Spatial Information System and Digital Terrain Model (SIS and DTM) - Class14

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Madhusudan Adhikari, Resource Person
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Apex Educational Academy
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(SIS and DTM)
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Spatial Information System and

Digital Terrain Model (SIS and
DTM)- class-14
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Data, Information and Knowledge
• Data is a stream of raw facts representing things or events and they are
in four basic types:
• Numbers
• Text
•
Images
• Sound
(SIS and DTM)
• Data without context and processing remains meaningless.

• 11051970 is a datum and has no meaning without its context.
• It could be Telephone number, Bank account, Population, Date of birth,
anything
• If I say it is my date of birth and re-arrange it as 11/05/1970
• A European person will infer that my date of birth is 11 May 1970,
• An American person will infer that my date of birth is November 05, 1970
• Thus the tata to be changed into the information data has to be
processed in some context.
(SIS and DTM)
(SIS and DTM)
Data Source
• Where is the data from?
• Internal or External?
• Internal communication is communication with people inside the same organization

or company
• External communication is with people outside the company, such as suppliers or

customers.
(SIS and DTM)
• Direct or Indirect?
• Direct (primary) data is collected for the purpose of the processing being undertaken
– e.g. time cards for pay
• Indirect (secondary) data was originally collected for another purpose, but is now
being processed to provide extra information - e.g. spending patterns from credit
cards
• We collect data from real world (of an Entity) and store it into a
data model (as an Object).
• Entity/Phenomena in Real-world (Representation) Object/Features
in Data Model
(SIS and DTM)
Data Structure
• For abstraction of the real-world phenomena we need to
understand them
• Geographic phenomena exist in the real world

• Geographic phenomena are a manifestation of an entity or process that:
• Can be named
• Can be geo-referenced (they are geographic)
(SIS and DTM)
• Can be assigned a time at which it is/was present

• There are different types of phenomena and by learning to recognize these
types, we can select the correct way to store them for use in a GIS.
• Geographic phenomena are the study objects of a GIS.
• Geographic phenomena exist in the real world, everything you see
outside is a Geographic phenomenon.
• Some of the things you do not see are also Geographic phenomena
like temperature
Geographic Phenomena
• There are two types of Geographic
Phenomena, discrete and continuous.
• In continuous data, the underlying

function is assumed to be continuous.

• Continuity means that all changes in field
(SIS and DTM)
values are gradual (for example

elevation).
• Discrete data cuts up the study space in
mutually exclusive bounded parts, with
all locations in one part having the same
field value (for example land use)
• In a differentiable field we can measure
the change
Geographic Phenomena
• Discrete fields cut up the study space in forest
subparts with a clear boundary, with all
agriculture
locations in one part having the same value
• Typical examples are land classifications,

geological classes, soil types, land use types, agriculture
(SIS and DTM)
crop types or natural vegetation types

• A (geographic) field is a geographic
agriculture
phenomenon for which, for every point in the
study area, a value can be determined.
• (Geographic) objects populate the study area,
and are usually well distinguishable, discrete,
road
bounded entities. The space between them is
potentially empty.
Geographic Fields
• Geographic fields exhibit continuous variations of a specific attribute
across space.
• The attribute's value changes smoothly from one location to another.

• Typically represented using raster data structures, where the Earth's
surface is divided into a grid of cells, and each cell contains a value
representing the attribute at that location.
(SIS and DTM)
• Geographic fields are often analyzed using spatial interpolation

techniques to estimate values at locations between known data points.
• Geographic fields can be thought of as continuous surfaces, and
techniques like contour lines may be used to represent variations in the
attribute.
• Examples:
• Temperature distribution across a city.
• Elevation changes in a mountain range.
• Population density across a region.
Geographic Objects
• Geographic objects represent discrete and identifiable entities in geographic space,
such as points, lines, or polygons.
• Vector Data Representation:

• Typically represented using vector data structures, where points, lines, and polygons
are used to define the shape and location of features on the Earth's surface.
• Each geographic object has associated attributes or properties that provide
(SIS and DTM)
additional information about the feature.

• Geographic objects can have spatial relationships with one another, such as
adjacency, containment, or proximity, which are important for spatial analysis and
queries.
• Topology:
• Topological relationships, such as connectivity and adjacency, are often considered in
the representation of geographic objects, especially in GIS.
• Examples:
• Points: Cities, landmarks, GPS coordinates.
• Lines: Roads, rivers, boundaries.
• Polygons: Countries, land parcels, lakes.
Spatial and Non Spatial Data
• Every geographic phenomenon has its name and associated attribute.
• Every geographic phenomenon exists somewhere in space at a particular time.
• Thus the a world entity has two kinds of data, descriptive (non spatial) and locational
(spatial).
• Spatial data, also known as geospatial data or geographic data, refers to information that has
a direct or indirect association with a specific location on Earth's surface.
• Spatial data includes coordinates (latitude and longitude), topology, geometry, and other location-related
(SIS and DTM)
information.
• It can represent points, lines, polygons, or volumes in the real world.
• Non-spatial data, also known as attribute data or tabular data, lacks a direct association with
a specific location on Earth's surface. Instead, it describes the characteristics or attributes of
features.
• Non-spatial data consists of alphanumeric information and can be stored in tables or databases.
• It complements spatial data by providing additional details about the features represented in the spatial
data.
• Spatial and non-spatial data are often used together in GIS applications. Spatial data provides
the geographic context, while non-spatial data adds information about the attributes or
properties of the geographic features.
• The combination of spatial and non-spatial data enables a comprehensive understanding of a
geographical area or phenomenon.
Data Models for GIS
• There are four basic data models to represent the real world
phenomena in GIS
1. Vector
(SIS and DTM)
2. Raster (tessellations)
3. TIN (triangulated
irregular network)
4. Tabular Information
(attribute table)
Vector Data
• Vector data is a type of spatial data representation used in GIS and
computer graphics.
• It is designed to represent discrete objects on the Earth's surface,

providing a detailed and accurate way to model geographic

features.
(SIS and DTM)
• Geometry of vector data is one of the following

• Points: Represent specific locations on the Earth's surface. Examples
include city locations, GPS coordinates, or sampling sites.
• Lines: Represent linear features such as roads, rivers, or trails.
• Polygons: Represent enclosed areas or regions, such as countries, land
parcels, or lakes.
• Multi-geometry: Vector data can also include multi-part geometries, where
a single feature may consist of multiple connected or disjoint geometries.
Vector Data …
• Each vector feature is associated with a set of attributes that provide
additional information about the feature.
• Vector data uses a coordinate system to define the spatial location of

features on the Earth's surface.
• Topology in vector data defines the spatial relationships between

features and includes information about connectivity, adjacency, and
(SIS and DTM)
containment, which is crucial for spatial analysis and data integrity.

• Common file formats for vector data include Shapefile (.shp), KML,
GML
• Vector data is well-suited for representing features with distinct
boundaries,
• It is widely used in applications like urban planning, transportation
management, environmental analysis, and cadastral mapping.
• Vector data allows for spatial analysis, including overlay operations and
spatial queries
Advantage and Disadvantages of Vector Model
• Advantages:
• Good representation of phenomenological data structure
• Compact data structure

• Topology can be completely described with network linkages
• Accurate graphics
• Retrieval, updating and generalization of graphics and attributes are possible
(SIS and DTM)
• Disadvantages:
• Complex data structures
• Combination of several vector polygon maps or polygon and raster maps through
overlay creates difficulties
• Simulation is difficult because each unit has a different topological from
• Display, and plotting can be expensive, particularly for high quality, colour and
crosshatching
• The technology is expensive, particularly for the more sophisticated software and
hardware
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons are impossible
Raster Data
• Raster (tessellations) data is another type of spatial data
representation used in GIS and remote sensing.
• It is organized into a regular grid of cells or pixels, where each cell

represents a specific area on the Earth's surface. The entire grid

covers a defined geographic extent.
(SIS and DTM)
• Each cell in the raster grid contains a single value that represents a
particular attribute or characteristic at the corresponding location.
• Raster data uses a coordinate system to define the spatial location
of the grid on the Earth's surface.
• Common file formats for raster data include GeoTIFF (.tif), JPEG
(.jpg), and PNG (.png).
Raster Data …
• Raster data attributes are represented by the values assigned to
each pixel.
• Raster data is well-suited for representing continuous surfaces or

phenomena, such as elevation, temperature, precipitation

• Raster datasets can have multiple bands, with each band
(SIS and DTM)
representing a different attribute or wavelength.

• Raster data is commonly used in remote sensing applications,
where satellites or airborne sensors capture images in raster
format.
• Raster data allows for various spatial analysis techniques,
including overlay operations, interpolation, and terrain analysis.
• Raster data can be compressed to reduce file size, especially
important for large datasets.
Advantage and Disadvantages of Raster Model
• Advantages:
• Simple data structures
• The overlay and combination of mapped data with remotely sensed data is easy
• Various kinds of spatial analysis are easy
• Simulation is easy because each spatial unit has the same size and shape
• The technology is cheap and is being actively developed
(SIS and DTM)
• Disadvantages:
• Volumes of graphic data
• The use of large cells to reduce data volumes means that phenomenologically
• Recognizable structures can be lost and there can be a serious loss of information
• Crude raster maps are considerably less beautiful than maps drawn with fine
lines
• Network linkages are difficult to establish
• Projection transformations are time consuming unless spatial algorithms or
hardware are used.
When to use Raster or Vector Methods?
• Use VECTOR data structure for data archiving phenomenologically structured data (e.g. soil
areas, land use units, etc.).
• Use VECTOR methods for network analyses, such as for telephone networks, or transport
network analysis.
• Use VECTOR data structure and VECTOR display methods for the highest quality line
drawing.
• Use RASTER methods for quick map over lay, map combination and spatial analysis.
(SIS and DTM)
• Use RASTER methods for simulation and modeling when it is necessary to work with
surfaces.
• Use RASTER and VECTOR in combination for plotting high quality lines in
combination with efficient area filling in color.
• The lines can be held in VECTOR format and the raster filling in compact RASTER structures such as
quadtrees.
• Preferably use RASTER data structure for digital terrain models
• Use RASTER -VECTOR and VECTOR - RASTER algorithms to convert data to the most
suitable form for a given analysis or manipulation.
• Remember that DISPLAY systems can operate either in RASTER or VECTOR modes
independent of the DATA STRUCTURES that are used to store and manipulate the data.
When to use …
Regular or Vector: Vector (point,
irregular TIN line, polygon)

tessellation
Continuous Yes Yes (only as iso-lines)

(SIS and DTM)
field
Discrete field Yes No (only as polygons)

Object No Yes
Possible but
not ideal
Resolution of Raster Image
• Resolution of an image refers to its ability to display fine detail in a
distinguishable manner
• Resolution of an image Controlled by imaging system

• Fine detail is a relative concept

• Basically there are four types of resolution associated with the
(SIS and DTM)
satellite image:
• Spatial resolution,
• Spectral resolution,
• Radiometric resolution and
• Temporal resolution
Spatial resolution
• Spatial resolution refers to the level of detail or
clarity in the representation of features on the
Earth's surface.
• It is determined by the size of the individual pixels
in the image. Usually measured in meters per pixel

or centimeters per pixel.
(SIS and DTM)
• High Resolution: Smaller pixel size, providing more

detail.
• Low Resolution: Larger pixel size, showing less detail.
• Example: A satellite image with a spatial resolution High Resolution
of 1 meter means that each pixel represents a
square area of 1 square meter on the ground.
• Images where only large features are visible are
said to have coarse or low resolution.
• In fine or high resolution images, small objects can
be detected.
Low Resolution
Spectral resolution
• Spectral resolution refers to the ability of a satellite sensor to distinguish
between different wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Expressed in the number of spectral bands or channels.

• High Resolution: More bands, allowing for better discrimination of different
surface features.
• Low Resolution: Fewer bands, limiting the ability to distinguish between different
(SIS and DTM)
materials.
• Measured in number of bands of the image in the spectral range
• Example: A multispectral satellite image might have bands in the
visible, near-infrared, and thermal infrared portions of the spectrum.
• Panchromatic : single band
• Multispectral: 3-10 bands
• Hyperspectral: 10-100 bands
• Ultra spectral or super spectral : more than 100 bands
Radiometric resolution
• Radiometric resolution represents the sensitivity of a sensor to variations in the
intensity of reflected or emitted radiation.
• It quantifies the number of digital values that can be assigned to each pixel in an
image.
• Measured in bits.
• High Resolution: More bits, providing a greater range of brightness levels and better
differentiation of subtle variations in reflectance.
(SIS and DTM)
• Low Resolution: Fewer bits, resulting in a reduced ability to capture subtle differences in
brightness.
• Example:
• A 1-bit radiometric resolution allows for 2 different digital values (2^1), ranging from
0 to 1. just black and white
• An 2-bit radiometric resolution allows for 4 different digital values (2^2), ranging
from 0 to 3. only two distinct grey levels between black and white
• A 4-bit radiometric resolution allows for 16 different digital values (2^4), ranging
from 0 to 15. only 14 distinct grey levels between black and white
• An 8-bit radiometric resolution allows for 256 different digital values (2^8), ranging
from 0 to 255. total 154 distinct grey levels between black and white
Temporal resolution
• Temporal resolution refers to the frequency with which a satellite
revisits the same area on the Earth's surface.
• It is crucial for monitoring changes over time.

• Measured in time intervals, such as days or hours.
• High Resolution: Shorter revisiting time, enabling frequent monitoring of

(SIS and DTM)
changes.
• Low Resolution: Longer revisiting time, limiting the ability to capture dynamic
processes.
• Example: A satellite with a daily revisit time has a higher temporal
resolution than one that revisits every 10 days.
• Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) satellites
provide continuous, high-temporal-resolution imagery of the Earth.
They are positioned in geostationary orbits, allowing them to observe a
fixed area on the Earth's surface continuously.
(SIS and DTM)
Data models
Object-oriented vector data
• Object-oriented vector data refers to a method of
organizing and analyzing spatial data in a
geographic information system (GIS) based on the

concept of geographic objects or features.

• In this context, the term "object-oriented" pertains
(SIS and DTM)
to the representation and manipulation of spatial

entities as discrete, identifiable objects with
associated attributes.
• Object-oriented vector data uses vector data
structures to represent geographic features. These
features are often points, lines, or polygons, each
with specific attributes.
Object-Based Data Model
• The object-based data model, on the other hand, stores spatial data
and attribute data in a single system.
• Recent trends suggest that GIS vendors have adopted the object
based data model in their software development.

(SIS and DTM)
• ESRI, Inc. has introduced a new vector data model with each new
software package:
• Coverage with Arc/ Info,
• Shape-fi le with Arc View, and
• Geodatabase with ArcGIS
• The coverage and shape file ate examples of the geo-relational data
model, whereas the geodatabase is an example of the object-based
data model.
Topological Vector Data
• Topological vector data in a GIS refers to a data structure that includes
information about the spatial relationships and connectivity between
geographic features.
• Topology is the study of the spatial relationships and properties that
remain unchanged regardless of the scale, rotation, or translation of

spatial objects.
(SIS and DTM)
• In the context of GIS, topological relationships are maintained to ensure

the integrity of spatial data.
• Topology is useful for detecting digitizing errors in digital maps and is
necessary for some map overlay operations and network analysis.
• Non-topological data display faster and more importantly they can be
used directly in different GIS software packages.
• In ESRI software, topological based digital maps termed as coverage
and non-topological based digital maps are termed as shapefiles.
(SIS and DTM)
Topological Vector Data
• Topological vector data can be further categorized into simple and
higher data.
• Simple vector data can be consisting of points, lines and polygons.

• Higher level data are built upon simple points, line and polygons.
Like:
(SIS and DTM)
• The triangulated irregular network (TIN) approximates the terrain with a

set of non-overlapping triangles.
• Each triangle in a TIN consists of points and edges (lines) that connect
these points to form triangles.
• A region is a collection of polygons, which may or may not be connected,
and region may overlap with one another or form a nested set.
• Dynamic segmentation is a data model that is built upon lines of a network
and allows the use of real-world coordinates with linear measures such as
mileposts.
Data Integration
• Data integration involves the combining or merging of data from multiple
sources in an effort to extract better and/or more information.
• The primary goal of data integration is to create a unified and coherent

dataset that can be easily understood, analyzed, and utilized for decision-
making.
• Some key points related to data integration are:

(SIS and DTM)
• Integration combines data from various sources.

• Integrated data varies in themes, scale, and formats.
• Data is harmonized for consistency.
• Enables seamless collaboration across datasets.
• Enhances understanding through a comprehensive view.
• Valuable for informed decision-making.
• Involves addressing data quality and consistency challenges.
• GIS tools automate the integration process.
• Real-time updates are crucial for some applications.
• Standardized formats and schemas are essential.
• Ensures accuracy, completeness, and consistency.
• Ongoing monitoring is necessary for data accuracy.
(SIS and DTM)

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g]kfn Ol~hlgol/Ë ;]jf, ;e]{ ;d"x,

Madhusudan Adhikari, Resource Person

/fhkqf+lst t[tLo >]0fLsf kbsf]

nf]s;]jf cfof]uåf/f lnOg]

v'nf k|ltof]lutfTds k/LIffsf]

Spatial Information System and

• Data without context and processing remains meaningless.

• Internal communication is communication with people inside the same organization

• External communication is with people outside the company, such as suppliers or

• Geographic phenomena exist in the real world

• Can be assigned a time at which it is/was present

• In continuous data, the underlying

function is assumed to be continuous.

values are gradual (for example

• Typical examples are land classifications,

crop types or natural vegetation types

• The attribute's value changes smoothly from one location to another.

• Geographic fields are often analyzed using spatial interpolation

• Vector Data Representation:

additional information about the feature.

• It is designed to represent discrete objects on the Earth's surface,

providing a detailed and accurate way to model geographic

• Geometry of vector data is one of the following

• Vector data uses a coordinate system to define the spatial location of

• Topology in vector data defines the spatial relationships between

containment, which is crucial for spatial analysis and data integrity.

• Compact data structure

• It is organized into a regular grid of cells or pixels, where each cell

represents a specific area on the Earth's surface. The entire grid

• Raster data is well-suited for representing continuous surfaces or

phenomena, such as elevation, temperature, precipitation

representing a different attribute or wavelength.

irregular TIN line, polygon)

Continuous Yes Yes (only as iso-lines)

Discrete field Yes No (only as polygons)

• Resolution of an image Controlled by imaging system

• Fine detail is a relative concept

in the image. Usually measured in meters per pixel

• High Resolution: Smaller pixel size, providing more

• Expressed in the number of spectral bands or channels.

• It is crucial for monitoring changes over time.

• High Resolution: Shorter revisiting time, enabling frequent monitoring of

geographic information system (GIS) based on the

concept of geographic objects or features.

to the representation and manipulation of spatial

based data model in their software development.

remain unchanged regardless of the scale, rotation, or translation of

• In the context of GIS, topological relationships are maintained to ensure

• Simple vector data can be consisting of points, lines and polygons.

• The triangulated irregular network (TIN) approximates the terrain with a

• The primary goal of data integration is to create a unified and coherent

• Some key points related to data integration are:

• Integration combines data from various sources.

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