  fld;
 X];Nghh;d; ];kpj; mspg;ignewpg;gLj;Jjy;
(Osborne smith)
RBI ,d; Kjy;
MSeh; Mthh;
fld; fl;Lg;ghl;L Kiwfs;
fld; msTf; fl;Lg;ghl;L Kiwfs;

fld; jd;ikf; fl;Lg;ghl;L Kiwfs;
1. tq;fptpfpjf; nfhs;if
1. fld; gq;fPL
2. ntspr;re;ijeltbf;iffs;
2. Neubeltbf;iffs;
3. khWk; Fiwe;jgl;rtq;fpnuhf;f
3. newpKiwJ}z;ly;
,Ug;Gtpfpjk;
4. tpsk;gug;gLj;Jjy;
5. Efh;Nthh; flidnewpg;gLj;Jjy;
6. tpspk;GepiyNjitj; njhifiakhw;Wjy;

18 Mk; E}w;whz;by; fhfpjg; gzk; ntspapLk; KiwJtq;fpaJ. jdpahh;

tq;fpfshdtq;fhstq;fp>Kk;igtq;fpkw;Wk; nrd;idtq;fpfs; Kjypy; fhfpjg;
gzj;ijmr;rbj;jJ. n~h; ~h #hp (Sher Shah Suri) vd;gtuhy; &. 1 f;F 40
nrk;Gehzaq;fs; vd;wtpfpjj;jpy; Kjy; &gha; ntspaplg;gl;Ls;sJ. rk];fpUjr;
nrhy;yhdnusg;gpah (Raupya) tpypUe;J&gha; vd;wthh;j;ijNjhd;wpaJ. ,e;jpahtpd;
gd;Kfj; jd;ikiatpsf;Fk; tpjkhfxt;nthU&gha; Nehl;bYk; mjd; kjpg;G 17 nkhopfspy;
vOjg;gl;bUf;Fk; (Kd;gf;fj;jpy; Mq;fpyj;jpYk; `pe;jpapYk; gpd;gf;fj;jpy; kw;w 15
nkhopfspYk;)
nug;Nghtpfpjk; (RR) kPs;

nug;Nghtpfpjk;
(RRR)
tzpftq;fpfSf;Fikatq;fpFWfpafhyfl tzpftq;fpfsplkpUe;Jthq;Fk; flDf;fhd
d; toq;Fk; nghOJtpjpf;Fk; ,e;jpahprh;t; tq;fpnfhLf;ftpUk;Gk;
tl;btpfpjNknug;Nghtpfpjk; vdg;gLfpwJ. tlbtpfpjNkkPs;
,t;tq;fpfSf;Fepjpg;gw;whf;FiwVw;gLk; nug;Nghtpfpjj;ijcah;j;jpdhy;>mJtzpftq;f
nghOJmitfs; gj;jpuq;fis<lhfitj;J pfSf;F
,e;jpahprh;t; tq;fpapy; fld;fisngWk;. ,yhgfukhdtl;btpfpjkhfpmitfsplk;
me;epiyapy; tpjpf;fg;gLk; cs;sgzj;ijhprh;t; tq;fpaplk;
tl;btpfpjNknug;Nghtpfpjk; vdg;gLfpwJ. nfhz;Lte;JNrh;f;fpwJ. ,jdhy;
gztPf;fj;ijfl;Lg;gLj;jnug;Nghtpfpjj;ij me;jgzj;jpw;Fcah; ghJfhg;Gfpilf;fpwJ.
mjpfhpg;gjd; %yk; fld; ,jdhy; tzpftq;fpfs;
thq;Ftjw;fhdnryitmjpfg;gLj;jp>fld; jdJthbf;ifahsh;fSf;Ffld;
thq;Ftijf; Fiwf;fpwJgzthl;l nfhLg;gJFiwfpwJ. ,J
#o;epiyapy;. ,aw;ifahfNtthbf;ifahsh;fSf;Ftoq;fg;
gLk;flDf;fhdtl;btpfpjj;ijcah;j;Jk;.
gzf;nfhs;ifapd; ,uz;Lepiyfs; :
gztPf;fk; :
(1) fld; ngWjy; vspJ (2) Efh;Nthh; mjpfk; Efh;th; (3) tpahghuk; tprhykhFk;
(4) mjpfkf;fs; NtiyngWthh;fs; (5) kf;fs; mjpfk; nryTnra;thh;fs;
ke;jepiy :
(1) fld; ngWjy; fbdk; (2) Efh;Nthh; FiwthfEfh;th; (3) tpahghutphpthf;fk;
js;spg;NghFk; (4) Ntiyapd;ikmjpfhpf;Fk; (5) cw;gj;jpFiwAk;
gztpay; nfhs;ifapd; Nehf;fq;fs; :

(1) gzj;jpd; eLepiyj; jd;ik (2) ghpth;j;jidtpfpjj;jpy; epiyj; jd;ik (3)
tpiyiaepiyg;gLj;Jjy; (4) KO Ntiytha;g;G (5) nghUshjhutsh;r;rp (6)
nrYj;Jr; rkepiyapy; rkepiyiaNgZjy;

NEFT RTGS
 Njrpakpd;dZ top gzg;ghpth;j;jid  epfo;NeungUe;jpus; jPh;Tfs;
 njhFg;ghfghpkhw;wk; nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.  epfo;Neuj;jpy; ghpkhw;wk;.
vdNtjhkjhkhFk; vdNttpiuthfr; nray;gLk;
 Neuk; :fhiy 8 kzpKjy; khiy 6.30  Neuk; :fhiy 9 kzpKjy; khiy
kzptiu (khiy 12.30 tiukl;Lk; 4.30 tiu (khiy 1.30
rdpf;fpoikfspy;) tiurdpf;fpoikfspy;)
 Fiwe;jgl;rmsTfpilaHJ  Fiwe;jgl;rmDg;Gk; njhif&. 2
,yl;rk;
myF– 7 gd;dhl;Lg; nghUspay;
t.vz; cs;ehl;Lthzpfk; gd;dhl;Lthzpfk;

1 xUehl;bw;Fs; kf;fs; kw;Wk; gyehl;bd; kf;fs; kw;Wk;
epWtdq;fSf;fpilNaeilngWk; epWtdq;fSf;fpilapyhdthzpfk;
thzpfk;
2 ciog;Gkw;Wk; %yjdk; ciog;Gkw;Wk; %yjdk;
xUehl;bd; ehLfSf;fpilNa ,lk; ngah;jy;
gFjpfSf;fpilNajilapy;yhky; jilfSf;Fl;gl;lJ
,lk; ngah;jy;
3 nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; gzpfs; ,lk; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; gzpfs; ,lk;
ngah;jypy; jilVJkpy;iy ngah;jiyRq;fthpkw;Wk;
gq;fsTNghd;wjilfs;
fbdkhf;Ffpd;wd
4 tpw;wy; thq;fypy; xNuxUgzk; gyehl;Lgzq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ
kl;LNkgad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ
5 Gtpmikg;Gkw;Wk; fhyepiy Gtpmikg;Gkw;Wk; fhyepiyNtWgLk;
#oy; fpl;lj;jl;lxNukhjphp ,ay;Gnfhz;lit
,Uf;Fk;
6 thzpfkw;Wk; epjpeilKiwfs; thzpfk; kw;Wk; epjpeilKiwfs;
xNukhjphpahdit NtWgLk; Nghf;Ff; nfhz;lit
7 murikg;GKiwkf;fspd; murikg;GKiwkf;fspd;
gof;ftof;fq;fs; kw;Wk; murpd; gof;ftof;fq;fs; kw;Wk; murpd;
nfhs;iffspy; NtWghby;iy nfhs;iffspy; NtWghLfspUf;Fk;
fhuzp ,Ug;gkhjphp
 n`f;nrh;>Xypd; cUthf;fpdhh;
 mjpfkhdfhuzp ,Ug;Gfisf; nfhz;lehLfs; cw;gj;jpapy; rpwg;Gj;
Njh;r;rpngw;Wthzpgj;jpy; <Lglyhk;
 jpwd; ciog;gpd; ,Ug;G rpwg;Gj; Njh;r;rp Vw;Wkjp
 jpwdw;wciog;Gnfhz;lehLfshy;
cw;gj;jpnra;ag;gl;lgz;lq;fs;>gzpfSf;Fg; ghpkhw;wk; nra;jy;
 Vw;Wkjpfs; ,Ug;Gmjpfkhfcs;sfhuzpAld; njhlh;GilaJ
 ,wf;Fkjpfs; gw;whf;Fiwahdnjhlh;GilaJ
 mjpffhuzpg; ngah;Tvd;gijvLNfhshff; nfhs;fpwJ

n`f;nrh; - Xypd; Nfhl;ghL (H – O Theoram)

H – O Nfhl;ghL fhuzp Vw;Wkjpfs;
“%yjd ,Ug;igmjpfk; fhuzptpfpjq;fspd; xUehLmJmjpfkhff;
nfhz;lehL %yjdg; khjphpVw;Wkjp> nfhz;Ls;sfhuzpiaf;
gz;lq;fisAk;>ciog;G ,wf;Fkjpiafhuzp nfhz;Lcw;gj;jpnra;Ak;
,Ug;igmjpfk; ,Ug;GmsNthLnjhlh;GgLj;Jfp gz;lq;fisVw;Wkjpnra;
nfhz;lehLciog;igmjp wJ Ak;
fk; gad;gLj;Jk;
gz;lq;fisAk;
Vw;Wkjpnra;Ak;.”
t.v njhd;ikg; gd;dhl;Lthzpgf; Gjpagd;dhl;Lthzpgf; Nfhl;ghL

z; Nfhl;ghL
1 gd;dhl;Lthzpgj;ijtpsf;Ftjw;Fc gd;dhl;Lthzpgj;ijtpsf;Ftjw;Fngh
iog;igr; rhh;e;jkjpg;Gf; Nfhl;ghl;il
Jkjpg;Gf; Nfhl;ghl;il mbg;gilahff;
mbg;gilahff; nfhz;lJ. nfhz;lJ
2 ,JxUfhuzp (ciog;G) khjphpahFk; ,J ,U fhuzp (ciog;G> %yjdk;)
khjphpahFk;.
3 xg;Gikr; xg;Gikr;
nryTNtWghl;bw;Fciog;ghsh;fspd; nryTNtWghl;bw;Fcw;gj;jpfhuzpfspd;
cw;gj;jpjpwd; NtWghLfs; fhuzk; fpilg;gsTNtWghNlfhuzk;
vd;fpwJ vdek;GfpwJ
,e;jpahtpy; nryhtzpkjpg;gFiwg;Gepfo;Tfs; : ,e;jpahtpy; &gha; 1947 ypUe;J

%d;WKiwkjpg;gpwf;fk; nra;ag;gl;lJ. (1) nrg;lk;gh; 29> 1949 (2) [{d; 6> 1966 (3)
[{iy 1> 1991
myF– 9 epjpg; nghUspay
;
nghJepjpapd; vy;iy : (1) nghJtUtha; (2) nghJr; nryT (3) nghJf;fld; (4)
epjpeph;thfk; (5) epjpf; nfhs;if
thptpjpg;Gtpjpfs; : (1) rpf;fdtpjp (2) rkj;Jttpjp (3) trjptpjp (4)
cWjptpjp (5) jpwd; kw;Wk; nefpo;Ttpjp
ntspehl;Lf; fld; - [{d; 2018 epytug;gb

juthpir ehLfs; ntspehl;Lf; jyhtPjfld; nkhj;jcs;ehl;Lcw;gj;jpapd;
fld; msT (US fld; rjtPjk; (GDP)
(kpy;ypad; lhyhpy)
lhyhpy)
1 mnkhpf;fh 21>171>000 58>200 98
2 ,q;fpyhe;J 8>475>956 127>000 313
3 gpuhd;]; 5>689>745 87>200 213

4 n[h;kdp 5>398>267 65>600 141

7 [g;ghd; 3>586>817 28>200 74
13 rPdh 1>710>625 1>200 14
21 u~;ah 537>458 3>700 40
22 ,e;jpah 529>000 380 20
Mjhuk; :cyftq;fpmwpf;ifkw;Wk; ,e;jpahtpd; fld; rhh;e;jmwpf;if–khh;r; 2018 (RBI
– mwpf;if–ehs; - 29.06.2018)
epjpf;FO Vw;gLj;jg;gl;lMz;L jiyth; nray;gLk; fhyk;

KjyhtJ 1951 K.C.epNahfp 1952 – 57
,uz;lhtJ 1956 K.re;jhdk; 1957 – 62
%d;whtJ 1960 A.K.re;jh 1962 – 66
ehd;fhtJ 1964 P.V.uh[kd;dhh; 1966 – 69
Ie;jhtJ 1968 kfhtPh; jpahfp 1969 – 74
MwhtJ 1972 K.gpukhde;jnul;b 1974 – 79
VohtJ 1977 J.M.rhyl; 1979 – 84
vl;lhtJ 1983 Y.B.rthd; 1984 – 89
xd;gjhtJ 1987 N.K.Prhy;Nt 1989 – 95
gj;jhtJ 1992 K.C. ge;j; 1995 – 2000
gjpndhd;W 1998 A.M. F];Nuh 2000 – 05
gdpnuz;L 2002 C. uq;fuh[d; 2005 – 10
gjp%d;W 2007 Dr.t[a; L Nfy;fhh; 2010 – 15
gjpehd;F 2013 Dr. Y.V.nul;b 2015 – 20
gjpide;J 2017 N.K. rpq; 2020 – 25
myF– 11 nghUshjhuNkk;ghLkw;Wk; jpl;lkply;
nghUshjhutsh;r;rpf;Fk; Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;FkpilNaahdNtw;Wikfs;
nghUshjhutsh;r;rp nghUshjhuKd;Ndw;wk;
tsh;e;jehLfspd; tsUk; ehLfspd; gpur;ridfisf;
nghUshjhugpur;ridfisifahSfpwJ ifahSfpwJ
khw;wq;fs; gbg;gbahfTk; epjhdkhfTk; njhlh;r;rpaw;wjd;dpr;irahdkhw;wq;fs;
epfo;fpwJ epfo;fpwJ
mjpfmsthdcw;gj;jpiaf; Fwpf;fpwJ cw;gj;jpmjpfhpg;gJkl;Lky;yhky;
cw;gj;jpahFk; nghUl;fspd; tiffSk;
khWfpwJ
vz;zpf;ifmbg;gilapyhdJ vz;zpf;ifkw;Wk; jumbg;gilapyhdJ
(mjhtJ) jyhtUkhdmjpfhpg;igf;
Fwpf;Fk;
FWfpavy;iyAilaJ tphpthdnghUs; nfhz;lnrhy;
Kd;Ndw;wk; = tsh;r;rp + khw;wk;
rh;thjpfhujpl;lkply; : ikaj; jpl;lf; FO xUjpl;lj;ijifapy; itj;Jf;

nfhz;Lehl;bd; midj;J nghUshjhu eltbf;iffisAk; fl;Lg;gLj;jp>tpUk;gpa
jpirapy; eilngwitg;gNjrh;thjpfhuj; jpl;lkply;.

nghUshjhutsh;r;rpFd;wpaehLfspd; rpwg;gpay;Gfs; :
mwpKfk; :
 tsh;r;rpFd;wpaehLfisxd;Wld; xd;Wnjhlh;GgLj;jpmwpayhk;
 cyftq;fpapd; tsh;r;rpmwpf;ifapd;gbjyhtPjnkhj;jehl;LtUkhdj;jpd;
mbg;gilapy; ehLfistifg;gLj;JfpwJ
cyftq;fpmwpf;if
Fiwe;jtUkhdKi eLj;jutUkhdk; mjpftUkhdk;

laehLfs; cilaehLfs; cilaehLfs;
jyhtPjnkhj;jehl;L jyhtPjnkhj;jehl;L jyhtPjnkhj;jehl;L
cw;gj;jp$ 906 cw;gj;jp$ 906 - $ cw;gj;jp$ 11>116
kw;Wk; 11,115 Nky; cs;sehLfs;
mjw;FFiwT ,ilNacs;sehLf
s;
nghUshjhuj;ijeph;zapf;Fk; fhuzpfs;
nghUshjhufhzpfs;
nghUshjhuk; rhuhjfhuzpfs;
1. ,aw;iftsq;fs; 1. kdpj tsk;
2. %yjdMf;fk; 2. njhopy;El;gmwpT
3. re;ijapd; msT 3. murpay; Rje;jpuk;
4. fl;likg;Gkhw;wk; 4. r%fmikg;G
5. epjpapay; mikg;G 5. Coyw;weph;thfk;
6. re;ijaplj;jf;fcghp 6. Kd;Ndw;wk; miltjw;fhdtpUg;gk;
7. gd;dhl;Lthzpfk; 7. ePjpNghjid>mwnewpkw;Wk; r%ftpOkpaq;fs;
8. nghUshjhumikg;G 8. #jhl;lKjyhspj;Jtk;
9. guk;giunrhj;JhpikKjyhspj;Jtk;

myF–1 ,;e;jpamurikg;G
jkpo;ehL:
 kjuh]; khfhzj;ijjkpofk; vdngah; khw;wf; Nfhhpjpahfprq;fuypq;fdhh; 20.071956

Kjy; 10.10.1956 tiu 76 ehl;fs; cz;zhtpujk; ,Ue;J caph; ePj;jhh;.
 kjuh]; khepyngah; khw;wr; rl;lk; 14 [dthp 1969 Mk; Mz;Ljkpo;ehLvdngah;
khw;wk; nra;ag;gl;lJ.
 fhe;jpatopapy; cz;zhNehd;G ,Ue;J caph; ePj;jth;
Kf;fpa $l;L $l;lq;fs; :
 tujl;rizxopg;Gr; rl;lk; 1959 kw;Wk; 9 Nk 1961

 gaq;futhjjLg;Gr; rl;lk; - 2002 khh;r;
murikg;Gj; jpUj;jr;rl;lKd; tiuT : murikg;gpy; cs;sxUtpjpapy; jpUj;jk; NfhUk;

rl;lKd;tiuTfs; murikg;Gj; jpUj;jr; rl;lk; Kd;tiuTvd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ. cWg;G 368
(2) d; fPo; tUk; midj;JtpjpfSk; ,jpy; mlq;Fk;. ,e;jrl;lKd;tiutpyhdehlhSkd;wj;jpy;
<uitfspYk; nfhz;Ltuyhk;.nghJf; fzf;F FO : kf;fsitcWg;gpdh;fspypUe;JxUth;
nghJfzf;Ff; FOj;jiytuhfkf;fsitj; jiytuhy; epakpf;fg;gLfpwhh;. ,jpy; 1967 – 1968
Mk; Mz;by; Kjd;Kiwahfvjph;f;fl;rpcWg;gpdh; xUtNunghJf; fzf;Ff;
FOj;jiytuhfkf;fsitj; jiytuhy; epakpf;fg;gl;Ls;shh;. ,f;FOkf;fsitj; jiyth;
fl;Lg;ghl;bd; fPo; ,aq;Fk; xUehlhSkd;wf; FOthfNtfUjg;gLfpwJ. 1950 [dthpKjy;
2018 Vg;uy; tiu ,f;FO 1596 mwpf;iffisjhf;fy; nra;Js;sJ.kjr;rhh;GmuR :
kjr;rhh;gpd;ikNfhl;ghl;bidgpd;gw;whjmuRkjr;rhh;GmuRvdg;gLk;.
kjrhh;GmuRvd;gJxUkjj;jpidmuRkjkhff; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. me;jmurpd; cah; gjtpfs;
midj;Jk; muRkjj;ijgpd;gw;WNthUf;Fkl;Lk; xJf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. kjr;rhh;GmuRcjhuzq;fs;
- ghfp];jhd;>thbfd; efuk; Nghd;witMFk;.
 njhFjp1 – 9 brk;gh; Kjy; 23 brk;gh; 1946 tiu

 njhFjp 2 – 20 [dthpKjy; 25 [dthp 1947 tiu
 njhFjp 3 – 28 Vg;uy; Kjy; 2 Nk 1947 tiu
 njhFjp 4 – 14 [{iyKjy; 31 [{iy 1947 tiu
 njhFjp 5 – 14 Mf];l; Kjy; 30 Mf];l; 1947 tiu
 njhFjp 6 – 27 [dthp 1948
 njhFjp 7 – 4 etk;gh; 1948 Kjy; 8 [dthp 1949 tiu
 njhFjp 8 – 16 NkKjy; 16 [{d; 1949 tiu
 njhFjp 9 – 30 [PiyKjy; 18 nrg;lk;gh; 1949 tiu
 njhFjp 10 – 6 mf;Nlhgh; Kjy; 17 mf;Nlhgh; 1949 tiu
 njhFjp 11 – 14 etk;gh; Kjy; 26 etk;gh; 1949 tiu
 njhFjp 12 – 24 [dthp 1950

ehlhSkd;wk;
FbauRj; jiyth; khepyq;fsit kf;fsit
238 cWg;gpdh;fs;
ehlhSkd;wj;jpd; khepyq;fs; kw;Wk; nkhj;jcWg;gpdh;fs;
<uitfspd; xd;wpaMSiff;Fl;gl;lgF 545. 543 cWg;gpdh;fs;
cWg;gpdh;fs; kw;Wk; jprl;lkd;wq;fs; %yk; Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;lkf;fs;
khepy/ xd;wpa Njh;e;njLf;fg;gLfpd;wdh;. gpujpepjpfs;.
MSikf;Fl;gl;l ,ijj;jtpu 12 ,uz;LcWg;gpdh;fs;
gFjprl;lkd;wq;fspd; cWg;gpdh;fisFbauRj;ji FbauRj;jiytuhy;
cWg;gpdh;fs; yth; epakdk; nra;thh;. epakpf;fg;gLk;
MfpNahiuthf;fhsh;f fhyk; Mq;fpNyh -
shff; :epue;jukhdmikg;Gfiyf;f ,e;jparKjhaj;jpdh;.
nfhz;LFbauRj; g;glKbahJ. fhyk; Ie;JMz;Lfs;.
jiyth; khepyq;fisitcWg;gpdh; FbauRj;jiyth;
Njh;jYf;fhdthf;fhsh; fspd; fhyk; Mz;Lfs;. kf;fsitf; fiyf;Fk;
gl;bay; nkhj;jkhepyq;fsitcWg; mjpfhuk; ngw;Ws;shh;.
jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. gpdh;fspy;
,e;jthf;fhsh; %d;WxUgq;FcWg;gpdh;fi
gl;bay;gbNjh;jy; s
elj;jg;gl;LFbauRj; ,uz;LMz;Lf;FxUKiwN
jiyth; jh;e;njLf;Fk; tifapy;
Njh;e;njLf;fg;gLfpwhh;. khepyq;fisitNjh;jy;
eilngWfpwJ.
jkpo;ehLkhepyr; rl;lkd;wk; :
 jkpo;ehLkhepyr; rl;lkd;wk; 234 cWg;gpdh;fisf; nfhz;lJ. 189 cWg;gpdh;fs;

nghJnjhFjpapypUe;Jk; 45 cWg;gpdh;fs; jdpj;njhFjpfspUe;Jk;
Njh;e;njLf;fg;gLfpd;wdh;.
 rl;lkd;wj;jpy; Kjy; $l;lj; njhlh; Kjy; nghJj; Njh;jiyj; njhlh;e;J 3.5.1952
md;Wnjhlq;fpaJ.
 murikg;GcWg;G 333 ,d; fPo; Mq;fpNyh - ,e;jpagpujpepjpxUth; MSeuhy;
epakpf;fg;gLfpwhh;.
 16.05.2016 md;Wjkpofrl;lkd;wj;jpw;FnghJj; Njh;jy; ele;jijnahl;b 15
tJjkpofrl;lkd;wk; 21.05.2016 md;Wmikf;fg;gl;lJ.

myF– 2 rl;lkd;wk;
%d;whk; ghypdegh;fs; chpikfs; rl;lKd;tiuT 2014 : %d;whk; ghypdegh;fs;

chpikfs; rl;lKd;tiuTjpUr;rprpthmth;fshy; nfhz;Ltug;gl;ljdpegh;
rl;lKd;tiuTMFk;. ,e;jpahtpy; %d;whk; ghypdkf;fs; re;jpj;JtUk;
Gwf;fzpg;GfSf;FKbTfl;l ,k;Kd;tiuTNfhUfpwJ.
cWg;G 120 : ehlhSkd;wj;jpd; mYty; nkhopahf ,e;jpAk; Mq;fpyKk; ,Uf;Fk;
vdmurikg;gpd; cWg;G 120 $WfpwJ. ,t;thwpUe;jhYk;>ehlhSkd;wcWg;gpdh;
vtNuDk; ,e;jpkw;Wk; Mq;fpyk; njhpahjtuhf ,Ug;gpd;>mth; jdJjha; nkhopapy;
ciuahw;wmitj;jiyth; mDkjpf;fyhk; vd;Wk; ,t;TWg;GNkYk; $WfpwJ.
1. epjpepiymwpf;iff; $l;lj;njhlh; (gpg;uthp–Nk)

2. kiof;fhyf; $l;lj;njhlh; ([{iy–Mf];l);
3. Fsph;fhyf; $l;lj; njhlh; (etk;gh; - brk;gh; )
rl;lKd; tiuTfSf;fhdxg;gjy; mspj;jy;>gy;NtWjPh;khdq;fs; kw;Wk; epfo;Tfs;

Fwpj;Jtpthjk; elj;Jjy;>Nghd;wtw;wpf;fhfjpl;lkplg;gl;lxUfhytiuaiwapy;
ehlhSkd;wk; $Ltijj;jhd; xU $l;lj;njhlh; vd;Wmiof;fpNwhk;. xUtUlj;jpy;
ehlhskd;wk; %d;W $l;lj; njhlh;fiselj;JfpwJ.
cWg;gpdh;fspd; Fiwe;jgl;rvz;zpf;if : kf;fsit / khepyq;fsit

$l;lj;njhlh;fiselj;Jtjw;Fnkhj;jcWg;gpdh;fspd; vz;zpf;ifapy; Fiwe;jgl;rk;
gj;jpy; xUgq;Fvz;zpf;if ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
,e;jpahtpd; jiyikr; rpw;gpfspy; xUtUk; mjd; kf;fshl;rpmurikg;Gj; jj;Jtj;jpd;

ce;Jrf;jpahfjpfo;ej ; th; [t`h;yhy; NeU. ,e;jparghehafhpd;
mYtyfj;ijFwpj;jxUnghUj;jkhd #o;epiyapy; ,t;thW $Wfpwhh;. “rghehafh;
kd;wj;jpd; gpujpepjpahfjpfo;fpwhh;. mth; / mts; ,e;jkd;wj;jpd; khz;Gkw;Wk; mjd;
Rje;jpuj;jpd; gpujpepjpahftpsq;Ffpwhh;. ,e;jkd;wk;>ehl;bd; rpd;dkhftpsq;Ftjhy;
xUFwpg;gpl;ltifapy; rghehafh; ,e;jehl;bd; Rje;jpuk; kw;Wk; tpLjiyapd;
rpd;dkhfjpfo;fpwhh;. MfNt>mJxUNkd;ikjhq;fpaRje;jpukhdgjptpahf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
me;jg;gjtpvg;NghJk; kpfj;jpwiktha;e;jkw;Wk; ghuhgl;rkw;wxUtuhy;
tfpf;fg;glNtz;Lk;.”

ehlhSkd;wcWg;gpdh;fSf;fhdmjpfhuq;fSk; rpwg;GhpikfSk; :
1. ehlhSkd;wj;jpy; Ngr;Rhpikkw;Wk; ehlhSkd;wj;jpy; my;yJve;jxUFOtpYk; mth;
njhptpj;jfUj;Jf;fs; my;yJmspj;jthf;Ffs; Fwpj;Jve;jePjpkd;wj;jpYk;
rl;leltbf;iffs; njhlUtjw;FvjpuhdghJfhg;G
2. <uitfspypUe;JmjpfhuG+h;tkhfntspaplg;gLk; ve;jxUmwpf;if>fl;Liu>thf;Ffs;
my;yJeltbf;iffisgpuRhpg;gjw;Fvjpuhfrl;leltbf;iffs; ve;jePjpkd;wj;jpYk;
njhlUtjw;FvjpuhdghJfhg;G.
3. ehlhSkd;weltbf;iffs;
gw;wptprhuizelj;Jtjw;FePjpkd;wj;jpw;Fjiltpjpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
4. <uitfspy; ve;jxUmiteltbf;iffspd; cz;ikahdve;jxUmwpf;ifiaAk;
nra;jpj;jhs;fspy; gpuRhpf;Fk; chpikf;Fvjpuhdrl;ltpyf;fspg;G>gpuRuk;
jtwhdNehf;NfhLgpuRhpf;fg;gl;ljhf
,Ue;jhnyhopa>mjw;nfjpuhdePjpkd;wrl;leltbf;iffSf;FvjpuhdghJfhg;G.
5. ehlhSkd;wf; $l;lj;njhlh; eilngw;Wf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; NghJk;> $l;lj;njhlh;
njhlq;Ftjw;Fehw;gJehl;fSf;FKd;Gk; kw;Wk; $l;lj;njhlh; Kbe;Jehw;gJehlfs;
tiuapYk; chpikapay; tof;Ffspd; fPo; xUcWg;gpdiuifJnra;ag;glhky; ,Uf;Fk;
Rje;jpuk;.
6. ehlhSkd;wtshfj;jpDs;
xUcWg;gpdh;kPJrl;leltbf;ifmwpf;ifmspg;gJmy;yJifJMfpatw;wpypUe;Jtpjptpy
f;F.
Mjhuk; :https://www.india.gov.in/site/upload_files /npi/files/coi_part_full.pdf
ahh; khepyq;fsitcWg;gpduhfyhk;?
 ,e;jpaehl;bd; Fbkfdhf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.

 30 taJf;Fl;gl;ltuhf ,Uf;ff; $lhJ.
 kf;fs; gpuepjpj;Jtrl;lk; 1951 ,d; fPo; khepyq;fsitf;FNjh;e;njLf;fg;gltpUk;Gk;
xUegh; me;jkhepyj;jpd; ehlhSkd;wnjhFjpapy; xUthf;fsuhf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;.
 kf;fs; gpujpepjpj;Jtrl;lj;jpd; %d;whtJgphptpidkf;fs; gpujpepjpj;Jt (jpUj;j) rl;lk;>
2003 jpUj;jpaJ.
,jd; %yk; khepyq;fsitf;FNghl;bapLk; xUth;

ve;jkhepyj;jpypUe;JNjh;e;njLf;fg;gLfpd;whNuh>me;jkhepyj;jpy; trpg;gtuhf ,Uf;fNtz;Lk;
vd;wepge;jidtpyf;fpf; nfhs;sg;gl;lJ.
ed;wp : https://raiyasabha.nic.in/rsnew/practiceprocedur/book1.asp

myF– 3 Ml;rpj;Jiw
FbauRj; jiyth; Ml;rp : ntspehl;LMf;fpukpg;Gmy;yJMAjNke;jpafpsh;r;rpapypUe;JvOk;

neUf;fbepiyfisrkhspg;gjw;fhdmtruepiyiagpufldk; nra;Ak; mjpfhuk; MSeUf;F
,y;iy. Mdhy; murikg;gpd; tpjpKiwfSf;F ,zq;fkhepy muir elj;j ,ayhj #oy;
Vw;gl;lhy; mJgw;wpFbauRj;jiytUf;FmwpTWj;jpmwpf;ifjUk; mjpfhuk; cs;sJ.
(cWg;G– 356). ,jd; %yk; FbauRj;jiyth; jhNkkhepymurpd;
Ml;rpg;nghWg;gpidVw;Welj;jpr; nry;tjw;Ftifnra;fpwhh;.
jiyiktof;FiuQh; : xt;nthUkhepyj;jpw;fFk; kj;jpamurpd; jiyiktof;FiuQUf;F

,izahfxUmurpd; jiyiktof;FiuQh; epakpf;fg;gLfpwhh;. cah; ePjpkd;wj;jpd;
ePjpgjpahFk; jFjpAilth;fisNaMSeh; jiyiktof;FiuQuhfepakdk; nra;fpwhh;.
FLk;gmikr;ruitvd;why; vd;d?
FLk;gmikr;ruitvd;gJmikr;ruitf;Fs;NsNaxUrpWFOthfr; nray;gLk;
mikr;rh;fspd; FO. ,JKiwrhuh FO vdpDk; cz;ikahdmjpfhuikakhFk;.
,e;jpahtpd; xt;nthUgpujkUf;Fk; ,g;gbxUmikr;ruitf; FO ,Ue;Js;sJ.
Kf;fpakhdmurpay; gpur;rpidfspy; KbTfs; vLg;gjpy; ufrpaj;ijg; ghJfhf;fg;
gpujkUf;F ,e;jmikr;ruitf; FO Kiwcjtpaha; cs;sJ.
epoy; mikr;ruit : ,q;fpyhe;JehlhSkd;wj;jpYs;svjph;f;fl;rpapd; xt;nthUJiwapYk;
cs;stptfhuq;fisg; gw;wp Muha jkJcWg;gpdh;fisf; nfhz;lxU FOit mikf;fpwJ.
,jd; %yk; vjph;f;fl;rpfs; muRnjhlh;ghdgpur;ridfisnjspthfmwpe;Jnfhs;sTk;
murpidtpopg;ghf ,Uf;fr; nra;aTk; KbfpwJ. ,Jepoy;
mikr;ruitvd;Wmiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
gpujkh; mYtyfj;jpd; gy;NtWgzpfs; :

1. murhq;fj;jpd; jiyth; vd;wepiyapy; cs;sgpujkUf;Fj; Njitahdcjtpfisr;
nra;tJ>kj;jpamikr;rh;fSld; / JiwfSld; kw;Wk; khepymuRfSld;
njhlh;Gfisg; guhkhpg;gJ.
2. epjpMahf; kw;Wk; Njrpatsh;r;rp FO Nghd;wtw;wpw;FNjitahdcjtpfisr; nra;tJ
3. Clfq;fSlDk;>nghJkf;fSlDkhdgpujkhpd; njhlh;Gfisg; guhkhpg;gJ
4. gpujkhpd; mYty;fSf;Ftpjpfspd; gbeltbf;iffisNkw;nfhs;tJ
5. Fwpg;gpl;ltpjpfspd;gbgpujkUf;FmDg;gg;gLk; tptfhuq;fisg;
gw;wpMuha;e;jwptjw;FgpujkUf;FcjTtJ.
6. FbauRj;jiyth;>MSeh;fs;>may;ehl;Lj; J}jh;fs; Nghd;wth;fSld;
,zf;fkhdcwTfSf;fhfgpujkUf;FcjTtJ.
7. gpujkhpd; rpe;jidCw;whfr; nray;gLtJgpwJiwfSf;Fk; mikr;rfq;fSf;Fk;
xJf;fg;glhjmidj;Jtpguq;fisAk; ifahs;tJ.
8. mikr;ruitnjhlh;ghdtptfhuq;fspy; gpujkh; mYtyfk; <LgLtjpy;iy.
mikr;ruitnjhlh;ghdtpguq;fismikr;ruitnrayfk; Neubahff; ifahs;fpwJ.
Mdhy; me;jmikr;ruitnrayfKk; gpujkhpd; topfhl;Ljypd; gbNanray;gLfpwJ.

FbauRj;jiyth; ,y;yhjNghJmtuJgjtpiajw;fhypfkhfFbauRj; Jizj;jiyth;

my;yJcr;rePjpkd;wjiyikePjpgjpmy;yJcr;rePjpkd;wj;jpd; %j;jePjpgjptfpg;ghh;.
mg;NghJmth;fs; ehlhSkd;wj;jpdhy;
jPh;khdpf;fg;gl;lFbauRj;jiytUf;fhdrYiffs;>Cjpak; Nghd;wmidj;JrYiffisAk;
chpikfisAk; FbauRj;jiytiuNghyNtmDgtpg;gjw;FmjpfhuKk; chpikAk; gilj;jtuhf
,Ug;gh;.
cz;ik : ,e;jpamurikg;gpd; XVIII ghfj;jpy; ,e;jpaf; FbauRj;jiythpd;

neUf;fbfhymjpfhuq;fs; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sd.
gpujkh; vd;gth; rkkhdth;fspy; (mikr;rh;fspy;) Kjd;ikahdth;>mj;Jld; fhgpdl; (mikr;rh;fs;
FO) mikg;gpd; mbg;gilj; J}zhfTkcs;shh;. mg;gjtpAk; nghWg;Gk;>mg;gjtp ,Uf;Fk;
tiuapYk; xg;gplKbahjxd;whfTk;>jdpr;rpwg;Gkpf;fmjpfhuikakhfTk; tpsq;FfpwJ.
- khh;NygpuG
,e;jpamurikg;gpd; 52 tJcWg;G ,e;jpahtpw;FxUFbauRj;jiyth; ,Uf;fNtz;Lnkd;fpwJ.
cWg;Ghpikapd; 53 tJcWg;G ,e;jpaxd;wpaj;jpd; Ml;rpmjpfhuj;ijmtUf;Fmspg;gJld;
mtw;iwNeubahfNthkiwKfkhfNthnray;gLj;jtifnra;fpwJ.
myF–4 ,e;jpaePjpj;Jiw
ePjpgjp `hpyhy; n[. fdpah>cr;rePjpkd;wj;jpd; Kjy; jiyikePjpgjpMthh;. mtUld;

ePjpgjpfshfgjptpNaw;wth;fs; KiwNaePjpgjpiraj; ghry; myp>gjQ;ryp>
rh];jphp>ePjpgjpnkfh;re; kfh[d;>ePjpgjpgp[d; Fkhh;>ePjpgjpKfh;[p kw;Wk; ePjpgjp v];. Mh;.jh];
MfpNahh;fs; Mth;.
gl;baypdj;jth; rKjhaj;jpy; ,Ue;JxUth; Kjy; Kiwahf 2000 ,y;

cr;rePjpkd;wePjpgjpahfepakdk; nra;ag;gl;lhh;. mth; ePjpgjpNf. [p. ghyfpU~;zd; Mthh;. ,th;
2007 ,y; gl;baypdj;ijr; rhh;e;jKjy; jiyikePjpgjpahfcah;e;jhh;.
jw;NghJs;smurikg;gpd; fPo; ,e;jpacr;rePjpkd;wk; [dthp 28> 1950 Mk; Mz;LKjy; nray;glj;

njhlq;fpaJ. njhlf;fj;jpy; ehlhSkd;wj;jpd; ,sturh;fs; khlj;jpy; nray;gl;lJ. 1958 Mk;
Mz;Ljw;NghJcs;stshfj;Jf;Fkhw;wg;gl;lJ.

M];jpNuypahePjpkd;wk; : M];jpNuypahehl;bd; cah;epiyePjpaikg;Gcah; ePjpkd;wk;

vd;Nwmiof;fg;gLfpwJ. mq;Fkhepyj; jiyikePjpkd;wq;fNscr;rePjpkd;wk;
vd;Nwmiof;fg;gLfpwJ.
xUq;fpize;jePjpj;Jiw : ,e;jpaf; $l;lhl;rp> ,ul;ilMl;rpmikg;GKiwnfhz;bUe;jhYk;
,ul;ilePjpj;Jiwmikg;igf; nfhz;bUf;ftpy;iy. cah; ePjpkd;wq;fSk;
cr;rePjpkd;wKk;>murikg;gpd; fPo; xUxUq;fpize;jePjpj;Jiwahfr;
nray;gl;Lmidj;JFbikapay; my;yJFw;wtpay; tof;FfSf;FjPh;Tfhz;fpwJ. jPh;Ttoq;Fk;
Kiwapy; NtWghLfisf; fistjw;fhf ,t;thWmikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
- lhf;lh; gp. Mh;.mk;Ngj;fh;
rh; `hp rpq; Nfhh; :,Wjpf;fl;lNky;KiwaPl;Lf;fhfgphpe;Jnry;yhky;

,e;jpahtpNyNaNky;KiwaPLnra;Ak; xUmidj;jpe;jpajiyikePjpkd;wj;jpd; Njitia 1921
,y; czh;e;jth;.,e;jpacr;rePjpkd;wk; : “cr;rePjpkd;wk;>midj;J ,e;jpaePjpkd;wkhFk;.
fl;rpmurpaypy; ,Ue;Jk;>murpay; Nfhl;ghLfspy; ,Ue;Jk; cWjpahfjdpj;Jepw;Fk;.
mJmuRfs; khWtijf; Fwpj;Jmf;fiwnfhs;tjpy;iy. ePjpkd;wkhdJ>eilKiwapy;
,Uf;Fk; rl;lj;jpd;gbepw;fpwJ. midthpd; kPJk; ghpT>ed;kjpg;Gnfhz;Ls;sJ. vdpDk;
mJahUlDk; mzpNrh;tJ ,y;iy”–khz;GkpF `hpyhy; N]; fdpah> ,e;jpaKjy;
jiyikePjpgjp
myF–5 ,e;jpahtpy; $l;lhl;rp
khepyNjh;jy; Mizak; : nrd;idapy; cs;skhepyNjh;jy; Mizak;

$l;lhl;rpKiwapd; mq;fk; ,y;iy. mt;thizak;> 73 tJ> 74 tJmurpay;
rhrdjpUj;jr; rl;lq;fs; mbg;gilapy; Rahl;rpmikg;GfSf;F
(gQ;rhaj;J>efuhl;rpmikg;Gfs;) Njh;jiyelj;Jfpd;wJ.
,e;jpaepyg;gug;G : ,e;jpaxd;wpak; vd;wfUj;j

,e;jpaepyg;gug;Gvd;gjpypUe;JNtWgl;ljhFk;. ,e;jpaxd;wpak; vd;gJ $l;lhl;rpKiwapy;
cs;s 29 khepymurhq;fq;fisAk;>kj;jpamurhq;fj;ijAk; Fwpf;Fk;.
,e;jpaepyg;gug;Gvd;gJfPo;f;fz;ltw;iwFwpf;Fk;.
 28 khepyq;fs;
 9 kj;jpamurpd; MSiff;Fcl;gl;lgFjpfs;
 ngwg;gl;lgFjpfs; (Rje;jpuj;jpw;Fg;gpd; ,e;jpamurhq;fj;jpdhy;
Kad;Wngwg;gl;lgFjpfs; ghz;br;Nrhp>lhkd; ilA+ gFjpfs; ,e;jpamurhy;
Kad;Wngwg;gl;ld. mitfs; MSiff;Fcl;gl;lgFjpfs; vdmiof;fg;gl;ld)

myF– 8 jpl;lkplYk;
tsh;r;rpmurpaYk;
jkpo;ehL $l;LwTghy; cw;gj;jpahsh;fs; $l;likg;G (TCMPF) : jkpo;ehl;by;

$l;LwTKiwapy; ghy; tsj;ijg; ngUf;Fk; tifapy; 1972 ,y;
jkpo;ehLghy;tsNkk;ghl;Lf; fofk; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. ,Jlhf;lh; #hpad; topapy;
1981 ,y; jkpo;ehL $l;LwTghy; cw;gj;jpahsh;fs; rq;fq;fspd;
$l;likg;ghftphpTgLj;jg;gl;lJ. Cuf>xd;wpa>khtl;lghy; cw;gj;jpahsh;fs;
rq;fq;fs; %yk; ,J ,aq;fpaJ. jw;NghJMtpd; vDk; tzpfKj;jpiuAld;
jkpofk; KOtJk; ghy; Njitiajd;dpiwTnra;fpwJ. NkYk; Mtpd;
nray;ghLfshy; jkpo;ehl;by; jdpegh; ghy; Efh;T 1993 – 94 ,y; xd;Wf;F 169
fpuhk; vd;W ,Ue;Jk; 2018 – 19 ,y; 268 fpuhkhfmjpfhpj;Js;sJ.
kdpjf; fopTfiskdpjNumfw;Wk; epiy : kdpjf; fopTfiskdpjNumfw;Wk;

epiyj; njhlh;tJmurikg;gpy; toq;fpAs;schpikfSf;FvjpuhdJvd;Wk; vdNt
,JNghd;wmghafukhdnjhopy;fspy; <LgLNthUf;Fchpag;
ghJfhg;GfiscWjpg;gLj;JtJnjhlh;GilamuRfs;>epWtdq;fspd;
flikvd;Wcr;rePjpkd;wk; fle;j 2011 Mk; Mz;NlKf;fpaj; jPh;g;Gtoq;fpAs;sJ.
Mdhy; ,d;Wk; $l ,e;jpahtpd; gyefuq;fspy; ,e;epiyePbf;fpwJ.
nghUshjhuf; nfhs;ifapd; je;ij : md;iwagpujkh; P.V. eurpk;kuht; 24.07.1991

md;WGjpanghUshjhuf; nfhs;ifmwptpj;jNghJlhf;lh; kd;Nkhfd; rpq;
epjpmikr;ruhf ,Ue;jhh;. ,e;jpahtpd; GjpanghUshjhuf; nfhs;ifapd; je;ijvd;W
,th; miof;fg;gLfpwhh;.
myF– 3 tsq;fs;
ANudpak; (U 308)
juk; ehL cw;gj;jp (nkl;hpf; ld;) gq;F%
1 uh[];jhd; 29>113 38.89
2 fdlh 16>666 22.26
3 M];jpNuypah 7>352 9.82
4 ekPgpah 4>308 5.75
5 ie[h; 4>101 5.48
kw;wehLfs; 17.80

kpfTk; mjpfkhdmopTfisVw;gLj;jpamZrf;jptpgj;Jf;fs;
1. %d;Wiky; jPT–khh;r; 28> 1979 mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehLfs;

2. nrh;Ndhgpy; –Vg;uy; 29> 1986 u~;ah
GF~pkhlha;r;rp–khh;r; 11> 2011 [g;ghd;
,aw;ifvhpthA
1 mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehLfs; 755>010 20.56
2 u~;ah 641>000 17.45
3 <uhd; 202>440 5.51
4 fj;jhh; 181>250 4.94
5 fdlh 157>179 4.28
kw;wehLfs; 47.26
ePuhtpepyf;fhp
1 rPdh 2>491>793>000 47.42
2 ,e;jpah 601>131>000 11.44
3 mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehLfs; 553>936>000 10.54
4 ,e;NjhNd~pah 459>469>000 8.74
5 njd; Mg;gphpf;fh 253>452>000 4.82
kw;wehLfs;
fKjpcyfpd; kpfg;nghpajdpj;j #hpa kpd;rhuepiyak; : fKjp #hpa Mw;wy; jpl;lk;

vd;gJ ,uhehjGuk; khtl;lk; fKjpapy; 2500 Vf;fh; gug;gstpy;
mike;Js;sxUxspkpd;dOj;jkpd;epiyak;. ,Jmjhdpkpd; jpl;lj;jhy;
njhlq;fg;gl;Ls;sj. mNjhLxNu ,lj;jpy; 648 nkfhthl; cw;gj;jpjpwd;
nfhz;ljhfmikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. fKjp #hpa Mw;wy; jpl;lkhdJ 21 nrg;lk;gh; 2016
,y; Kbf;fg;gl;lJ. vl;Lkhjq;fspy; rw;WVwf;Fiwa 8500 gzpahl;fs;
Nrh;e;Jjpdrhpruhrhpahf 11 nkfhthl; cw;gj;jpjpwidepWtpKbj;Js;sdh;.
,r;#hpaG+q;fhKOtJk; jkpo;ehLkpd;ghijfhh;g;gNurdpd; 400 fpNyhthl; Jizkpd;
epiyaq;fSld; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,jpYs;s #hpa Ngdy;fs;
jhdpaq;fpNuhNghl;bf; Kiw %yk; jpdrhpRj;jg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.OPEC (Organization of
petroleum exporting countries)vd;gJvz;nza; Vw;Wkjpnra;Ak; ehLfspd;
$l;likg;ghFk;. ,Jghf;jhj; cld;gbf;ifapy; 1960 ,y; cUthdJ.
<uhd;><uhf;>Fitj; kw;Wk; ntdpRyhNghd;wehLfs; cWg;gpdh;fshf ,Ue;jd. gpd;dh;
ypgpah> my;[Phpah>fj;jhh;>If;fpamuGvkNul;Lfs;>ie[Phpah><f;Ntlhh; kw;Wk;
mq;NfhyhNghd;wvl;LehLfs; Nrh;f;fg;gl;ld. ,jpypUe;J ,e;NjhNdrpahtpyfpf;
nfhz;lJ.

vhpf;Fk; epyf;fhp
1 rPdh 591>998>000 54.67
2 M];jpNuypah 189>302>000 17.48
3 u~;ah 83>800>000 7.74
4 ,e;jpah 61>661>000 5.69
5 mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehL 50>645>000 4.68
kw;wehLfs; 9.74
juk; Ruq;fikaq;fs;
rPdh ~hd;rp>rhe;Jq;>G~Pd;>N~d;ahq; Kjypad
,e;jpah nghfhNuh> [hhpah>Nfhh;gh>uhzpfQ;>rpq;fNudpNghd;wit
mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehL Mh;f;fd;rh];>nfhyuhNlh> ,y;ypNahdpay;>
,z;bahdh>kpf;rpfd; Nghd;wit
M];jpNuypah Nghtd; Ngrpd;>gphp];Ngd;>fhd;ngh;uh>rpl;dp>epA+fh];by;
lh];NkdpahNghd;wit
u~;ah kh];Nfh– JyhgFjp>NrhNfhl; Ngrpd;>Xg;Ngrpd;
Nghd;wit
jq;fk;
1 rPdh 453>500 14.11
2 M];jpNuypah 282>421 8.79
3 u~;ah 262>380 8.16
5 fdlh 165>034 5.13
kw;wehLfs; 56.90
gh];Ngl; - 2016
1 rPdh 43>319>400 51.58
2 nkhuhf;Nfh 8>601>000 10.24
3 mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehLfs; 7>615>000 9.07
4 u~;ah 48>36>000 5.76
5 ngU 4>013>220 4.78
kw;wehLfs; 18.57
gpshl;bdk;
juk; ehL cw;gj;jp (nkl;hpf; ld;) gq;F %
1 njd; Mg;gphpf;fh 133>241 71.75
2 u~;ah 21>860 11.77
3 [pk;ghg;Nt 15>110 8.14
4 fdlh 9>300 5.01
kw;wehLfs; 1.33

jhkpuk;
juk; ehL cw;gj;jp (nkl;hpf; ld;) gq;F %
1 rpyp 5>552>600 27.20
2 ngU 2>353>859 11.53
3 rPdh 1>851>000 9.10
4 mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehL 1>430>000 7.00
5 fhq;Nfh 1>035>631 5.07
kw;wehLfs; 40.13
Mjhuk; :cyfRuq;fGs;sptptuk; - 2018
cyfpd; Kf;fpa ,Uk;Gj;jhJcs;s ,lq;fs; kw;Wk; ehLfs;

ehL ,Uk;Gj;jhJtay;fs;
M];jpNuypah kTz;l; G&];>kTz;l; Nfhy;]; nthh;j;jp>kTz;l; NtyNgf; Kjypad
rPdh kQ;#hpahgFjp> ~hz;lhq;>rpq;fpahq; gFjpKjypad
gpNurpy; njd;fpof;F ,l;lhgpuhgFjp
,e;jpah rj;jp];fh; kw;Wk; g];jhh; gFjp>xbrh>rpj;uJh;f; FjpiuKf;>kAh;gQ;r;
gFjpKjypad
u~;ah A+uy; gFjp> F[gh]; mq;fhuhgFjpKjypad
mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehLfs; nkrgpnjhlh;>khh;f;Nfl; njhlh;>fhh;d;thy; my;gkh>mg;gNyr;rpad;
gFjpKjypad
n[h;kdp &h; nfhg;giu
cf;iud; fpwpNtha; Nuhf;
r`huhghiytdj;jpy; mike;Js;s E}h; fhk;g;sf;]; cyfpd; kpfg;nghpamstpy; mlh;j;jpahd

#hpa Mw;wy; MiyahFk;.

1 njd; Mg;gphpf;fh 4>754>560 30.84
2 M];jpNuypah 2>388>500 15.50
3 rPdh 2>150>000 13.95
4 Nfgd; 1>658>500 10.76
5 gpNurpy; 1>141>684 7.41
kw;wehLfs; 21.54
,Uk;Gj;jhJ
1 M];jpNuypah 531>075>350 33.72
2 rPdh 345>841>000 21.96
3 gpNurpy; 271>275>900 17.22
4 ,e;jpah 124>852>650 7.96
5 u~;ah 55>550>000 3.53
kw;wehLfs; 15.64

juk; ehL gq;F%

1 rT+jpmNugpah 13.62
2 u~;ah 12.72
3 mnkhpf;fIf;fpaehLfs; 12.62
4 <uhf; 5.09
5 <uhd; 5.03
6 rPdh 4.64
kw;wehLfs; 46.28
,e;jpahtpy; fdpkq;fisMa;Tnra;tjpy; <Lgl;Ls;sepWtdq;fs;. [p.v];.I (GSI),

X.vd;.[p.rp (ONGC),vk;.,.rp.vy; (MECL),vd;.vk;.B.rp (NMDC), I.vk;.gp(IMB),gp.[p.vk;.vy;
(BGML), n`r;.rp.vy; (HCL),ehy;Nfh (NALCO) Nghd;wJiwfs; gy ,e;jpakhepyq;fspy;
Ruq;fg;gzpapy; <Lgl;Ls;sd.
%o;Fjy; vd;gJePhpd; ntFMoj;jpy; if>fhy;fisgykhfcijj;jy; EiuaPuy;fs;

Mf;]p[d; ,d;wpj; jtpj;jy; Nghd;wepfo;Tfshy; gPjpiaf; fpsg;Gk; xUepfo;thFk;.
xt;nthUtUlKk; %o;Fjy; Mapuf;fzf;fhdcaph;fisg; gwpf;fpd;wJ. mjpy;
ngUk;ghNyhNdh; Foe;ijfshth;. ePhpd; mUfhikapy; ,Ug;gJepr;rakhf %o;FjYf;Ff;
fhuzkhf ,Ue;jhYk;> %o;Fjy; nghUshjhuj;NjhLnjhlh;GilajhfTk; fhzg;gLfpwJ.
Vo;ikahdehLfspYs;skf;fs; %o;Ftjw;Fmjpftha;g;Gfs; cs;sd. tq;fhsNjrj;jpy;
xUMz;bw;F 17>000 Foe;ijfs; ePhpy; %o;fp ,wf;fpd;wdh;. mjhtJxUehSf;F 46
Foe;ijfs; %o;fp ,wf;fpd;wdh;.
myF– 4 njhopy;fs;
nghUshjhunjhfjpfspd; tiffs; :
1. jd;dpiwTnghUshjhuk; : RaNjitiaG+h;j;jpnra;Ak; mstpw;Fkl;LNkcw;gj;jpnra;a
,aYk; epiy
2. tzpfg; nghUshjhuk; :tpw;gidf;fhfkl;Lk; cw;gj;jpnra;ag;gLk; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
Nritfis“tzpfg; nghUshjhuk;”vd;fpNwhk;. ,jpy; nghUl;fspd; cw;gj;jpkw;Wk;
toq;fiyre;ijapy; fhzg;gLk; Nghl;bNaeph;zapf;Fk; fhuzpahfcs;sJ.
jpl;lkpl;lnghUshjhuk; : murhq;fepWtdq;fspd; fl;Lg;ghl;Lld; jahhpf;fg;gLk; nghUl;fs;
kw;Wk; Nritfisjpl;lkpl;lnghUshjhuk; vdyhk;. nghUl;fspd;
tpiyAk;>mspg;Gk;>kj;jpakhepymurhy; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
Kd;Gfk;A+dprnfhs;iffisgpd;gw;wpaehLfspd; rKjhaj;jpy; ,k;Kiwgpd;gw;wg;gl;lJ.

 Nghkhy[p –goq;fs; rhFgbgw;wpagbg;G

 Xyhpfy;rr; h; - fha;fwptsh;g;Ggw;wpamwptpay;
 /GNshhpfy;r;rh; - G+f;fs; tsh;f;Fk; fiy
 nrhpfy;r;rh; - gl;Lg;GOtsh;j;jy;
 tpl;bfy;rr; h; - jpuhl;irrhFgbgw;wpagbg;G
t.vz; ngah; gFjp

1 [Pkpq; / gPth; tlfpof;F,e;jpakhepyq;fs;
2 ylhq; kNyrpah
3 nrq;fpd; / iffpq;d; gpypigd;];
4 kpy;ah kj;jpamnkhpf;fhkw;Wk; nkf;]pNfh
5 nfhDNfh ntdpRyh
6 Nuhf;fh gpNurpy;
7 kNrhy; fhq;Nfh
8 Nu tpal;ehk;
9 `Pkh ,e;NjhNdrpah
10 jhq;fpah kpahd;kh;
11 nrd; ,yq;if
nghUshjhunray;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapy; gzpahsh;fs;

fPo;fz;lthWmiof;fg;gLfpwhh;fs;
nghUshjhunray;ghL ngah;
Kjy; epiyj; njhopy; rptg;GfOj;Jg;gl;il
,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy; ePyfOj;Jg;gl;il
%d;whk; epiyj; njhopy; ,sQ;rptg;GfOj;Jg;gl;il
ehd;fhk; epiyj; njhopy; nts;isfOj;Jg;gl;il
Ie;jhk; epiyj; njhopy; jq;ffOj;Jg;gl;il
myF– 5 fyhr;rhukw;Wk; murpay; Gtpapay;
nkhj;jgoq;Fbapdh; kf;fs;njhifapy; 90% fphPd;yhe;jpYk;> 66% nghypahtpYk; cs;sdh;.

,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;jkf;fs; njhifapy; goq;Fbapdh; 8.2 rjtPjk; Mth;. rpyNeuq;fspy;
goq;Fbapdkf;fs; ehd;fhtJcyfk; vdmiof;fg;gLfpwhh;fs;. Kjy; - ,uz;lhtJkw;Wk;
%d;whk; cyfq;fs; “epyk; kf;fSf;Fnrhe;jkhdJ”vd;Wek;Gfpd;wNghJehd;fhtJcyfk;
“kf;fs; epyj;jpw;Fnrhe;jkhdth;fs;”vd ek;Gfpd;wdh;.

fdlhcyfpd; ,uz;lhtJnghpaehLMFk;. ,Jmnkhpf;fhTld; kpfePzl ; rh;tNjrvy;iyg;

gFjpiagfph;e;Jnfhs;fpwJ. fdlh–mnkhpf;fepyvy;iyf;NfhL 8>893 fpNyhkPl;lh; ePsk;
cilajhFk;.jkpo; cyfpd; kpfePz;lghuk;ghpakhdnrk;ikahdnkhopfspy; xd;whFk;. jkpo;
,yf;fpaj;jpd; Ke;ijafhyk; ngh.M.K. 300 Kjy; ngh.M 300 tiucilarq;f
,yf;fpafhykhFk;. jpuhtplnkhopfspy; jkpo;jhd; kpfg; goikahd
,yf;fpaq;fisnfhz;Ls;sJ.
gpuhkpvOj;Jtbtpy; vOjg;glhjxNujpuhtplnkhopmNugpavOj;jhdgpu`pnkhopjhd;.
,Jmjw;Fgjpyhf<uhd; ghfp];jhd; kw;Wk; Mg;fhdp];jhdpy; ,Ugjhk; E}w;whz;bd; ,uz;lhk;
ghjpapy; ,Ue;JmuGvOj;Jf;fspy; vOjg;gl;Ls;sJ.
kpfmjpfkhdmz;ilehLfspd; vy;iyfisf; nfhz;lehLrPdhMFk;. mjd; vy;iyfspy;
mike;Js;s 14 ehLfs; : ,e;jpah>ghfp];jhd;> j[pfp];jhd;>fph;fp];jhd;>
f[f];jhd;>kq;Nfhypah> u~;ah>tlnfhhpah>tpal;ehk;>yhNth];>kpahd;kh;>G+l;lhd; kw;Wk; Neghsk;
MFk;.
And];Nfhtpd; Mgj;jhdnkhopfs; gw;wpaIe;Jepiyfs; :

ghJfhg;ghdJ : gutyhfg; Ngrg;gLtJ
ghjpf;fg;glf; $baJ : tPl;bw;Fntspapy; Foe;ijfs; NgRtjpy;iy (600 nkhopfs;)
epr;rakhfMgj;J : Foe;ijfs; NgRtNj ,y;iy (646 nkhopfs;)
fLikahdMgj;J : gioajiyKiwapduhy; kl;LNkNgrg;gLtJ (527 nkhopfs;)
kpff;fLikahdMgj;J : goq;fhyjiyKiwapdhpd; xUrpycWg;gpdh;fshy;
kl;LNkNgrg;gLtJ. ngUk;ghYk; gFjp–Ngr;rhsh;fs; (577 nkhopfs;)
jkpo;ehl;bd; Kf;fpaNgr;Rtof;Ffs; : tl;lhuvy;iyf;Fs; NgRk; Ngr;Rtof;Ffspy; jkpo;

xURthu];akhdnkhopMFk;. khepyj;jpd; gy;NtWgFjpfspYk;
nkhopgyfth;r;rpfukhdNkk;ghl;ilf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. nrd;id>Nfhak;Gj;J}h;>kJiukw;Wk;
jpUney;NtypNghd;wgioakw;Wk; ed;Fmwpag;gl;lNgr;Rtof;Ffisjkpo;ehl;bd; gyh;
ed;Fmwpe;jpUf;fpwhh;fs;.
,e;j E}w;whz;bd; Kbtpy; cyfpy; ghjpf;FNkw;gl;lmjhtJVwf;Fiwa 7>000 nkhopfs;
mope;JtpLk; vd;Wvjph;ghh;f;fg;gLfpwJ. 14 ehl;fSf;Fs;
xUnkhopmope;JtUtjhfkjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ.
itrhypngh.M.K 6 Mk; E}w;whz;by; xUFbaurhfepWtg;gl;lJ. ,Jngh.M.K 563 ,y;
nfsjkGj;jh; gpwg;gjw;FKd; cyfpd; Kjy; FbaurhfNjhd;wpaJ.

,e;jpangUq;flypy; tq;fhstphpFlhtpy; mike;Js;stlf;Fnrz;bdy; jPthdJGtpapd;
kpfTk; jdpikg;gLj;jg;gl;l ,lq;fspy; xd;whFk;. njhiytpy; mike;Js;snrz;bdy;
jPTcyfpd; kpfMgj;jhdgoq;Fbapduhdnrz;bdy; goq;Fbapdhpd; trpg;gplkhFk;.
,th;fSf;FNtshz;ikg; gw;wpnjhpahjjhy; Ntl;ilahLgth;fshfTk;
czTNrfhpg;gth;fshfTk; ,Uf;fpd;wdh;. ,th;fspd; cztpy; Mokw;wflNyhug;gFjpfspy;
fhzg;gLk; Njq;fha; kw;Wk; kPd; MfpaitKjd;ikahdczthFk;. nrz;bdy;fs;
fw;fhykdpjh;fs; vdtpthpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ngz;fs; jq;fs; ,Lg;G>fOj;Jkw;Wk; jiyiar;
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