Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

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Mechanism and Machine Theory

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mechmt

Analytical and experimental investigation on stability of rotor

system with spline coupling considering torque, friction
coefficient and external damping
Zezeng Dai a, Jianping Jing a, b, c, *, Changmin Chen a, Jiqing Cong a, Yong Quan d
a
The State Key Laboratory of Mechanical System and Vibration, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
b
Gas Turbine Research Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
c
Fundamental Science on Vibration, Shock & Noise Laboratory, Shanghai 200240, China
d
China Aviation Powerplant Research Institute, Zhuzhou 412002, Hunan China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The spline coupling is widely used in high-speed rotor systems. As the lack of good understanding
Spline coupling of the instability and influence behaviors, the spline induced instability is still not well controlled.
Stability From the view of dynamics, torque, friction coefficient and external damping are key factors that
Numerical model
influence the stability directly. In this paper, the mechanism and influence law of spline induced
Friction coefficient
instability are investigated. A new model to predict the threshold speed of instability of spline
Torque
External damping coupled rotor accurately is proposed. A criterion to determine the stability of rotor through
judging the relative displacement between splines is derived. Then the effects of torque, friction
coefficient and external damping on stability are investigated. Corresponding experiments are
carried out to validate the model. The characteristics of instability caused by spline are observed
successfully through repeated experiments. Results demonstrate that the mechanism of instability
caused by spline is the relative effect of the internal damping from spline coupling and the
external damping. This investigation can help with the prediction of instability caused by the
spline and the regulation of rotor stability.

1. Introduction

Spline coupling plays a key role in many rotating machineries for its high torque-transmitting capacity and self-centering action.
The behaviors of the spline coupling, such as contact deformation and relative slip, significantly influence the dynamic characteristics
of the whole system especially stability. Yet this problem has not been well settled and needs to be further investigated.
In the previous literature, many researchers have paid attention to the behaviors of spline tooth contact. Guan et al. [1] investigated
the contact of crown gear coupling considering misalignment and presented an accurate method to determine the contact points of the
misaligned spline teeth. Hong et al. [2,3] built a semi-analytical model of load distribution for side-fit spline coupling considering
bending deformation, shear deformation, torsional deformation and compression contact deformation of the spline tooth. Guo et al.
[4] analyzed the tooth contact of gear coupling analytically and experimentally with misalignment, torque, and friction taken into
consideration. Liu et al. [5] proposed a new 3D loaded tooth contact analysis (3-DLTCA) model for double helical gears taking the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jianpj@sjtu.edu.cn (J. Jing).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2022.105200
Received 1 November 2022; Received in revised form 2 December 2022; Accepted 2 December 2022
Available online 10 December 2022
0094-114X/© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

Nomenclature

Symbol
F Equivalent meshing force of a pair of teeth
Fr Radial component of equivalent meshing force
Ft Tangential component of equivalent meshing force
δr Radial displacement of the spline tooth
δt Tangential displacement of the spline tooth
δbt Tangential bending deformation of the tooth
δbr Radial bending deformation of the tooth
Ee Equivalent elastic modulus
s Half tooth thickness
I Area moment of inertia
δqt Shear deformation of the tooth
G Shear modulus
A(r) Cross-sectional area of the tooth
δmt Tangential torsional deformation of the tooth
km Stiffness of beam under bending moment
δmr Radial torsional deformation of the tooth
δcr Radial compression deformation of the tooth
δct Tangential compression deformation of the tooth
(r1 , t1 ) Coordinate of the equivalent force action point
(rn , tn ) Addendum coordinate along the involute
δ Total deformation of a single tooth
δot Tooth deformation of the external spline
δit Tooth deformation of the internal spline
k Stiffness of a pair of teeth
δj Displacement of the j-th tooth of the external spline in the direction of the meshing force
γj Angle between the j-th tooth of the external spline and the ξ-axis
Δξ Relative lateral displacement of the inner and outer splines
Δη Relative lateral displacement of the inner and outer splines
φ Meshing angle
Fj Meshing force of the j-th pair of teeth
Fξ Meshing force along the ξ-axis
Fη Meshing force along the η-axis
KL Transverse stiffness of the spline coupling
n Tooth number of the spline
Δα Relative rotation angles of the external spline relative to the internal spline around the ξ-axis
Δβ Relative rotation angles of the external spline relative to the internal spline around the η-axis
ϵj Displacement of the j-th tooth pair at ς from the central plane of the coupling
b Tooth width of the spline coupling
Mξ Component of the moments of n teeth along the ξ-axis
Mη Component of the moments of n teeth along the η-axis
KA Angular stiffness of the spline coupling
Fti Coulomb friction force between the i th pair of teeth
T Torque transferred by the spline coupling
μ Friction coefficient between external and internal teeth
Eti Energy consumed by the i th tooth pair due to lateral damping in a cycle
δ0 Lateral relative displacement between the female spline and male spline
r Distance between the action point of the equivalent meshing force and the center of the spline.
ω Absolute value of the difference between the first critical speed and rotation speed
Et Energy consumed by lateral damping
CL Transverse damping of the spline coupling
dFai Friction force of i th tooth pair along the ς direction on the length of dς
Eai Energy consumed by the i th tooth pair due to angular damping along the tooth width direction in 1 / 4 period
α0 Angular relative displacement of the female spline and male spline
Ea Energy consumed by angular damping
CA Angular damping of the spline coupling
cr Radial clearance of the spline coupling

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l Axial length of the spline

K12 Lateral cross stiffness coefficient
K21 Lateral cross stiffness coefficient
K45 Angular cross stiffness coefficient
K54 Angular cross stiffness coefficient
Ω Rotational speed of the rotor
mjk Mass of the spline
d
Jjk Diameter moment of inertia of the spline
p
Jjk Polar moment of inertia of the spline
kl Lateral stiffness of the semi spline coupling
ka Angular stiffness of the semi spline coupling
ξjk Lateral displacement of the spline defined in the rotating coordinate system
ηjk Lateral displacement of the spline defined in the rotating coordinate system
δjk Angular displacement of the spline defined in the rotating coordinate system
εjk Angular displacement of the spline defined in the rotating coordinate system
cl Lateral damping of the semi spline coupling
ca Angular damping of the semi spline coupling
R
̃ Energy dissipation function of the semi spline coupling
kx Lateral stiffness of the bearing
ky Lateral stiffness of the bearing
xb Journal center coordinates of the bearing
yb Journal center coordinates of the bearing
cxx Damping of the squeeze film damper
cyy Damping of the squeeze film damper
xs Journal center coordinates of the squeeze film damper
ys Journal center coordinates of the squeeze film damper
wn The first critical speed
Ul Energy generated by the lateral damping
ωr First-order natural frequency of the system
Δx Relative lateral displacements of internal and external splines in the fixed coordinate system
Δy Relative lateral displacements of internal and external splines in the fixed coordinate system
Ua Energy generated by the angular damping
Δθ Relative angular displacements of internal and external splines in the fixed coordinate system
Δψ Relative angular displacements of internal and external splines in the fixed coordinate system
me Mass of the external spline
mi Mass of the internal spline
eξe Eccentricity of the external spline along the ξ axis
eηe Eccentricity of the external spline along the η axis
eξi Eccentricity of the internal spline along the ξ axis
eηi Eccentricity of the internal spline along the η axis
X(t) Particular solution of the differential equation
X0 Amplitude of the relative displacement
γ Friction torque ratio
Cpureoil Damping of the ideal squeeze film damper
β Gas volume fraction of the lubricant
Cmixture Damping the squeeze film damper with oil inhalation
P(θ, z) Oil film pressure
Pv Vapor pressure
P0 Film pressure for reference
β0 Gas volume fraction for reference

Subscript
e External spline
i Internal spline

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Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

long-term asymmetric errors into account. Jing et al. [6] proposed a more accurate method to compute the stiffness of a pair of spline
teeth. Francesca et al. [7] proposed an analytical model to compute the number of teeth engaged and the transmitted force of each
tooth in a spline coupling with parallel misalignment. Their results showed good agreement with the finite element method. These
investigations only considered the spline coupling instead of the whole rotor system. In fact, the contact behaviors of the spline
coupling affect not only the spline failure, but also the stability of the whole rotor system.
Many scholars have investigated the instability of rotating machinery caused by internal damping from various sources. Alford
et al. [8] investigated the instability whirl behavior caused by rotor internal damping. It was found that whirl mode induced by
instability is generally closest to one-half of the rotational speed. Gupta et al. [9] built a model to study the effect of the bearing
clearance, and rotor flexibility on the unstable and chaotic behavior of the nonlinear rotor system. The instability behavior was relative
to the stiffness ratio (shaft stiffness/Hertzian load deflection factor) of rotor-bearing system, ball bearing clearance, unbalance, and
rotor speed. Boesiger et al. [10] investigated the effect of the lubrication of ball bearing on the stability of retainer. They found that
there is a secondary frequency component that is invariant with the speed and lubrication condition in the frequency domain response
when the system lost stability. Rajalingham et al. [11] investigated the influence of material damping and bearing oil film on the
stability of rotor-bearing system. It was found material damping made lightly loaded rotors more stable. Fang et al. [12] proposed a
quantitative and qualitative analysis method for rotor bearing system supported by a pair of the angular contact ball bearings. The
influence of off-diagonal bearing stiffness element on rotor support stiffness and natural frequency was obtained. Safa et al. [13]
developed the Euler Bernoulli axis finite element formula based on equivalent monolayer theory to investigate the effect of the ma­
terial damping on the stability. Results showed the stability is sensitive to the laminate parameters. Yang et al. [14] established a
symmetrical rigid bearing rotor system model and analyzed influence of resonance characteristics and rotor eccentric excitation on the
fault characteristic frequencies. NAJAFI et al. [15] investigated the instability caused by internal damping of laminated transmission
shaft composed of multiple sheets with different fiber directions. The results showed that increasing the internal damping of the shaft
may reduce the threshold speed of instability. Su et al. [16] investigated the nonlinear response of rotor system with active magnetic
bearings and touchdown bearings caused by foundation shock excitation. Wang et al. [17] found that internal damping reduced the
threshold speed of instability of the rod fastening rotor-bearing system. The internal damping should be considered in such a
complicated rotor system. Ma et al. [18] investigated the influence of the internal friction between the inner ring of the ball bearing
and the shaft on the stability of the high-speed turbine experimentally. The influence of internal friction on the dynamic behavior of the
rotor is strongly affected by the tightness of the fit state between the rotor and the bearing inner ring.
While few researches on the effect of the spline coupling on the rotor dynamic characteristics especially the stability have been
reported. Some literature has neglected the tooth contact behaviors of the spline coupling, which, thereby, can’t explain the spline-
induced instability problem. Wu and Zhang et al. [19,20] investigated the stiffness characteristics of the spline coupling and their
effects on the dynamic characteristics of the rotor system. Yet, they didn’t consider the contact and friction between the spline teeth.
Chen et al. [21] built an analytical model of the spline coupling. They investigated the relationship between the tightening force of
axial nuts and the dynamic characteristics of the rotor system without considering the tooth contact of the spline coupling as well. Hu
et al. [22] proposed a nonlinear model of a rotor system which was coupled by splines and gears. Their study didn’t involve the stability
of the system. Li et al. [23] established a bending-torsion vibration model of a rotor-spline-bearing system. Their investigation
considered the misalignment of the spline coupling, while they didn’t investigate the stability problem as well.
Although the spline-induced instability was noted by several researchers very early, how to set the parameters to control the
stability is still a problem. In addition, methods in previous literature couldn’t predict the threshold speed of instability accurately.
Williams and Trent et al. [24] built a nonlinear model of the spline coupling. They observed the typical non-synchronous self-excited
vibration which was caused by the Coulomb friction of the spline coupling by simulation. While their results lacked experimental
verification. Nataraj et al. [25–27] built a model where the spline force was described as a nonlinear transverse force relevant to the
whirling speed. Artiles et al. [28] proposed a model similar to Nataraj’s and investigated the effects of several factors on the instability
response of the spline coupled rotor. Brommundt et al. [29] derived the nonlinear motion differential equation of a
two-degree-of-freedom model of the rotor coupled by a gear coupling. They used a numerical method to investigate the instability and
tiny lateral vibration caused by the nonlinear friction of the gear coupling. Marmol et al. [30,31] built a linearized model of the spline
coupling and did a corresponding experimental investigation. They observed the instability phenomena during the experiments, while
they didn’t find the instability in the simulation because their model had too many uncertain parameters. Park et al. [32] did a similar
investigation based on the model proposed by Marmol. While he didn’t observe the spline-induced instability in the experiments.
Walton et al. [33,34] proposed a model of the spline coupling only taking the axial Coulomb friction into account and did an
experimental investigation. They found that well lubrication reduced the rotor stability, which was contrary to Marmol’s results. Dai
et al. [35] investigated the effects of several parameters on the vibration characteristics of the spline-connected rotor experimentally.
Summarizing previous researches, early researchers have not explained the spline coupling caused instability clearly. It is still confused
how the spline coupling parameters affect the system stability. Some researchers have even gained opposite conclusions.
Many researchers have focused on the modeling of the complicated rotor system. Han et al. [36] built a model of the aero-engine
rotor system with squeeze film damper by finite element method. Zhou et al. [37] modeled a rotor system taken the coupling effect of
bearing and seal into consideration using the matrix manipulation method. Arthur et al. [38] proposed a new modeling method for
complex rotor systems with multiple discs and bearings. Similar to the finite element method, the rotor system was divided into several
sub-segments to solve the eigenvalue problem. Liao et al. [39] derived the differential equation of motion for rotor system with elastic
support and dry friction damper. Above all, few researchers paid attention to the modeling for spline-connected rotor with squeeze film
damper.
In summary, there is still a lack of an effective analytical method for spline-induced instability. The threshold speed of instability

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Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

can’t be predicted accurately. As the instability phenomena are difficult to be reproduced in the experiments, the characteristics of the
spline induced instability are yet confused by the simulation results, which can’t agree well with the experimental results in some
literature. In addition, as the lack of deep understanding of the effects of spline coupling in rotor stability, the instability still occurs
frequently in high-speed rotors, such as aeroengines.
Therefore, in this investigation, focus has been put on the influence law and mechanism of spline-induced instability. The dynamic
responses, including critical speed and threshold speed of instability under variable torque, friction coefficient and external damping
are then to be investigated. To achieve this aim, a new effective model is proposed to investigate the stability of the spline coupled rotor
system to improve the prediction accuracy. Furthermore, a test rig is set up and experiments are carried out to validate the numerical
model, and the instability behaviors are also observed and investigated. Based on this, a criterion to determine the instability
considering the spline coupling influences is presented. Finally, the effects of torque, friction coefficient and external damping on
stability are obtained theoretically and experimentally. It is expected to give a valuable guide for eliminating the instability fault of
high speed rotor-spline coupling system.

2. Analytical model

In many prior literatures, splines are directly equivalent to rigid connections or neglect the compression deformation of spline teeth
though consider its stiffness and damping. In this study, an Improved Integral Method (IIM) based on the Integral Method (IM) pre­
sented by Walton [6] is proposed to compute the stiffness of the spline tooth pair. This method modifies the bending deformation
formula of the integral method and takes the tangential compression deformation into consideration. Compared with the IM, more
accurate stiffness of tooth pair is obtained by the improved integral method. Furthermore, the spline force is linearized and described
by stiffness and damping coefficients to obtain the exact threshold speed of instability. Then the dynamics models of the spline
coupling as well as the spline-coupled rotor system are built through the finite-element method.

2.1. Improved model of stiffness of the spline tooth pair

The contact analysis of two meshing teeth is shown in Fig. 1. The uniformly distributed force acting on the tooth is equivalent to a
concentrated force F which can be decomposed into radial force Fr and tangential force Ft . The corresponding tooth deformations are δr
and δt respectively. The bending deformation formula has been modified and the tangential compression deformation formula has
been added in the improved integral method compared with the integral method.
The tangential bending deformation of the tooth is given in Eq. (1) where r is equal to h.
∫h ∫r
1
(1)
′ ′
δbt = [Ft (h − r ) − Fr s]dr dr
Ee I
0 0

Then the radial bending deformation due to tangential bending deformation is given by
( ) ∫h
∂δt 1
(2)
′ ′
δbr = s |r=h = s [Ft (h − r ) − Fr s]dr
∂r Ee I
0

where Ee is the equivalent elastic modulus; s is the half tooth thickness; I is the area moment of inertia.
The shear deformation of the tooth is as follows.
∫h
Ft
δqt = dr (3)
GA(r)
0

Fig. 1. Contact force analysis of spline tooth pair.

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Where G is the shear modulus and A(r) is the cross-sectional area of the tooth.
The tangential torsional deformation derived based on the integral method is as in Eq. (4).
h
δmt = (Ft h − Fr s) (4)
km

Where km is the stiffness of beam under bending moment [21,22].

Then the radial torsional deformation is given by
b
δmr = (Ft h − Fr s) (5)
km
The radial compression deformation is as follows.
∫h
2Fr
δcr = − dr (6)
Ee A(r)
0

The tangential compression deformation is obtained by

⎡ ⎤
∫tn
− tn dt ⎦
δct = ⎣ + Ft (7)
Ee (brn ) Ee (rb)
t1

where (r1 , t1 ) is the coordinate of the equivalent force action point; (rn , tn ) is the addendum coordinate along the involute.
Then the total deformation of a single tooth is obtained by the following formula.
( )
δ = δbt + δqt + δmt + δct cosφ − (δbr + δmr + δcr )sinφ (8)

Hence the stiffness of a pair of meshing teeth is given by

F
k= (9)
δot + δit

where δot is the tooth deformation of the external spline; δit is the tooth deformation of the internal spline.

2.2. The stiffness and damping coefficients of the spline coupling

As shown in Fig. 2(a), the spline coupling investigated consists of an internal spline sleeve and two external splines. The analytical
model is built to describe the spline contact force as shown in Fig. 2(b). It is assumed that there is no misalignment. The spline force is
described by six coefficients, including the transverse stiffness KL , the angular stiffness KA , the transverse damping CL , the angular
damping CA , the lateral cross stiffness and angular cross stiffness.
As shown in Fig. 3, a rotating coordinate system ξ − η − ς on the center plane of the spline coupling is established. The ς-axis is set to
the center axis of the spline.

Fig. 2. Model of the spline coupling: (a) The structure of the spline coupling (b) The analytical model of the spline coupling.

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Fig. 3. Derivation of lateral stiffness coefficient of the spline coupling.

Then the displacement of the j-th tooth of the external spline in the direction of the meshing force is as follows.
( ) ( )
δj = Δξsin γ j − φ + Δηcos γj − φ (10)

Where γ j is the angle between the j-th tooth of the external spline and the ξ-axis; Δξ and Δη are the relative lateral displacements of the
inner and outer splines; φ is the pressure angle.
The meshing force of the j-th pair of teeth is obtained by
Fj = kδj (11)

where k is the stiffness of a pair of teeth.

Therefore, the component forces of the meshing force along the coordinate axis are given by
⎧ ( ) ∑
n
[ ( ) ( ) ( )]
⎪
⎪ Fξ = Fj sin γ j − φ = k Δξsin2 γj − φ + Δηsin γj − φ cos γ j − φ
⎪
⎨
(12)
j=1
⎪
⎪ ( ) ∑
n
[ ( ) ( ) ( )]
⎪
⎩ Fη = Fj cos γ j − φ = k Δηcos2 γj − φ + Δξsin γj − φ cos γ j − φ
j=1

The following formulas have been found under the condition of n ≥ 3, where n is the tooth number of the spline.
∑
n
( ) ( ) n
sin2 γj − φ = cos2 γ j − φ = (13)
j=1
2

∑
n
( ) ( )
sin γ j − φ cos γ j − φ = 0 (14)
j=1

Hence, the transverse stiffness could be obtained by Eq. (15)

nk
KL = (15)
2
As shown in Fig. 4, the same rotating coordinate system ξ − η − ς as in Fig. 3 is established. The relative rotation angles of the
external spline relative to the internal spline around the ξ axis and the η axis are Δα and Δβ respectively. Then the displacement of the j-
th tooth pair at ς from the central plane of the spline coupling is given by

Fig. 4. Derivation of angular stiffness coefficients of the spline coupling.

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[ ( ) ( )]
∈j = ς Δαcos γ j − φ + Δβsin γj − φ (16)

The meshing force on the finite width dς is as in Eq. (17).

k
dFj = ∈j dς (17)
b
Integrating the meshing force over the entire width of the tooth, the bending moment of the coupling is obtained by Eq. (18),
where b is the tooth width.

∫b/2
b2 k [ ( ) ( )]
ςdFj = Δαcos γ j − φ + Δβsin γ j − φ (18)
12
− b/2

The components of the moments of n teeth along the coordinate axis are as follows.
b
n ∫2
∑ [ ( )] b2 nk
Mξ = ςd Fj cos γj − φ = Δα (19)
j=1
24
− b
2

b
n ∫2
∑ [ ( )] b2 nk
Mη = ςd Fj sin γj − φ = Δβ (20)
j=1
24
− b
2

Then the angular stiffness coefficient can be obtained by Eq. (21).

b2 nk
KA = (21)
24
The lateral damping coefficient and angular damping coefficient are derived based on the energy equivalence method.
It is assumed that the damping coefficient of the spline coupling is mainly due to the Coulomb friction between the tooth pairs. The
Coulomb friction force between the i th pair of teeth is as in Eq. (22).
μT
Fti = (22)
rncosφ

Where T is the torque transferred by the spline coupling; μ is the friction coefficient between external and internal teeth.
Then the energy consumed by the i th tooth pair due to lateral damping in a cycle is given by
4μTδ0
Eti = 4Fti δ0 = (23)
rncos2 φ

where δ0 is the lateral relative displacement between the female spline and male spline; r is the distance between the action point of the
equivalent meshing force and the center of the spline.
The total energy consumed by n tooth pairs is as follows.
4μTδ0
Et = nEti = (24)
rcos2 φ
The energy consumed by lateral damping in the two directions of ξ and η in one period is given by

Et = 2πCL ωδ20 (25)

where CL is the lateral damping coefficient; ω is the absolute value of the difference between the first critical speed and rotation speed.
Hence the lateral damping coefficient is obtained as follows
2μT
CL = (26)
rπωδ0 cos2 φ
Assuming that the friction force is uniformly distributed along the tooth width direction, the friction force of i th tooth pair along
the ς direction on the length of dς is given by
μT
dFai = dς (27)
rnbcosφ
The energy consumed by the i th tooth pair due to angular damping along the tooth width direction in 1 / 4 period can be written as
follows.

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∫b/2
α0 ς μT α0 b
Eai = 2 dFai = (28)
cosφ 4rncos2 φ
0

Where α0 is the angular relative displacement between the female spline and male spline.
The total energy consumed by n pairs of teeth in a period is obtained as follows
μT α0 b
Ea = 4Eai = (29)
rcos2 φ
The energy consumed by angular damping in the two directions of ξ and η in one period is given in Eq. (30)

Ea = 2πCA wα20 (30)

Where CA is the angular damping coefficient.

Thereby, the angular damping coefficient is given by
μTb
CA = (31)
2rπωα0 cos2 φ
The lateral displacement δ0 equals to the lateral deformation of the spline teeth plus the spline radial clearance. The angular
displacement α0 equals to the angle e which is defined as Eq. (32) plus the angular deformation of the spline teeth.
( )
2cr
e = tan− 1 (32)
l

Where cr is the radial clearance of the spline coupling; l is the axial length of the spline.
The lateral cross stiffness coefficients are as follows.
K12 = − K21 = ΩCL (33)

Where Ω is the rotational speed.

The angular cross stiffness coefficients can be obtained by Eq. (34).
K45 = − K54 = ΩCA (34)

2.3. The finite-element model of the rotor system

The spline-coupled rotor system shown in Fig. 5 is designed to investigate the spline joint of a real turboshaft aero-engine. This rotor
consists of a turbo shaft, an output shaft and an internal spline sleeve. The whole rotor is supported by four deep groove ball bearings
and a squeeze film damper which also provides the external damping.
The dynamic model of the whole system shown in Fig. 6 is built through the finite-element method. The model of the whole
coupling-rotor-bearing system can be divided into elastic shaft, rigid disk, spline coupling, bearing and squeeze film damper. The shaft
and rigid disk are modeled as elastic beam and lumped mass respectively.

2.3.1. The finite-element model of the spline coupling

To build the model of the spline coupling, it is separated from the whole system. As shown in Fig. 2, the spline coupling is composed
of one internal spline and two external splines. In addition, the spline coupling consists of two semi-spline couplings with the same
number of meshing teeth. The two semi-spline couplings are connected by a shaft segment. Then the spline coupling can be regarded as

Fig. 5. The sketch map of the spline-coupled rotor.

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Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

Fig. 6. The finite-element model of the whole system.

Fig. 7. The finite-element model of the spline coupling.

shaft and disk structures. Therefore, the whole spline coupling can be divided into three parts: the semi-spline coupling at the turbo
end, the semi-spline coupling at the output end and the elastic shaft connecting the two semi-spline couplings as shown in Fig. 7. Then
the differential equation of motion of the semi-spline coupling at the turbo end is derived by Lagrange equations.
The external and internal splines of the semi spline coupling are modeled as solid and hollow disk respectively. To begin, the
y T
generalized coordinates of the external spline are defined as {u1je } = [xje , θje ] and {u2je } = [yje , − θxje ]T , which are the displacement
vectors of the axis node of the external spline. Similarly, the generalized coordinates of the internal spline can be written as {u1ji } =
y T
[xji , θji ] and {u2ji } = [yji , − θxji ]T .
The internal and external splines have the same rotational speed and tooth number. The kinetic energy of the semi spline coupling
omitting higher-order terms is given by
∑ 1 ( ) 1 (( ) ( x )2 )
1 y 2
T= ( mjk ẋ2jk + ẏ2jk + Jjkp Ω2 + Jjkd θ̇jk + θ̇jk
2 2 2
k=e,i (35)
y
− Jjkp Ωθ̇jk θxjk )

d p
where mjk (k = e, i) is the mass of the spline; Jjk (k = e, i) is the diameter moment of inertia; Jjk (k = e, i) is the polar moment of inertia. The
subscripts e and i denote the external and internal splines respectively.
The formula in Eq. (35) rewritten as matrix form is given by
∑1{ }T [ ]{ } 1{ }T [ ]{ } { }[ ]{ } 1
T= u̇1jk Mjkd u̇1jk + u̇2jk Mjkd u̇2jk + Ω u̇1jk Jjk u2jk + Jjkp Ω2 (36)
k=e,i
2 2 2

where [Mdjk ] and [Jjk ] are the mass matrix and inertia matrix respectively.

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Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

[ ] [ ]
[ ] mjk 0 [ ] 0 0
Mjkd = Jjk = (k = e, i) (37)
0 Jjkd 0 Jjkp

Considering the bending deformation of the spline teeth, the elastic potential energy of the semi spline coupling can be written as
[ )2 ]
1 [( )2 ( )2 ] 1 ( y )2 (
U = kl xje − xji + yje − yji + ka θje − θyji + θxji − θxje (38)
2 2

where kl and ka are the lateral stiffness and angular stiffness of the semi spline coupling respectively.
A coordinate system rotating synchronously with the rotor is established as shown in Fig. 8 to compute the dissipation function. The
z-axis is set to the center axis of the splines. ξjk (k = i, e) and ηjk (k = i, e) are the lateral displacements of the spline defined in the rotating
coordinate system. δjk (k = i, e) and εjk (k = i, e) are the angular displacements of the spline defined in the rotating coordinate system.
The dissipation function of semi spline coupling derived at the rotating coordinate system is
[( ) ( )] [( ) ( )]
̃ = 1cl ξ̇ji − ξ̇je 2 + η̇ji − η̇je 2 + 1ca δ̇ji − δ̇je 2 + ε̇ji − ε̇je 2
R (39)
2 2

where cl and ca are the lateral damping and angular damping of the semi spline coupling respectively.
Eq. (39) needs to be transformed from the rotating coordinate system to the fixed coordinate system to obtain the dissipation
function in the fixed coordinate system. The relationship between the rotating and fixed coordinates shown in Fig. 8 is found to be
{ } [ ]{ }
ξ cosΩt − sinΩt x
= k = i, e (40)
η jk sinΩt cosΩt y jk

Then differentiating Eq. (40), the derivative is found to be

{ } [ ]{ } [ ]{ }
ξ̇ cosΩt − sinΩt ẋ sinΩt cosΩt x
= − Ω (41)
η̇ jk sinΩt cosΩt ẏ jk − cosΩt sinΩt y jk

Similarly, the derivative of angular displacement in the rotating coordinate system can be written as
{ } [ ]{ } [ ]{ }
δ̇ cosΩt − sinΩt θ̇y sinΩt cosΩt θy
= − Ω (42)
ε̇ jk sinΩt cosΩt θ̇x jk − cosΩt sinΩt θx jk

Accordingly, substituting Eq. (41) and Eq. (42) into Eq. (39), the energy dissipation function defined in the fixed coordinate system
can be obtained as follows.

Fig. 8. The coordinate conversion.

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Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

{( ) ( )
̃ = 1Cl ẋji − ẋje 2 + ẏji − ẏje 2
R
2
[( )2 ( )2 ]
+Ω2 xji − xje + yji − yje
[( )( ) ( )( )]}
− 2Ω ẋji − ẋje yji − yje + xji − xje ẏji − ẏje
{(
1 y
)
y 2
( )2 (43)
+ Ca θ̇ji − θ̇je + θxje − θxje
2
[( )2 ( )2 ]
+Ω2 θyji − θyje + θxje − θxje
[( y y
)( ) ( )( x x
)]}
− 2Ω θ̇ji − θ̇je θxje − θxje + θyji − θyje θ̇je − θ̇je

The Lagrangian equation is expressed as Eq. (44).

( )
d ∂T ∂T ∂U ̃
∂R
− + =− (44)
dt ∂q̇ ∂q ∂q ∂q̇
Then, substituting Eq. (36), Eq. (38) and Eq. (43) into Eq. (44), the differential equation of motion of the external spline simplifies
to get
⎧ [ ]{ } [ ]{ 2 } [ ] { }
⎪
⎪ d 1 1 1 1
⎨ Mje üje + Ω Jje u̇je + [K] uje − uji = Qje
[ ]{ } (45)
⎪
⎪ [ ]{ } [ ] { }
⎩ Mjed ü2je − Ω Jje u̇1je + [K] u2je − u2ji = Q2je

where [Mdje ] is the mass matrix of the external spline; Ω[Jje ] is the gyroscopic matrix of the external spline; [K] is the stiffness matrix of the
semi spline coupling ; {Q1je } and {Q2je } are the generalized force of the external spline.
The detail expressions of these matrices in Eq. (45) are as follows.
[ ]
[ ] mje 0
d
Mje = (46a)
0 Jjed

[ ]
[ ] 0 0
Jje = (46b)
0 Jjep

[ ]
kl 0
[K] = (46c)
0 ka

{ } [ ][ ] [ ]{ }
Ωcl 0 cl 0
Q1je = u2je − u2ji − u̇1je − u̇1ji (46d)
0 − Ωca 0 ca

{ } [ ][ ] [ ]{ }
− Ωcl 0 cl 0
Q2je = u1je − u1ji − u̇2je − u̇2ji (46e)
0 Ωca 0 ca

In the same way, the motion equation of the internal spline can be written as
⎧ [ ]{ } [ ]{ 2 } [ ] { }
⎪
⎪ d 1 1 1 1
⎨ Mji üji + Ω Jji u̇ji + [K] uji − uje = Qji
[ ]{ } (47)
⎪
⎪ [ ]{ } [ ] { }
⎩ Mjid ü2ji − Ω Jji u̇1ji + [K] u2ji − u2je = Q2ji

where [Mdji ] is the mass matrix of the internal spline; Ω[Jji ] is the gyroscopic matrix of the internal spline; {Q1ji } and {Q1ji } are the
generalized force of the internal spline.
The detail expressions of these matrices in Eq. (47) are given by
[ ]
[ ] mji 0
Mjid = (48a)
0 Jjid

[ ]
kl 0
[K] = (48b)
0 ka

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Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

[ ]
[ ] 0 0
Jji = (48c)
0 Jjip

[ ][ ] [ ]{ }
Ωcl 0 cl 0
Q1ji = u2ji − u2je − u̇1ji − u̇1je (48d)
0 − Ωca 0 ca
[ ][ ] [ ]{ }
− Ωcl 0 cl 0
Q2ji = u1ji − u1je − u̇2ji − u̇2je (48e)
0 Ωca 0 ca

Merging Eq. (45) and Eq. (47) into one equation, the differential equation of motion of the semi spline coupling at turbo end is
obtained as follows.
⎡ ⎤⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪ ⎪
d ⎪ 1⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎡ ⎤
⎪
⎪ u̇1 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎢ Mje 0 0 0 ⎥⎪ üje ⎪ 0 ⎪ je ⎪
⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪
⎪ 1⎪
⎪
⎪ C − C ΩJje ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪ ⎥⎨ u̇ ⎪
⎪
⎢ 0 Mji d
0 0 ⎥⎨ üji ⎬ ⎢ ⎢ − C C 0 ΩJ ji ⎥
1
ji
⎬
⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 d
0 Mje 0 ⎥⎪ ⎥ ⎪ 2 ⎪
üje ⎪ ⎣ − ΩJ 0 C − C ⎦ ⎪ 2 ⎪
u̇ ⎪
⎢ je ⎪
⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪ 2⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ je ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎣ 0 0 0 Mdji ⎦⎪ ⎪ ü ⎪
⎪ 0 − ΩJji − C C ⎪ ⎪
⎪ 2 ⎪⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ji ⎭
⎩
⎪
⎪ ⎩ u̇ji ⎪
⎪ ⎭
⎧ ⎫ (49)
⎪ ⎪
⎡ ⎤⎪⎪ 1 ⎪
⎪ uje ⎪ ⎪
⎪
K − K Kyx K xy ⎪ ⎪
⎪ 1⎪ ⎪
⎢− K K K K ⎥⎪⎨u ⎪ ⎬
⎢ xy yx ⎥ ji
+⎢ ⎥ 2 ⎪
= {0}
⎣ K xy K yx K − K ⎦⎪ ⎪ u ⎪
⎪ je ⎪
⎪ ⎪
K yx K xy − K K ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ u2 ⎪ ⎪
⎩ ji ⎪ ⎭

Where Mdje = [Mdje ] is the mass matrix of the external spline; Mdji = [Mdji ] is the mass matrix of the internal spline; ΩJje = Ω[Jje ] is the
gyroscopic matrix of the external spline; ΩJji = Ω[Jji ] is the gyroscopic matrix of the internal spline; u1je = {u1je } and u2je = {u2je } are the
generalized coordinates of the external spline; u1ji = {u1ji } and u2ji = {u2ji } are the generalized coordinates of the internal spline; K = [K] is
the stiffness matrix of the semi spline coupling; and Kxy = − K yx is the cross stiffness matrix of the semi spline coupling.

2.3.2. Differential equations of motion of the whole system

It is assumed that the finite-element model of the rotor is divided into N-1 segments. Then the displacement vectors of the sys­
tem {U} = [U1 , U2 ]T can be written as Eq. (50).
⎧ [ ]T
⎪
⎪
⎨ {U1 } = x1 , θy1 , x2 , θy2 , ⋯, xje , θyje , xji , θyji ⋯, xN , θyN
[ ]T (50)
⎪
⎪
⎩ {U2 } = y1 , − θx1 , y2 , − θx2 , ⋯, yje , − θxje , yji , − θxji , ⋯, yN , − θxN

The stiffness of the bearing is symmetric and the damping of the bearing is ignored. Thus the corresponding generalized force of the
bearing is given by
{ } [ ]{ }
Qb1d kx 0 xb
=− (51)
b
Q2d 0 ky yb

where kx = ky is the lateral stiffness of the bearing; and xb and yb are journal center coordinates of the bearing.
The generalized force of the squeeze film damper is as in Eq. (52) without considering the stiffness.
{ } [ ]{ }
Qs1d cxx 0 ẋs
= − (52)
Qs2d 0 cyy ẏs

Where cxx = cyy is the damping of the squeeze film damper; xs and ys are journal center coordinates of the squeeze film damper.
Merging the motion differential equation of all nodes and the generalized force of all supports, the motion differential equation of
the spline-connected rotor is obtained and simplified to be
{ }
[M] Ü + [C]{U̇} + [K]{U} = {0} (53)

where [M] is the mass matrix; [C] is the damping matrix; and [K] is the stiffness matrix.
The dynamic characteristics of the rotor system are investigated by computing the eigenvalues of Eq. (53). The imaginary part of
the eigenvalue equals to the nature frequency of the rotor. The real part of the eigenvalue determines the stability of the system. If the

13
Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

real part of the eigenvalue turns negative, the system becomes unstable. The corresponding rotation speed is the threshold speed of
instability in order to get the eigenvalues of the system, Eq. (53) is converted into a state-space form:

[A]{V̇} + [B]{V} = {0} (54)

where
{ } [ ] [ ]
U̇ M 0 C K
{V} = [A] = [B] = (55)
U 0 K − K 0

Assuming the solution of the equation is given by

{V} = {V0 }evt (56)

Substituting the solution into Eq. (58) yields
([D] − ν[I]){V} = {0} (57)

where
[ ]
− M− 1 C − M− 1 K
[D] = (58)
I 0

Eq. (58) is a real asymmetric matrix. The eigenvalues of [D] are the eigenvalues of Eq. (53).

3. Theoretical analysis

In this section, using the model established in Section 2, the first critical speed and threshold speed of instability are computed with
rotating speeds ranging from 0 to 6000 rpm. Then the effects of friction coefficient, external damping and torque on the system stability
are investigated analytically.

3.1. The effect of the friction coefficient

The friction coefficient of the spline coupling is mainly influenced by the lubrication conditions. While researchers gained the
opposite conclusion on the influence of lubrication on stability [30,33]. Other factors such as load torque and external damping need to
be excluded to investigate the influence of the friction coefficient of the spline teeth on stability. Then the load torque of the system is
set to be zero. Corresponding to the experiments, the angular acceleration of the rotor is given to be 7.85rad/s2 . Thus the transmitted
torque of the spline coupling obtained based on the moment of inertia and angular acceleration of the rotor is 0.4844 N ⋅ m. The
dynamic coefficients of the spline coupling are listed in Table 1, in which μ ranging from 0 to 0.8 is the friction coefficient; Ω equals to
the rotation speed and wn is the first critical speed. These coefficients are then substituted into the Eq. (53), by which the critical speed
and threshold speed of instability are computed. For example, the Campbell diagram is shown in Fig. 9 when the friction coefficient is
0.2. From observation, the first critical speed is 3268 r/min under this case. The threshold speed of instability equals the rotational
speed at which the real part of the eigenvalue of Eq. (53) firstly becomes positive.
Without considering external damping, the changing of the threshold speed of instability and first critical speed with friction
coefficient is shown in Fig. 10(a). From observation, the first critical speed doesn’t change with the friction coefficients, which il­
lustrates the first critical speed is not affected by the friction coefficient. It can be obtained from Fig. 10(a) that the system loses its
stability just over the first critical speed. In addition, the threshold speed of instability doesn’t change with the friction coefficient as
well.
Taking the external damping into consideration, as shown in Fig. 10(b), the threshold speed of instability decreases nonlinearly
with the friction coefficient. While the threshold speed of instability will not change if the friction coefficient is larger than a threshold
value. Furthermore, the system remains stable until the friction coefficient exceeds a threshold value. This threshold value increases
with the external damping. That results from the energy produced by the spline coupling increases with the friction coefficient.
When the energy consumed by the external damping is less than the increased energy generated by the spline friction force, the
system becomes unstable. The threshold speed that makes the system become unstable is the threshold speed of instability. The elastic

Table 1
The dynamic coefficients under variable friction coefficients.
Dynamic coefficient The coupling at the turbine end The coupling at the output end

The lateral stiffness (N /m) 2.2850 × 1010 1.6160 × 1010

The angular stiffness (N ⋅ m /rad) 2.7496 × 106 3.8919 × 105
The lateral damping (N ⋅ s /m) 3.4895μ × 105 2.0390μ × 105
|Ω − wn | |Ω − wn |
The angular damping (N ⋅ m ⋅ s /rad) 62.98μ 7.3662μ
|Ω − wn | |Ω − wn |

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Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

Fig. 9. The Campbell diagram with friction coefficient 0.2.

forces generated by the lateral stiffness and the angular stiffness are conservative. Then the work done by these conservative forces in a
period is zero. The energy generated by the lateral damping in one cycle is as in Eq. (59).

2π
∫ωr
Ul = (CL Δẋ ⋅ Δẋ + CL Δẏ ⋅ Δẏ + ΩCL Δy ⋅ Δẋ − ΩCL Δx ⋅ Δẏ)
0 (59)
= 2π(ωr − Ω)CL δ20
4μTδ0
= sgn(ωr − Ω)
rcos2 φ

Where ωr is the first-order natural frequency of the system; Δx and Δy are the relative lateral displacements of internal and external
splines in the fixed coordinate system.
Δx = δ0 cosωr t
(60)
Δy = δ0 sinωr t
Similarly, the energy generated by the angular damping in one cycle is as in Eq. (61).

2π
∫ωr
Ua = (CA Δθ̇ ⋅ Δθ̇ + CA Δψ̇ ⋅ Δψ̇ + ΩCA Δψ ⋅ Δθ̇ − ΩCA Δθ ⋅ Δψ̇ )
0 (61)
= 2π(ωr − Ω)CA α20
μTbα0
= sgn(ωr − Ω)
rcos2 φ

Where Δθ and Δψ are the relative angular displacements of internal and external splines in the fixed coordinate system.
Δθ = α0 cosωr t
(62)
Δψ = α0 sinωr t
It can be obtained from the above derivation that when the rotor speed exceeds the first-order critical speed of the system, the
energy consumed by spline damping becomes a negative value. The friction force in the spline does positive work on the system. There
is a risk of instability in the spline connection of the rotor system. If there is no external damping, the spline-connected rotor system will
lose stability after passing the critical speed. As the friction coefficient increases, the positive work done by the internal friction of the
spline to the system increases. Thus the threshold speed of instability increases with the decreasing of the friction coefficient. Under the
condition of constant friction coefficient, the greater the external damping is, the greater the energy consumed by the external damping
is.

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16

Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

Fig. 10. The variation of the threshold speed of instability and first critical speed with friction coefficient: (a) No external damping. (b) Varying external damping.
Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

3.2. The effect of the torque

If the transmitted torque is large enough, there will be no slide between spline teeth. Then the spline coupling is locked and should
be treated as a rigid connection. It is assumed that the spline coupling doesn’t lock with the increasing of the transmitted torque to
investigate the influence of the torque on the stability. The friction coefficient is set to be 0.2. The dynamic coefficients of the spline
coupling are listed in Table 2, where T is the transmitted torque.
When there is no external damping, the first critical speed and threshold speed of instability don’t change with the transmitted
torque, as shown in Fig. 11(a), which indicates the torque has little effect on the first critical speed and threshold speed of instability
without external damping.
It can be obtained from Fig. 11(b) that the threshold speed of instability decreases with the transmitted torque when external
damping exits. In addition, similar to the effect of the friction coefficient, the threshold speed of instability decreases nonlinearly with
the torque. And the threshold speed of instability will not change if the torque is larger than a threshold value. The system remains
stable until the torque exceeds a threshold value. This threshold value increases with the external damping.

3.3. Criterion to judge the stability by determining the contact status

As is mentioned above, the effects of the transmitted torque and friction coefficient on stability actually depend on the contact
status of the spline teeth. In fact, friction force caused by relative slip between spline teeth is the root of the spline-induced instability.
Thus, to investigate the influence of friction coefficient and torque on stability, it is of great importance to determine whether there is a
relative slip between splines.
A criterion is derived to analyze the contact status of the spline teeth. The motion equations of the splines taking the non-
equilibrium force into consideration are shown in Eq. (63), in which the cross stiffness of the spline coupling is ignored.
⎧
⎨ m ẍ + C 2
( )
L (ẋe − ẋi ) + KL (xe − xi ) = me Ω eξe cosΩt − eηe sinΩt
e e
2
( ) (63)
⎩ mi ẍi + CL (ẋi − ẋe ) + KL (xi − xe ) = mi Ω eξi cosΩt − eηi sinΩt

Where me and mi are the mass of the external and internal splines respectively; eξe is the eccentricity of the external spline along the ξ
axis; eηe is the eccentricity of the external spline along the η axis; eξi is the eccentricity of the internal spline along the ξ axis; eηi is the
eccentricity of the internal spline along the η axis.
Then Eq. (63) can be rewritten as
⎧
⎪ CL KL ( )
⎪ 2
⎨ ẍe + m (ẋe − ẋi ) + m (xe − xi ) = Ω eξe cosΩt − eηe sinΩt
⎪
(64)
e e
⎪ ( )
⎪ ẍi + CL (ẋi − ẋe ) + KL (xi − xe ) = Ω2 eξi cosΩt − eηi sinΩt
⎪
⎩
mi mi

Subtracting the two equations in Eq. (64), and Eq. (64) then simplifies to

Ẍ + aẊ + bX = CcosΩt + DsinΩt (65)

where
X = xe − xi (66a)

CL CL
a= + (66b)
me mi

KL KL
b= + (66c)
me mi
( )
C = Ω2 eξe − eξi (66d)

Table 2
The dynamic coefficients under variable transmitted torque.
Dynamic coefficient The coupling at the turbine end The coupling at the output end

The lateral stiffness (N /m) 2.2850 × 1010 1.6160 × 1010

The angular stiffness (N ⋅ m /rad) 2.7496 × 106 3.8919 × 105
The lateral damping (N ⋅ s /m) 1.08T × 105 6.31T × 104
|Ω − wn | |Ω − wn |
The angular damping (N ⋅ m ⋅ s /rad) 19.50T 2.28T
|Ω − wn | |Ω − wn |

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18

Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

Fig. 11. The variation of the threshold speed of instability and first critical speed with torque: (a) No external damping. (b) Varying external damping.
Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

D = − Ω2 (eηe − eηi ) (66e)

It is assumed that the particular solution of the differential equation in Eq. (65) is given by
X(t) = AcosΩt + BsinΩt = X0 cos(Ωt + φ (67)
Then Eq. (68) can be given by substituting Eq. (67) into Eq. (65)
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
C2 + D2
X0 = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2 ̅ (68)
b2 + Ω2 + a2 Ω2

As is obtained from Eq. (26)

2 μT
CL = (69)
rπωX0 cos2 φ
Substituting Eq. (69) into Eq. (68), then the amplitude of the relative displacement between internal and external spline is found to
be
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
C 2 + D2
X0 = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
[( ) ]2 (70)
( ) 2
b2 + Ω2 + m1e + m1i rπωX2μ0 cos T
2φ Ω2

The formula in Eq. (70) can be simplified and rewritten as

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
[( ) ]2̅
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ 2 μT
C2 + D2 1 − C2Ω+D2 m1e + m1i rπω2cos 2φ

X0 = ⃒ ⃒ (71)
⃒b2 − Ω2 ⃒

Thereby, the product of the friction coefficient μ and transmitted torque T must satisfy Eq. (72) to ensure there is a relative slip
between the external and internal splines.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
rπωcos2 φ C2 + D2
μT < ( ) (72)
2 m1e + m1i Ω

It is computed by Eq. (72) that the threshold value of μT that determine whether there is a relative slide between internal and
external spline is 0.48 N ⋅ m.
Here, the dimensionless friction torque ratio γ is defined as μT divided by the threshold value. The conclusion obtained from Eq.
(72) could explain why Marmol and Walton gained opposite conclusion on the influence of lubrication on stability [30,33]. When the
friction torque ratio γ < 1, which means μT is less than the threshold value, then the system stability increases with the decreasing of
torque, and well lubrication makes the stability better. While the situation will become exactly the opposite if γ > 1, which means μT
exceeds the threshold value, then larger torque and worse lubrication make the stability better.

3.4. The effect of the external damping

To investigate the influence of the external damping on stability, the friction coefficient and transmitted torque are set to be 0.2 and
0.4844 N ⋅ m respectively. The dynamic coefficients of the spline coupling are listed in Table 3. It is assumed that the only source of the
external damping is the squeeze film damper. Then the effect of the external damping on rotor stability is investigated through
changing the damping of the squeeze film damper.
The first critical speed and threshold speed of instability under variable external damping is shown in Fig. 12. From the figure, the
first critical speed obtained by the Campbell diagram is shown to be 3268 r/min with variable external damping, which illustrates that
the external damping has no influence on the critical speed.
As shown in Fig. 12, the system loses stability only if the external damping is low. In addition, the threshold speed of instability
increases nonlinearly with external damping. The effect of the external damping on system stability is significantly greater than friction

Table 3
The dynamic coefficients under variable external damping.
Dynamic coefficient The coupling at the turbine end The coupling at the output end

The lateral stiffness (N /m) 2.2850 × 1010 1.6160 × 1010

The angular stiffness (N ⋅ m /rad) 2.7496 × 106 3.8919 × 105
The lateral damping (N ⋅ s /m) 1.22 × 105 7.14 × 104
|Ω − wn | |Ω − wn |
The angular damping (N ⋅ m ⋅ s /rad) 22.04 2.58
|Ω − wn | |Ω − wn |

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Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

Fig. 12. The variation of the threshold speed of instability and first critical speed with external damping.

coefficient and transmitted torque.

4. Experimental set-up

A corresponding test rig plotted in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 is set up to validate the accuracy of the analytical results. The test rig excludes
the interference of other factors for the aim to investigate the influence of these three factors on the system dynamics separately. For
example, as in Fig. 13(b), the rotor is supported by deep groove ball bearings, the external damping of which can be neglected. Then
the external damping caused by other factors except the squeeze film damper can be ignored. The oil-supply pipeline of the squeeze
film damper is separated from the spline coupling. The oil supply pressure and oil flow can be adjusted to change the friction coefficient
and external damping respectively. A hydraulic dynamometer located at the end of the rotor controls the load torque of the system.
Then the influence of all these three factors on stability can be investigated and verified by experiments.
The rotational speed and displacements in two orthogonal directions are measured by corresponding sensors, the positions of which
are shown in Fig. 13(a). Each experiment process contains an acceleration test and a deceleration test. The angular acceleration is
about 7.85rad/s2 .The first critical speed is obtained by the Bode diagram.
The friction at bearings can’t be ignored due to the high rotor speed. The instability may be caused by other components such as the
squeeze film damper, the bearings and the internal damping of the material. Comparative tests are therefore carried out to eliminate
other internal damping sources of the rotor system. The test bench of the experimental group is connected with spline coupling. The
spline coupling is removed and the rotor is connected with the flange on the test bench of the control group. The squeeze film damper
isn’t supplied with oil in both groups of tests to eliminate the influence of the squeeze film damper. There is no load in both groups of
tests. Other conditions of the two groups are consistent. The dynamic characteristics under different test conditions are shown in
Fig. 15. Results shows the control group without spline coupling remained stable in various tests. Then the instability characteristics
are proved to be the general features of the spline coupling induced instability by repeated tests.
The instability phenomena have been observed in the experimental group. As shown in Fig. 15, characteristics indicating that rotor
loses stability are as follows:

1 After passing through the first critical speed, the vibration amplitude increases sharply with rotation speed, as is shown in Fig. 15
(a).
2 The spectrum of the system contains not only the rotation frequency but also the half frequency doubling component, as is shown in
Fig. 15(b) and Fig. 15(c).
3 The axis orbits appear concave “8′′ shape and the position of key phases disperses from each other, as is shown in Fig. 15(d).

The threshold speed of instability is defined as the rotation speed when the above instability phenomena first appear.

5. Results and discussion

Experiments are carried out under different oil flows of the spline coupling including no oil supply (No lubrication), 0.5 L/min, 1 L/
min and 1.5 L/min for the aim to verify the analytical results as well as investigate the influence of friction coefficient on the stability
experimentally. Different oil flow results in different friction coefficients. Furthermore, the load torque of the hydraulic dynamometer
is set to be zero to exclude the effects of load torque. Then the external damping can be neglected [40,41], and the transmitted torque of
the spline coupling computed by the moment of inertia and angular acceleration of the rotor is 0.4844 N ⋅ m.

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Fig. 13. The frame diagram of the test rig: (a) The schematic view. (b) Detailed structures.

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Fig. 14. The physical picture of the test-rig.

The variation of the friction coefficient for steel vs steel under different lubrication conditions is shown in Fig. 16. The curve is fitted
according to the test points [33]. As shown in the figure, the friction coefficient is shown to be about 0.8 under the no lubrication
condition and 0.2 under the full lubrication condition.
The first critical speeds and relative errors compared with the analytical results are shown in Fig. 17(a) when there is no oil supply
in the squeeze film damper. From the figure, one may observe that the first critical speed doesn’t change with the friction coefficient,
which agrees with the analytical results. The relative error between the test results and analytical results is within 2%, which validates
the accuracy of the analytical model.
The threshold speeds of instability of tests under different friction coefficients are shown in Fig. 17(b) without oil supply to the
squeeze film damper. From observation, the friction coefficient has no effect on the threshold speed of instability without external
damping. From the figure, the experimental threshold speed of instability is shown to be slightly higher than the analytical results. The
relative errors for each friction coefficient computed and plotted in Fig. 17(b) are within five percent. This probably results from the
assumption made in the analytical model that the external damping aside from the squeeze film damper is ignored. In fact, although
there is no oil supply in the squeeze film damper, the external damping caused by other factors is minuscule yet exists during the
experiments.
The squeeze film damper in real aero-engine has no separate oil supply device. The fuel is supplied to the squeeze film damper
through the throttle orifices in the oil circuit of the engine system. Thus, the oil supply pressure and oil flow of the squeeze film damper
may be very low, which indeed will cause air inhalation [40]. When the oil flow and oil pressure is minuscule while the air content is
large, the damping of the squeeze film damper will fall sharply. The damping of the squeeze film damper with air inhalation can be
estimated by Eq. (73) [40].
Cmixture = (1 − β)Cpureoil (73)

Where Cpureoil is the damping of an ideal squeeze film damper; Cmixture is damping with oil inhalation; β is the gas volume fraction of the
lubricant, which can be computed by Eq. (74).
1
β= ( ) (74)
1 + P(θ,z)−
P0 − Pv
Pv 1
β0
− 1

Where P(θ, z) is the oil film pressure; Pv is the vapor pressure; P0 equals to the film pressure for reference; and β0 is the gas volume
fraction for reference.
The spline coupling is well lubricated. And the load torque is set to be zero to investigate the effect of the external damping on the
stability. Then the transmitted torque of the spline coupling computed by the moment of inertia and angular acceleration of the rotor is
0.4844 N ⋅ m. Regardless of the external damping caused by other factors, the external damping can be changed by changing the oil-
supply pressure of the squeeze film damper. Five different cases, including 0, 0.15 MPa, 0.25 MPa, 0.35 MPa and 0.4 MPa are
investigated during the experiments.
The variation of the threshold speed of instability with the external damping under two different lubrication conditions: full
lubrication and no lubrication is shown in Fig. 17(c). From observation, the threshold speed of instability is higher under lubrication
conditions, which illustrates well lubrication decreases the friction coefficient and improves the stability. One should note that the
conclusion is true only if there is relative motion between internal and external splines. The relative errors for each external damping
under different friction coefficients computed and plotted in Fig. 17(d) are within 15%, which illustrates the accuracy of the analytical
model.
The variation of the first critical speed with external damping is shown in Fig. 18(a). From observation, the first critical speed of
tests agrees well with the analytical results The relative errors for each external damping computed and plotted in Fig. 18(a) are within

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(caption on next page)

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Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

Fig. 15. Dynamic characteristics: (a) Overall frequency amplitude curve. (b) Frequency spectrum. (c) Time domain waveform. (d) Orbits of axis.

Fig. 16. Steel vs steel Friction Coefficients at 20 ◦ C under different lubrication conditions.

5%. In addition, the first critical speed doesn’t change with the external damping, which indicates that the external damping has no
effect on the first critical speed.
As shown in Fig. 18(b), the relationship between the threshold speed of instability and the external damping is nonlinear, which
agrees with the analytical results. From observation, the effect of the external damping on the instability speed shows good agreement
with the analytical results with relative error less than 12.5%.
The transmitted torque of the spline coupling equals to the torque caused by the acceleration of rotor plus the load torque which is
applied and controlled by the hydraulic dynamometer. Experiments are carried out under five different transmitted torque conditions,
including 0.4844 N ⋅ m, 1 N ⋅ m, 3 N ⋅ m, 5 N ⋅ m and 8 N ⋅ m. The spline coupling is well lubricated with oil flow 1.5 L/min. The oil flow
of the squeeze film damper is set to be zero to exclude the effect of the external damping.
The first critical speed under different transmitted torque shown in Fig. 19(a) shows good agreement with the analytical results.
From the figure, the critical speed is shown to increases slightly with the transmitted torque. It is probably due to the stiffness of the
spline coupling slightly increasing as the spline teeth are engaged more tightly.
The threshold speed of instability under different transmitted torque is shown in Table 4. As is obtained from Eq. (72), the threshold
value of μT that keeps the splines from the relative slide is 0.48 N ⋅ m. As can be seen from Table 4, the rotor system remains stable as
long as the transmitted torque is larger than 3 N ⋅ m. Under this circumstance, μT is computed to be 0.6 N ⋅ m which is larger than the
threshold value computed by Eq. (72). Thus, with the increasing of transmitted torque, the static friction force becomes large enough to
keep the internal and external spline from relative sliding. Hence, the rotor system will remain stable with the increasing of torque. The
results indicate the validity of criterion for determining the relative motion between splines. The variation of μT under different
transmitted torque and friction coefficients is shown in Fig 19(b). As can be seen from Fig 19(b), there will be no relative displacement
between internal and external spline if the transmitted torque is larger than 2.4 N ⋅ m with friction coefficient 0.2 and 0.6 N ⋅ m with
friction coefficient 0.8, which is in accordance with the experimental results.

6. Conclusion

In this paper, the influence law and mechanism of spline-induced instability are investigated in depth considering friction coef­
ficient, external damping and torque. To predict the coupling force accurately, an Improved Integration Method (IIM) is proposed to
approach the spline force accurately. An easy to implement FEM model including the proposed spline force is then developed to
analyze the stability of rotor-spline coupling system. Based on this model, the effects of friction coefficient, external damping and
torque on stability are investigated numerically in detail. Then a criterion to assess the instability is also given in terms of the inner
friction force and relative motion between splines. Furthermore, corresponding experiments are carried out, the instability induced by
the spline is produced and observed. The proposed model is then validated by the test results. The key factors which affecting the
stability of the rotor system are also investigated by a few of cases of tests. The conclusions can be obtained as follows:

1 The characteristics of the spline coupling induced instability are observed and indicated by repeated tests. When the rotor system
loses stability, the vibration amplitude increases sharply with rotation speed after passing through the first critical speed. The
spectrum of the system contains not only the rotation frequency but also the half frequency doubling component. The axis orbits

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Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

Fig. 17. The variation of the first critical speed and threshold speed of instability under different lubrication conditions: (a) The variation of the first critical speed without external damping. (b) The
variation of the threshold speed of instability without external damping. (c) The variation of the threshold speed of instability with variable external damping. (d) The relative error of the threshod speed
of instability with variable external damping.
 Z. Dai et al.
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Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

Fig. 18. The variation of the first critical speed and threshold speed of instability under different external damping: (a) The first critical speed. (b) The threshold speed of instability.
 Z. Dai et al.
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Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

Fig. 19. (a) The first critical speed under different torque. (b) The variation of product of friction coefficient and torque with torque under different friction coefficients.
Z. Dai et al. Mechanism and Machine Theory 181 (2023) 105200

Table 4
The threshold speed of instability under different transmitted torque.
The transmitted torque (N ⋅ m) The threshold speed of instability (r/min)

0.4844 3681
1 3519
3 Stable
5 Stable
8 Stable

appear concave “8′′ shape and the position of key phases disperses from each other. These feature can be used to identify rotor
instability caused by spline coupling.
2 The lubrication, torque and external damping have less effects on the first critical speed.
3 The instability is determined by the ratio of external damping and inner friction damping caused by spline coupling. While the inner
damping of spline coupling is related to the friction coefficients, lubrication and transmitted torque. Sufficient oil supply pressure of
the squeeze film damper will be helpful to provide adequate external damping for preventing instability.
4 The key which causes the instability is the inner friction force of spline coupling. It is determined by the product of the friction
coefficient and torque. If the friction torque ratio γ < 1, better lubrication and smaller torque will make the system stability better.
Conversely, the system will remain stable as the friction torque ratio γ > 1.

In summary, using the criterion and the proposed model, the stability can be regulated by adjusting the concerned key factors to
avoid the instability of such high-speed rotor with a spline coupling connection.

Funding

This work were supported by National Science Foundation of China (NSFC. No. 12072190) and National Science and Technology
Major Project (No. 779608000000200007).

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

Acknowledgments

The supports from Gas Turbine Research Institute of Shanghai Jiao Tong University is greatly acknowledged.

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