RAJSHAHI UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Subject: Solid Mechanics sessional

Course no: ME 2268
Submitted to: Mst. Sharifa Khatun
Submitted by: Nur Mohammad Nabil
ID: 1811013
Department: Chemical and Food Process Engineering

Experiment No. : 01
Experiment Name : Study & observation of Compression test of given
Wooden Block.

Objectives:
1. To observe the failure of the wooden block under compressive load.
2. To determine the stress & strain developed by the wooden block.
3. To determine the nature of the stress vs strain curve for the wooden block.
4. To determine the modulus of elasticity (E).

Theory:
Stress: The unit strength of a material is usually defined as the stress. It is denoted
by δ.
 P
σ= P = Applied load.
A

A = Cross sectional area.

Strain: The unit elongation is called as strain. It is denoted by ε.

δ
Ɛ= δ = Elongation
L

L = Initial length
Modulus of Elasticity:
According to Hooke’s Law,
Stress ∝ Strain
⇒ σ ∝δ
⇒σ=EƐ E is constant called Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
σ
∴E=
Ɛ

Ultimate Compressive strength: Maximum stress that a material can bear in

compression is termed as compressive strength.
Proportional limit : The point in the stress-stress diagram up to which the stress is
proportional to strain.
Failure of Wooden Cube when load is applied Perpendicular to Grains

When the load is applied perpendicular to the grains, the wooden sample takes
comparatively less load. This is because the failure of the single fiber will lead to
the failure of the whole sample. The strength of the wooden sample when the
load is applied parallel to the grains is about ten times more as compared to when
the load is applied perpendicular to grains

Apparatus :
1. 5000 kN Compression Universal Testing Machine
2. Wooden box
3. Vernier Calipers
4. Deflection Gauges

Procedure :
 1. At first, all the cross section area of the wooden box was collected using
Vernier caliper.
2. The specimen was placed in the machine.
3. The dial indicator was set for measuring deflection.
4. Load valve was applied after turning on the UTM & it was started giving
deflection.
5. Data was collected after every single 0.1 load for this deflection from UTM.
6. Loading was continued until a peak load was reached or, if no peaks were
reached, until the load approached a constant value.

Data :
Cross sectional area of the block, A = 6.12 X 102 m2
Length of the wooden block, L = 153.25 mm = 0.1532m
Graph :

Strain vs Stress
45000 41830.06536
41503.26797 42647.05882
42483.66013
42156.86275
40849.6732
40032.6732
39052.28758
37908.49673
40000 36274.5098
34313.72549
35000 31862.7451
29411.76471
30000 26470.58824
Stress, kN/m2

24019.60784
25000

20000

15000
Yield point
10000
Rise Young's
5000
0 Modulus=Slope=Rise/Run
0 Run
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01
Strain

Calculation :
Average stress = 3.672 ×10^4 kN/mm2
Average strain=5.2202×10(−3)

Modulus Elasticity=7034213.249 kN/mm2

From the graph, Rise=20000-5000=15000

Run=0.001-.0004-0.0001=.0005
Modulus Elasticity=30× 106 kN/mm2

30×106 −7.034×106
% of Error= × 100 = 76.55%
30×106
Result :
The modulus of elasticity is 7034213.249.
Error= 76.55%

Discussion :
A stress-strain curve is a graphical way to show the reaction of a material
when a load is applied. If the load is below the yield point on the stress-strain
curve, then the material will return to its original shape after the load is removed.
This means that the material is elastic.

Conclusion :

In the study of strength of materials, the compressive strength is the capacity of a

material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size. So, for any kind of
design by wood or structure which are made of wood, compressive strength of it
must be determined to get effective performance.
RAJSHAHI UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Subject: Solid Mechanics sessional

Course no: ME 2268
Submitted to: Mst. Sharifa Khat

Submitted by: Nur Mohammad Nabil

ID: 1811013

Department: Chemical and Food Process Engineering

Experiment No. : 02

Experiment Name : Study & observation of Tensile Test of a Mild Steel specimen.

Objectives:

• To observe a mild steel specimen till failure under load

• To determine the tensile properties:

Proportional limit

Modulus of elasticity

Yield point

Ultimate strength

Breaking strength

Percentage elongation

Percentage reduction in cross-sectional area

Modulus of Resilience

Modulus of Toughness

• To draw stress-strain diagram.

• To determine the percent of elongation.

Theory:
When a specimen is subjected to the action of a force shown in the figure it is deformed, no matter how small the force is. If
the specimen is elongated due to the application of the force, the specimen is said to be in tension and the force may be
termed as tensile force.

Stress: When an external force is applied on the specimen an internal force is developed in order to resist the external force.
The internal force per unit area at any section is called stress. Stress is denoted by F N/mm (MPa).Therefore, σ=F/A
Where F is applied load, A is the original area of cross-section of the specimen.

Strain: When the force is applied on the specimen, it is deformed. For the tensile force the specimen is elongated. The
elongation per unit length is called strain. Strain is denoted as ε=δ/L Therefore, ε is strain where δ is the deformation over the
length L.

Stress-Strain diagram:

Proportional limit: The maximum stress that maybe developed during a simple tension test such that the stress is linear
function of strain.

Elastic limit: The ordinate of a point almost coincident will P is known as the elastic limit.

Yield point: The ordinate at which there is an increase in strain with no increase in stress is known as the yield point of the
material.

Ultimate strength: The maximum ordinate of the stress-strain curve is known as the ultimate strength or the tensile strength of
the material.

Rupture strength: The stress at failure is called the rupture strength.

Modulus of elasticity: The quantity E, the ratio of the unit stress to the unit strain, is the modulus of elasticity of the material in
tension, as it is often called, Young’s

modulus. E has the same units as that stress.

% of elongation = L f – L i /L i X 100

where,

L i = Initial length of the specimen

L f = Final length of the specimen

APPARATUS:

• Universal Testing Machine

• Extensometer Slide Calipers

• Percentage Elongation Scale

• Dal Gauge

Procedure:

• It is made sure that the universal testing machine is calibrated.

• The diameter and gauge length of the specimen was measured by slide calipers.

• Extensometer constant and dial gauge constant was recorded.

• The specimen in position was fixed.

• The extensometer with the specimen was fixed.

• Load was applied and read simultaneously the load-deformation data.

• When yield point is reached, machine was stopped, extensometer was removed

and the dial gauge was fixed in the machine.

• Load and take load-deformation data was increased at regular intervals up to

the tearing of the specimen.

• The maximum and the breaking load were recorded.

• The broken specimen and measure smallest cross-sectional area and deformed

length were removed.

Data Table

Initial diameter of the specimen, D i = 7.25 mm

Final diameter of the specimen, D f = 4.5 mm

Initial length of the specimen, L i = 255 mm

Final length of the specimen, L f = 309.25 mm

Initial Area, A=41.28 mm

No. of Load, P Deflection, Stress, Average Stress, Strain, Average Modulus of Elasticity,
𝑷 𝑷 𝜹 𝝈
Obs (kN) δ(mm) σ =𝑨 σ =𝑨 ε=𝑳 Strain, E=𝜺
𝜹
(kN/mm2) (kN/mm2) ε=𝑳 (kN/mm2)

01 11.5 0.5 0.278585 0.00196

02 13.7 1.0 0.33187 9 0.00392

03 15.4 1.5 0.373 0.00588

04 16.2 2 0.392 0.00784

05 16.4 2.5 0.3972 0.00980

06 16.5 3 0.3997 0.01176

07 16.6 3.5 0.402131 0.01372

08 16.7 4 0.40456 0.01568

09 17 6 0.4118 0.02352

10 17.8 8 0.4312 0.03137

11 18.5 10 0.4482 0.03921

12 19.1 12 0.46269 0.04705

13 19.6 14 0.47481 0.05490

14 20 16 0.484496 0.06274
15 20.3 18 0.4917 0.07058

16 20.6 20 0.499 0.07843

17 21 22 0.5087 0.466028 0.08627 0.9117 0.51116376

18 21.2 24 0.5135 0.09412

19 21.3 26 0.515988 0.10196

20 21.4 28 0.5184 0.10980

21 21.5 30 0.520833 0.11765

22 21.6 32 0.523 0.12549

23 21.6 34 0.523 0.13333

24 20.7 36 0.501453 0.14117

25 20.7 38 0.501453 0.14902

26 20.7 40 0.501453 0.15686

27 20.7 42 0.501453 0.16470

28 20.7 44 0.501453 0.17255

29 21.4 46 0.5184 0.18039

30 20.3 47 0.492 0.18431

31 18.2 48 0.441 0.18824

32 16 49 0.3878 0.19216
Graph:

Stress vs. Strain Graph

Stress vs Strain Curve

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Stress

0.2
0.1
0
0.00196
0.00392
0.00588
0.00784
0.0098
0.01176
0.01372
0.01568
0.02352
0.03137
0.03921
0.04705
0.0549
0.06274
0.07058
0.07843
0.08627
0.09412
0.10196
0.1098
0.11765
0.12549
0.13333
0.14117
0.14902
0.15686
0.1647
0.17255
0.18039
0.18431
0.18824
0.19216
Strain

Calculation:
For observation 1,
11.5
Stress = = 0.2785 kN/mm2
41.28

0.5
Strain =255 = 0.00196

0.2785
So, Modulus of Elasticity = 0.00196 =142.09 kN/mm2

0.18
tan𝜃 = 0.005 =36

So, 𝜃 = 1.38
𝐿𝑓−𝐿𝑖 309.25−255
% of elongation = 𝐿𝑖
× 100 = 255
× 100 =21.27%

Result:

The percent of elongation is 21.27

Average Modulas Of Elasticity is 0.51116376 KN/mm2

Discussion:
From observing the test, we have agreed the fact that mild steel is a ductile material because we get
every point like necking, fracture, stress, strain etc. Tensile strength refers to the maximum amount of
stress a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled without breaking. A tensile strength test
usually involves taking a sample of the material with a fixed cross-section area, placing it in a tensor
meter and increasing the force until it breaks. The data obtained from the universal testing machine
shows the difference in rates of extensions in mild steel, aluminum samples. From data on cross-
sectional area, length, extension and axial loads, the strains and stress for both sample specimens were
calculated. 4hen subjected to same amount of load, there was relatively high extension in aluminum
than in mild steel. This can be attributed to the difference in micro- crystalline structures of the two
sample materials. Engineering stress and strains were calculated after the extensometers on the 8nstron
machine measured the strain that was applied on each sample specimen. The data on strain was
obtained on the cross head after had occurred. The engineering stress was then calculated by dividing
the applied load by the original cross- sectional area. For engineering strains, the changes in length
%extensions* were divided by the original length. 8n calculations of true stress, the load applied could
be divided by the instantaneous area. True strain is calculated by dividing the change in length by the
instantaneous final length.

Conclusion:
In the conclusion, we must say that the experiment was done nicely and systematically. In case of
accuracy, there was much more error than accuracy because of experimental error, personal error and
other factors. We have tried to avoid these error and found the value and plotted graph. Finally we
found the modulus of elasticity from our experiment.
RAJSHAHI UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Subject: Solid Mechanics sessional

Course no: ME 2268
Submitted to: Mst. Sharifa Khat

Submitted by: Nur Mohammad Nabil

ID: 1811013

Department: Chemical and Food Process Engineering

Experiment No. : 03

Experiment Name : Study & observation of Rockwell Hardness Test.

Objectives:
➢ To determine the Rockwell hardness number of various metal specimens.

➢ To study Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine.

Theory:
Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental physical property. It is defined as the
resistance to indentation, and it is determined by measuring the permanent depth of the indentation.
More simply put, when using a fixed force (load) and a given indenter, the smaller the indentation, the
harder the material. Hardness is considered as the resistance of a metal to permanent deformation of its
surface.

The Rockwell hardness test method is the most commonly used hardness test method. The Rockwell
test is generally easier to perform, and more accurate than other types of hardness testing methods.
The Rockwell test method is used on all metals, except in condition where the test metal structure or
surface conditions would introduce too much variations; where the indentations would be too large for
the application; or where the sample size or sample shape prohibits its use. Rockwell hardness testing is
an indentation testing method. The indenter is either a conical diamond (brale) or a hard steel ball.
Different indenter ball diameters from 1/16 to 1/2 in. are used depending on the test scale.

To start the test, the indenter is “set” into the sample at a prescribed minor load. A major load is then
applied and held for a set time period. The force on the indenter is then decreased back to the minor
load. The Rockwell hardness number is calculated from the depth of permanent deformation of the
indenter into the sample, i.e. the difference in indenter position before and after application of the
major load. The minor and major loads can be applied using dead weights or springs. The indenter
position is measured using an analog dial indicator or an electronic device with digital readout.
 Apparatus:
• Rockwell Hardness testing machine

• Test specimen

• Indenter

• Rockwell scale

Procedure:

➢ The load by rotating the Knob and fix the suitable indenter was selected.

➢ The test-piece was cleaned and the special anvil or work table of the machine was placed.

➢ The capstan wheel to elevate the test specimen into contact with the indenter point was turned.

➢ Further the wheel for three rotations forcing the test specimen against the indenter was turned. This
will ensure that the Minor load of 98.07 N has been applied.

➢ The pointer on the Scale dial at the appropriate position was set.

➢ The lever to apply the Major load was pushed. A Dash Pot provided in the loading mechanism to
ensure that the load is applied gradually.

➢ As soon as the pointer comes to rest pull the handle in the reverse direction slowly. This releases the
Major, but not Minor load. The pointer will now rotate in the reverse direction.

➢ The Rockwell hardness can be read off the scale dial, on the appropriate scale, after the pointer
comes to rest.

Data Table:
Metal Major Load Minor Load Head Hardness Average
(KG) (KG) Number Hardness
Number

Harden 100 10 Diamond Cone 41 41

teel 40
42
Brass 100 10 1/16 Inch Ball 30 30.4
30.5
30.6
Copper 100 10 1/16 Inch Ball 17.9 17.7
17.4
17.7
Aluminum 100 10 1/8 or 1/16 19.6 19.8
inch Ball 19.5
20.2

Graph:

Average Hardness Number

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Harden Steel Brass Copper Alluminium

Average Hardness Number

Calculation:

41+40+42
For Harden Steel, average hardness number = = 41
3

30+30.5+30.6
For Brass, average hardness number = 3
= 30.4

17.9+17.4+17.7
For Copper, average hardness number = 3
= 17.7
19.6+ 19.5+20.2
For Aluminum, average hardness number = 3
= 19.8

Result:
Average Hardness Number of Harden Steel, Brass, Copper and Aluminium are respectably 41, 30.4, 17.7,
19.8.
Discussion:
The hardness test experiment was done using a Rockwell Testers. The data obtained was recorded. The
experimental and referenced values for each metal were compared. The Rockwell test is more accurate
than the Brinell Test. It also showed that the percent differences increased as metal became softer.
Hardness number decreases if the material becomes soft. Human error is clearly made due to having
high percent differences in the comparisons. The error could have been when doing the calculations or
when retrieving the data when doing the experiment. Two loads were applied- major load and minor
load. Small load was applied before the major load to eliminate any error cause by material surface.
Then a major load was applied for a predetermined period and then reduced to minor load state. So we
are measuring the difference in indenter position before and after the application of major load is
measured. This is the permanent deformation caused by the major load.

Conclusion:

In the conclusion, we must say that the experiment was done nicely and systematically. In case of
accuracy, there was much more error than accuracy because of experimental error, personal error and
other factors. We have tried to avoid these error and found the value and plotted graph. Finally we
found the modulus of elasticity from our experiment.
RAJSHAHI UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Subject: Solid Mechanics sessional

Course no: ME 2268
Submitted to: Mst. Sharifa Khat

Submitted by: Nur Mohammad Nabil

ID: 1811013

Department: Chemical and Food Process Engineering

Experiment No. : 04

Experiment Name : Study and observation of Compression test of a Helical spring.

Objectives:
1. To draw a curve by plotting load against deflection.

2. To find the stiffness of the spring.

3. To compare theoretical stiffness with experimental value.

4. To find the modulus of rigidity.

Theory:

The helical spring, in which wire is wrapped in a coil that resembles a screw thread, is probably the most
commonly used mechanical spring. It can be designed to carry, pull, or push loads. Twisted helical
(torsion) springs are used in engine starters and hinges. Helical tension and compression springs have
numerous uses, notably automobile suspension systems, gun-recoil mechanisms, and closing valves on
engines. Helical springs are generally used in two different applications.

The first is the role of compression spring which offers resistance to forces moving two components
towards each other. Typical applications are car suspension and mattress springs. Compression springs
typically have their ends trimmed in such a way that they lie flush with last coils on each end allowing
for easy mounting. The second common use for the helical spring is as a tensioning element. Springs
used in this role resists forces moving two objects away from each other. A couple of common tension
spring applications include spring scales and automatic door closers. The ends of a tension spring extend
beyond the axis of the spring and are typically equipped with a loop to allow for fastening.

If a helical spring of circular cross section is subjected to an axial load, then in any section of the spring,
there will develop share stress and torsional stress and the major part of this is shear stress. Practically,
all the spring elongation measured along its axis, is caused by torsional deformation of the spring wire.
Deflection of helical spring is given by,
 64 𝑃𝑅 3𝑁
𝛿= 𝐺𝑑4
............... (i)

Where, P= Applied axial load.

R= Mean radius.

N= Number of axis

G= Modulus of rigidity

d= wire diameter.

𝑃
Now, spring stiffness, 𝑘 = 𝛿

Then, from equation (i), we get,

64 𝑃𝑅 3𝑁 64 𝑘 𝑅 3𝑁
𝐺= 𝛿𝑑4
= 𝑑4

64 𝑘 𝑅 3 𝑁
Thus, Modulus of rigidity, 𝐺 =
𝑑4

𝑃 𝐺𝑑4
Here, 𝛿 = 64 𝑅 3𝑁
is slope of P vs. δ curve.

Apparatus:
1. Helical Spring

2. Vernier callipers

3. Universal testing machine : (Hydraulic type, maximum capacity of machine: 200kn

4. Dial Gauge.

Procedure:
1. The outer diameter (D) and diameter of the spring coil (D) for the given spring were
measured.

2. The number of turns coils (n) in the given specimen was count.

3. The spring at the center of the bottom beam of the spring testing machine was placed.

4. The bottom beam by rotating right side wheel was raised till the spring top touched the
middle cross beam.

5. The initial reading from the scale in the machine was noted down.
 6. A load of 25kg was applied and the scale reading was noted.

7. The actual deflection of the spring for each load by deducting the initial scale reading was
found from the corresponding scale reading.

8. The modulus of rigidity was calculated for each load applied by using the following formula.

9. The stiffness for each load applied by using the following formula was determined.

Data Table:

Height of the spring (free length) = 78.10 mm

Outer diameter, D0=58.75 mm

Wire diameter, d = 20.65 mm

Inner diameter, Di= 38.10 mm

Number of turns, n = 5

Mean diameter, R = 24.21 mm

 No. of Obs. Load, P Deflection, δ Stiffness, Average Stiffness,

(kN) (mm) (kN/mm) (kN/mm)

01 4.5 1.9 2.37

02 5 3.7 1.35

03 5.5 6.24 0.88

04 6 8.21 0.73

05 6.5 10.23 0.64

06 7 12.15 0.57

07 7.5 14.32 0.52 0.78

08 8 16.37 0.49

09 8.5 18.32 0.46

10 9 20.21 0.45

11 9.5 22.32 0.44

12 10 24.16 0.41

Graph:

Load Vs. Deflection Graph

12 Load vs Deflection Curve

10
Load,P (kN)

0
1.9 3.7 6.24 8.21 10.23 12.15 14.32 16.37 18.32 20.21 22.32 24.16
Deflection, δ(mm)
Calculation:
Modulus of rigidity,
64 𝑘 𝑅3 𝑁
𝐺=
𝑑4
 𝑃
We know, spring stiffness, 𝑘 = 𝛿

For observation 1,

Load, P= 4.5 kN

Deflection, δ = 1.9 mm
4.5
Spring Stiffness = = 2.37 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚
1.9

64 𝑘 𝑅3 𝑁
𝐺=
𝑑4
64 ×4.5×24.213 ×5
For observation (i), 𝐺= 1.9×20.654
= 59.14 kN/mm2

𝐺𝑑4
64 𝑅 3𝑁
= 2.37 = stiffness

Result:
Average Stiffness = 0.78 KN/mm

Discussion:
In this experiment it was possible to calculate the average stiffness by plotting the values of loads and
the deflection is a graph. After calculating the stiffness from the data taken it the lab, it was found that
the numbers are different. This difference in numbers came from the usage of the spring during a
certain period of time, it loose some of its initial properties. The average stiffness of the spring is 0.78
KN/mm. The modulus of rigidity is 59.14. A curve is drawn by plotting load against deflection named
Load vs Deflection. The stiffness will be about 2.37 if the curve becomes linear.

Conclusion:
By performing the experiment, we leant a lot about helical spring and its compression test. We have plot
a graph (P vs. δ) from this experiment and found the stiffness of spring. Also, we have determined the
modulus of rigidity from our data.To reduce human error, digital calliper might be used in addition to
better spring surface finish. Compression test is very important to known about the properties of helical
spring.
RAJSHAHI UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Subject: Solid Mechanics sessional

Course no: ME 2268
Submitted to: Mst. Sharifa Khat

Submitted by: Nur Mohammad Nabil

ID: 1811013

Department: Chemical and Food Process Engineering

Experiment No. : 05

Experiment Name : Study and observations of Buckling test of different types of columns.

Objectives:
1. To understand the buckling test procedure of columns

2. To observe the effect of ends on critical loads on columns

3. To determine the modulus of elasticity (E).

Theory:
A column is a compression member that is sp slender compared to its length that under gradually
increasing loads of fails by buckling at loads considerably less that those required cause to failure by
crashing. Buckling is made of failure generally resulting from structural member. Buckling is unique from
other structural element considerations in that it results from a state of unstable equilibrium. If the load
is gradually increased, the column will reach a stage when it will start buckling. The load at which the
column just star to buck is called buckling and the column is said to have developed an elastic instability.

I has been observed that when a column is subjected to some compressive force then compressive
stress induced,
𝑝
𝜎=𝐴

Here, p = compressive force

A = cross sectional areas ot column

A critical load can be interpreted as the maximum axial load to which a column can be subjected and still
remain straight.

Critical load for two end hinged column:

𝑥2 𝐸1
Per = 𝐿2

Critical loud for end hinged and other end fixed column:
 2𝑥2 𝐸1
Per = 𝐿2

Critical load for two end fixed column:

4𝑥2 𝐸1
Per = 𝐿2

Apparatus:
1.Bar

2. Dial gauge

3. Force gauge

4. Buckling tester

Procedure:
1. The experiment was started off with the fixed-fixed column.

2. The diameter (d) of the test specimen was measured at five different
locations, averaging these values to get an average diameter.

3. The length (L) of the specimen (usually from one end of the rod to the
other, including the ball bearings in the case of the pinned conditions) was
measured. Only one measurement is required.

4. Next, the theoretical (or Euler's) critical load (Pcr) was calculated for the
specimen using the following equation (where Leff is the effective length of the specimen)

5. The control panel was unlocked by turning the key in the counter-
clockwise direction.

6. The machine was switched on by pressing the switch located at the rear
end of the machine.

7. The “ENT” button was pressed twice to move the actuator to the
“home” Position. Two testers were needed to set up the specimen in the
MTS machine. One will stand next to the machine, feed the specimen into
the grips and hold it steady (called the loader), while the other will adjust
the bottom piston to align the specimen with the lower grips (controller).
This entire process requires a good deal of monitoring so make sure your
instructor is present when you do this step

8. Finally we have collected the data and calculated the critical load in each segment.

Data Table:
Data Table for Two End Hinged Column:
Deflection 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.5 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 5.00
(mm)

Force 185 250 295 340 375 420 430 445 465 490 500
(N)

Data Table for One End Hinged and Other End Fixed Column:

Deflection 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.5 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 5.00
(mm)

Force 295 450 555 600 660 720 770 795 815 840 850
(N)

Data Table for Two End Fixed Column:

Deflection 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.5 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 5.00
(mm)

Force 350 660 900 1140 1350 1495 1575 1640 1675 1700 1745
(N)
Graph:

Force vs Deflection Graph

Two End Hinged One End Hinged and Other Fixed Two End Fixed

2000
1800
1600
1400
Force, N

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5

Deflection, mm

Calculation:
Column Length, L= 650 mm

Moment of Inertia, I = 106.66 mm4

Modulus of Elasticity, E = 210000 N/mm2

Therefore, critical load for two end hinged column,

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
(3.1416) 2×210000×106.66
= (650)2
N

= 523.23 N

Again, critical load for one end hinged and other end fixed column,

2𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
2×(3.1416) 2×210000×106.66
= (650) 2
N

= 1046.46 N

Finally, critical load for two end fixed column,

𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
 4×(3.1416) 2×210000×106.66
= (650) 2
N

= 2092.92 N

Result:
From calculation we get,

Critical load for two end hinged column = 523.23 N

Critical load for one end hinged and other end fixed column = 1046.46 N

Critical load for two end fixed column = 2092.92 N

Discussion:
We measured the deflection very carefully. We kept the load applying at different setting of the column
under critical load. As a result, the beam was at of danger. But the column we experimented were
already deformed. As a result, our values may not be totally correct. Column: Buckling test is very
important for column in structural purpose

Conclusion:
We can see that the load needed for same deflection in one end hinged column or two end fixed column
is more than the force needed for two end hinged column from the graph. So, from graph, we can say
that, critical load for those first two columns will be greater than that of the last one. From experiment,
we got some force needed for same deflection in both two end fixed and one end hinged, one and fixed
column, but actually force should be needed more in two end fixed column than one end hinged column
and other end hinged column. There might be some error during the experiment that was unexpected
and due to technical or apparatus error. Overall the experiment was done quite well.