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978-1-108-49267-6 — A First Course in General Relativity

Bernard Schutz
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A First Course in General Relativity

Third Edition
Clarity, readability, and rigor combine in the third edition of this widely used textbook to
provide the first step into general relativity for advanced undergraduate students with a
minimal background in mathematics. Topics within relativity that fascinate astrophysics
researchers and students alike are covered with Schutz’s characteristic ease and authority,
from black holes to relativistic objects, from pulsars to the study of the Universe as a
whole. This third edition contains discoveries by astronomers that require general relativity
for their explanation; two chapters on gravitational waves, including direct detections of
gravitational waves and their observations’ impact on cosmological measurements; new
information on black holes and neutron stars; and greater insight into the expansion of the
Universe. Over 300 exercises, many new to this edition, give students the confidence to
work with general relativity and the necessary mathematics, while the informal writing
style and worked examples make the subject matter easily accessible.
Bernard Schutz is a Professor in the School of Physics and Astronomy at Cardiff University,
Wales, and Director (ret.) at the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics (Albert
Einstein Institute), Germany. In 2019 he was elected a member of the US National
Academy of Sciences, and in 2021, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, in
recognition of his seminal contributions to relativistic astrophysics.
© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

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Bernard Schutz
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A First Course in General Relativity

THIRD EDITION
BERNARD SCHUTZ
Cardiff University
and
Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics
(Albert Einstein Institute)

Bernard Schutz
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University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

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www.cambridge.org
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DOI: 10.1017/9781108610865
First edition © Cambridge University Press 1985
Second edition © B. Schutz 2009
Third edition © Cambridge University Press 2022
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 1985
Second edition 2009
14th printing 2019
Third edition 2022
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ Books Limited, Padstow Cornwall 2022
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978-1-108-49267-6 Hardback
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and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
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Contents
Preface to the third edition page ix

Preface to the second edition xi
Preface to the first edition xiii
1 Special relativity 1
1.1 Fundamental principles of special relativity theory (SR) 1
1.2 Definition of an inertial observer in SR 3
1.3 New units 4
1.4 Spacetime diagrams 5
1.5 Construction of the coordinates used by another observer 6
1.6 Invariance of the interval 9
1.7 Invariant hyperbolae 13
1.8 Particularly important results 17
1.9 The Lorentz transformation 21
1.10 The velocity-addition law 23
1.11 Paradoxes and physical intuition 23
1.12 Bibliography 24
1.13 Appendix: The twin ‘paradox’ dissected 25
Exercises 27
2 Vector analysis in special relativity 33

2.1 Definition of a vector 33
2.2 Vector algebra 36
2.3 The four-velocity 41
2.4 The four-momentum and its conservation 42
2.5 Scalar product 44
2.6 Applications 46
2.7 Photons 48
2.8 Bibliography 49
Exercises 50
3 Tensor analysis in special relativity 56

3.1 The metric tensor 56
3.2 Definition
of tensors 56
3.3 The 01 tensors: one-forms 58
3.4 Gradient of a function is a one-form 62
v

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vi Contents

3.5 The 02 tensors 66
3.6 Metric as amapping of vectors into one-forms 68
3.7 Finally: MN tensors 72
3.8 Index ‘raising’ and ‘lowering’ 73
3.9 Differentiation of tensors 75
Exercises 76
4 Perfect fluids in special relativity 84

4.1 Fluids 84
4.2 Dust: the number-flux vector N 85
4.3 One-forms and surfaces 88
4.4 Dust again: the stress–energy tensor 91
4.5 General fluids 93
4.6 Conservation of energy–momentum 98
4.7 Perfect fluids 100
4.8 Importance for general relativity 103
4.9 Gauss’ law 104
Exercises 106
5 Preface to curvature 111

5.1 On the relation of gravitation to curvature 111
5.2 Tensor algebra in polar coordinates 118
5.3 Tensor calculus in polar coordinates 124
5.4 Christoffel symbols and the metric 130
5.5 Noncoordinate bases 134
5.6 Looking ahead 138
Exercises 138
6 Curved manifolds 141

6.1 Differentiable manifolds and tensors 141
6.2 Riemannian manifolds 143
6.3 Covariant differentiation on a general manifold 149
6.4 Parallel transport, geodesics, and curvature 152
6.5 The curvature tensor 156
6.6 Bianchi identities; Ricci and Einstein tensors 162
6.7 Curvature in perspective 164
Exercises 165

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vii Contents
7 Physics in a curved spacetime 170

7.1 The transition from differential geometry to gravity 170
7.2 Physics in slightly curved spacetimes 174
7.3 Curved intuition 176
7.4 Conserved quantities 177
Exercises 180
8 The Einstein field equations 183

8.1 Purpose and justification of the field equations 183
8.2 Einstein’s equations 186
8.3 Einstein’s equations for weak gravitational fields 188
8.4 Newtonian gravitational fields 192
Exercises 197
9 Fundamentals of gravitational radiation 202

9.1 The role of general relativity in the physical Universe 202
9.2 The propagation of gravitational waves 203
9.3 The detection of gravitational waves 213
9.4 The generation of gravitational waves 230
9.5 The energy carried away by gravitational waves 239
9.6 Standard sirens 247
Exercises 255
10 Spherical solutions for stars 267

10.1 Coordinates for spherically symmetric spacetimes 267
10.2 Static spherically symmetric spacetimes 269
10.3 Static perfect-fluid Einstein equations 271
10.4 The exterior geometry 273
10.5 The interior structure of the star 274
10.6 Exact interior solutions 276
10.7 Realistic stars and gravitational collapse 280
Exercises 292
11 Schwarzschild geometry and black holes 296

11.1 Trajectories in the Schwarzschild spacetime 296
11.2 Nature of the surface r = 2M 315

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viii Contents
11.3 General black holes 322

11.4 Real black holes in astronomy 337
11.5 Hawking radiation 345
Exercises 352
12 Gravitational wave astronomy 360

12.1 Overview 360
12.2 Astrophysical sources of gravitational waves 362
12.3 Finding weak signals in noise: what is a detection? 373
12.4 The first LIGO and Virgo detections 396
Exercises 407
13 Cosmology 415
13.1 What is cosmology? 415
13.2 Cosmological kinematics: observing our expanding Universe 418
13.3 Cosmological dynamics: understanding the expanding Universe 438
13.4 Physical cosmology: the evolution of the Universe we observe 447
Exercises 463
Appendix A Summary of linear algebra 468
References 472
Index 491

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Preface to the third edition
This third edition follows the second after 12 years, half of the interval between the first
and second editions. The need for a new edition is a happy one: the direct detections of
gravitational waves, beginning in 2015, have already made much of the second edition
obsolete. These detections have surprised astronomers by revealing how unexpectedly
plentiful and massive are the black holes that form when stars die; they have demonstrated
that neutron stars are in fact our direct ancestors because their collisions created most of
the heaviest elements in our bodies; and they have given us a new and potentially powerful
way of measuring the expansion rate and age of the Universe.
This new edition incorporates much of what we have learned since 2015, but more
importantly it aims to provide a foundation that should enable the reader to understand
future observations and the discoveries they bring. In the preface to the previous edition I
noted that general relativity had generated “a host of applications, some of which were not
even imagined in 1985 when the first edition appeared.” Now there has been another big
step: with gravitational wave detections, general relativity has added a radical new way of
observing the Universe, a way of learning about things that we could not have investigated
before.
Gravitational wave astronomy is now the fastest expanding branch of observational
astronomy: the volume of space accessible to the current detectors has doubled on average
every 1.5 years since 2015, as their sensitivity has improved. This rate looks set to
continue for some years as new detectors in Japan and India join and steadily improve
to full sensitivity. The space-based LISA detector is under construction; it will be able
to detect events at distances far greater than the range of any optical telescope. And new
detectors are being proposed that can register every black-hole and neutron-star merger
back to times equal to the age of our Universe. At the same time, gravitational wave
detection is being integrated into other observing fields, as large survey telescopes like
the Vera Rubin Observatory provide the capability of searching for explosions that may
accompany gravitational wave events, as the Athena X-ray satellite observatory mission is
being developed to do coincident observing with LISA, as radio astronomers use pulsars
as gravitational wave detectors, and as microwave astronomers search for the signature of
gravitational waves in the very early Universe.
The changes in this textbook for the third edition have been designed in recognition of
this sea-change, anticipating what students want to know and what future researchers need
to be prepared for. The final four chapters have been expanded to five, and all have been
rewritten. They embrace the new role of general relativity in astronomy in several ways.
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x Preface to the third edition
• There are now two chapters on gravitational waves. They treat the theory, survey the
detectors current and planned, provide details of the most significant detections so far,
and explain the basics of how to extract and interpret information from observations now
and in the future.
• The chapters on stars and black holes now incorporate what we have learned from the
gravitational wave observations to date. In addition, there is much new material on
the astronomical context of these observations, such as how stellar evolution produces
neutron stars and black holes. The aim is to help readers to fit gravitational wave
observations of relativistic objects into the bigger picture.
• The chapter on cosmology – the study of the Universe as a whole – has been
completely reorganized and greatly expanded. Cosmology is another rapidly moving and
fundamental part of astronomy today and, on top of that, gravitational wave observations
have provided it with a new way of measuring distances over vast reaches of space.
The chapter now starts with what we observe, because cosmology is now a high-
precision observational science. It then goes on to apply Einstein’s equations to explain
the observations and ends with cosmology’s frontiers in fundamental physics.
The mathematical foundations of general relativity, treated in the first eight chapters,
remain as solid as before: general relativity is now a rigorously tested theory, with some
experiments and observations unable to find deviations from its predictions even at levels
of one part in 1015 or better. So the revisions for this edition of the first eight chapters
have been minor: modernizing some of the treatment, correcting typos, simplifying some
explanations.
One aspect preserved from earlier editions is that this textbook remains one of the few
at this level that offers readers accessible insights into a selection of key topics that are
normally avoided or simply quoted without derivation. These include a physical derivation
of the energy flux carried by gravitational waves (an elaboration of Feynman’s intuitive
1957 bead-on-a-wire argument for the physical reality of gravitational waves); an order-
of-magnitude derivation of the Hawking radiation from the starting point of quantum
fluctuations outside the horizon of a black hole; a full discussion of equatorial orbits in the
Kerr metric, using a factorizable potential; and a treatment of the elegant Forward–Berman
description of inspiralling binaries that shows that they are standard sirens because general
relativity is a scale-free theory.
This book remains, of course, a beginner’s introduction to the science of general
relativity. All the new developments can be studied in much greater depth in many new
books, and so the bibliography at the end of each chapter has been updated to point readers
to references that can take them further in whatever direction they may find interesting.
I have benefitted from helpful conversations and input from many colleagues, both
within the gravitational wave community and in the wider astronomy community. I thank
them all, too many to name. But I also wish to thank those readers of previous editions
who have very kindly drawn my attention to typos and other issues, particularly Tom
Bartholet, Alon Brook-Ray, Sami Gara, Aleksandr Pargamotnikas, and Leo Schirber.
Any remaining errors are, of course, my own responsibility. I thank also my editors at
Cambridge University Press, Simon Capelin, Vince Higgs, and Ilaria Tassistro, for their
patience and encouragement this third time around.

Bernard Schutz
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Preface to the second edition
In the twenty-three years between the first edition of this textbook and the present revision,
the field of general relativity has blossomed and matured. Upon its solid mathematical
foundations have grown a host of applications, some of which were not even imagined in
1985 when the first edition appeared. The study of general relativity has therefore moved
from the periphery to the core of the education of a professional theoretical physicist, and
more and more undergraduates expect to learn at least the basics of general relativity before
they graduate.
My readers have been patient. Students have continued to use the first edition of this
book to learn about the mathematical foundations of general relativity, even though it
has become seriously out of date on applications like the astrophysics of black holes, the
detection of gravitational waves, and the exploration of the Universe. This extensively
revised second edition will, I hope, finally bring the book back into balance and give
readers a consistent and unified introduction to modern research in classical gravitation.
The first eight chapters have seen little change. Recent references for further reading
have been included, and a few sections have been expanded, but in general the geometrical
approach to the mathematical foundations of the theory seems to have stood the test of time.
By contrast, the final four chapters, which deal with general relativity in the astrophysical
arena, have been updated, expanded, and in some cases completely re-written.
In Chapter 9, on gravitational radiation, there is now an extensive discussion of detection
with interferometers like LIGO and the planned space-based detector LISA. I have also
included a discussion of likely gravitational wave sources, and what we can expect to
learn from detections. This is a field that is rapidly changing, and the first-ever direct
detection could come at any time. Chapter 9 is intended to provide a durable framework
for understanding the implications of these detections.
In Chapter 10, the discussion of the structure of spherical stars remains robust, but I have
inserted material on real neutron stars, which we see as pulsars and which are potential
sources of detectable gravitational waves.
Chapter 11, on black holes, has also gained extensive material about the astrophysical
evidence for black holes, both for stellar-mass black holes and for the supermassive black
holes that astronomers have astonishingly discovered in the centers of most galaxies. The
discussion of the Hawking radiation has also been slightly amended.
Finally, Chapter 12 on cosmology is completely rewritten. In the first edition I essentially
ignored the cosmological constant. In this I followed the prejudice of the time, which
assumed that the expansion of the Universe was slowing down, even though it had
not yet been accurately enough measured. We now know, from a variety of mutually
consistent observations, that the expansion is accelerating. This is probably the biggest
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xii Preface to the second edition
challenge to theoretical physics today, having an impact as great on fundamental theories

of particle physics as on cosmological questions. I have organized Chapter 12 around
this fact, developing mathematical models of an expanding Universe that include the
cosmological constant, then discussing in detail how astronomers measure the kinematics
of the Universe, and finally exploring the way that the physical constituents of the Universe
evolved after the Big Bang. The roles of inflation, of dark matter, and of dark energy all
affect the structure of the Universe today, and even our very existence. In this chapter it is
possible only to give a brief taste of what astronomers have learned about these issues, but
I hope it is enough to encourage readers to go on to learn more.
I have included more exercises in various chapters, where it was appropriate, but I have
removed the exercise solutions from the book. They are available now on the website for
the book.
The subject of this book remains classical general relativity: apart from a brief discussion
of the Hawking radiation, there is no reference to quantization effects. While quantum
gravity is one of the most active areas of research in theoretical physics today, there is still
no clear direction to point a student who wants to learn how to quantize gravity. Perhaps
by the third edition it will be possible to include a chapter on how gravity is quantized!
I want to thank many people who have helped me with this second edition. Several have
generously supplied me with lists of misprints and errors in the first edition; I especially
want to mention Frode Appel, Robert D’Alessandro, J. A. D. Ewart, Steve Fulling, Toshi
Futamase, Gerald Quinlan, and B. Sathyaprakash. Any remaining errors are, of course, my
own responsibility. I thank also my editors at Cambridge University Press, Rufus Neal,
Simon Capelin, and Lindsay Barnes, for their patience and encouragement. And of course
I am deeply indebted to my wife Sı̂an for her generous patience during all the hours, days,
and weeks I spent working on this revision.

Bernard Schutz
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Preface to the first edition
This book has evolved from lecture notes for a full-year undergraduate course in general
relativity which I taught from 1975 to 1980, an experience which firmly convinced me
that general relativity is not significantly more difficult for undergraduates to learn than the
standard undergraduate-level treatments of electromagnetism and quantum mechanics. The
explosion of research interest in general relativity in the past 20 years, largely stimulated by
astronomy, has not only led to a deeper and more complete understanding of the theory; it
has also taught us simpler, more physical ways of understanding it. Relativity is now in the
mainstream of physics and astronomy, so that no theoretical physicist can be regarded as
broadly educated without some training in the subject. The formidable reputation relativity
acquired in its early years (Interviewer: ‘Professor Eddington, is it true that only three
people in the world understand Einstein’s theory?’ Eddington: ‘Who is the third?’) is
today perhaps the chief obstacle that prevents it being more widely taught to theoretical
physicists. The aim of this textbook is to present general relativity at a level appropriate
for undergraduates, so that the student will understand the basic physical concepts and
their experimental implications, will be able to solve elementary problems, and will be
well prepared for the more advanced texts on the subject.
In pursuing this aim, I have tried to satisfy two competing criteria: first, to assume a
minimum of prerequisites; and second, to avoid watering down the subject matter. Unlike
most introductory texts, this one does not assume that the student has already studied
electromagnetism in its manifestly relativistic formulation, the theory of electromagnetic
waves, or fluid dynamics. The necessary fluid dynamics is developed in the relevant
chapters. The main consequence of not assuming a familiarity with electromagnetic waves
is that gravitational waves have to be introduced slowly: the wave equation is studied from
scratch. A full list of prerequisites appears below.
The second guiding principle, that of not watering down the treatment, is very subjective
and rather more difficult to describe. I have tried to introduce differential geometry fully,
not being content to rely only on analogies with curved surfaces, but I have left out subjects
that are not essential to general relativity at this level, such as nonmetric manifold theory,
Lie derivatives, and fiber bundles.1 I have introduced the full nonlinear field equations,
not just those of linearized theory, but I solve them only in the plane and spherical cases,
quoting and examining, in addition, the Kerr solution. I study gravitational waves mainly
in the linear approximation, but go slightly beyond it to derive the energy in the waves
and the reaction effects in the wave emitter. I have tried in each topic to supply enough
1 The treatment here is therefore different in spirit from that in my book Geometrical Methods of Mathematical
Physics (Cambridge University Press 1980b), which may be used to supplement this one.
xiii

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xiv Preface to the first edition
foundation for the student to be able to go to more advanced treatments without having to
start over again at the beginning.
The first part of the book, up to Chapter 8, introduces the theory in a sequence which
is typical of many treatments: a review of special relativity, development of tensor
analysis and continuum physics in special relativity, study of tensor calculus in curvilinear
coordinates in Euclidean and Minkowski spaces, geometry of curved manifolds, physics
in a curved spacetime, and finally the field equations. The remaining four chapters study
a few topics which I have chosen because of their importance in modern astrophysics.
The chapter on gravitational radiation is more detailed than usual at this level because the
observation of gravitational waves may be one of the most significant developments in
astronomy in the next decade. The chapter on spherical stars includes, besides the usual
material, a useful family of exact compressible solutions due to Buchdahl. A long chapter
on black holes studies in some detail the physical nature of the horizon, going as far as the
Kruskal coordinates, then exploring the rotating (Kerr) black hole, and concluding with a
simple discussion of the Hawking effect, the quantum mechanical emission of radiation by
black holes. The concluding chapter on cosmology derives the homogeneous and isotropic
metrics and briefly studies the physics of cosmological observation and evolution. There
is an appendix summarizing the linear algebra needed in the text, and another appendix
containing hints and solutions for selected exercises. One subject I have decided not to
give as much prominence to as other texts traditionally have is experimental tests of general
relativity and of alternative theories of gravity. Points of contact with experiment are treated
as they arise, but systematic discussions of tests now require whole books (Will 1981, 2nd
edn 2018). Physicists today have far more confidence in the validity of general relativity
than they had a decade or two ago, and I believe that an extensive discussion of alternative
theories is therefore almost as out of place in a modern elementary text on gravity as it
would be in one on electromagnetism.
The student is assumed already to have studied: special relativity, including the
Lorentz transformation and relativistic mechanics; Euclidean vector calculus; ordinary
and simple partial differential equations; thermodynamics and hydrostatics; Newtonian
gravity (simple stellar structure would be useful but not essential); and enough elementary
quantum mechanics to know what a photon is.
The notation and conventions are essentially the same as in Misner, Thorne, & Wheeler,
Gravitation (W. H. Freeman 1973), which may be regarded as one possible follow-on
text after this one. The physical point of view and development of the subject are also
inevitably influenced by that book, partly because Thorne was my teacher and partly
because Gravitation has become such an influential text. But because I have tried to make
the subject accessible to a much wider audience, the style and pedagogical method of the
present book are very different.
Regarding the use of the book, it is designed to be studied sequentially as a whole, in
a one-year course, but it can be shortened to accommodate a half-year course. Half-year
courses probably should aim at restricted goals. For example, it would be reasonable to aim
to teach gravitational waves and black holes in half a year to students who have already
studied electromagnetic waves, by carefully skipping some of Chapters 1–3 and most of
Chapters 4, 7, and 10. Students with preparation in special relativity and fluid dynamics

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xv Preface to the first edition
could learn stellar structure and cosmology in half a year, provided they could go quickly
through the first four chapters and then skip Chapters 9 and 11. A graduate-level course
can, of course, go much more quickly, and it should be possible to cover the whole text in
half a year.
Each chapter is followed by a set of exercises, which range from trivial ones (filling
in missing steps in the body of the text, manipulating newly introduced mathematics) to
advanced problems that considerably extend the discussion in the text. Some problems
require programmable calculators or computers. I cannot overstress the importance of
doing a selection of problems. The easy and medium-hard ones in the early chapters give
essential practice, without which the later chapters will be much less comprehensible.
The medium-hard and hard problems of the later chapters are a test of the student’s
understanding. It is all too common in relativity for students to find the conceptual
framework so interesting that they relegate problem solving to second place. Such a
separation is false and dangerous: a student who can’t solve problems of reasonable
difficulty doesn’t really understand the concepts of the theory either. There are generally
more problems than one would expect a student to solve; several chapters have more than
30. The teacher will have to select them judiciously. Another rich source of problems is
the Problem Book in Relativity and Gravitation, Lightman et al. (Princeton University
Press 1975).
I am indebted to many people for their help, direct and indirect, with this book. I
would like especially to thank my undergraduates at University College, Cardiff, whose
enthusiasm for the subject and whose patience with the inadequacies of the early lecture
notes encouraged me to turn them into a book. And I am certainly grateful to Suzanne Ball,
Jane Owen, Margaret Vallender, Pranoat Priesmeyer and Shirley Kemp for their patient
typing and retyping of the successive drafts.

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Cambridge University Press & Assessment

978-1-108-49267-6 — A First Course in General Relativity

A First Course in General Relativity

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

A First Course in General Relativity

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Preface to the third edition page ix

2 Vector analysis in special relativity 33

3 Tensor analysis in special relativity 56

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

4 Perfect fluids in special relativity 84

5 Preface to curvature 111

6 Curved manifolds 141

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

7 Physics in a curved spacetime 170

8 The Einstein field equations 183

9 Fundamentals of gravitational radiation 202

10 Spherical solutions for stars 267

11 Schwarzschild geometry and black holes 296

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

11.3 General black holes 322

12 Gravitational wave astronomy 360

Appendix A Summary of linear algebra 468

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Preface to the third edition

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x Preface to the third edition

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Preface to the second edition

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

xii Preface to the second edition

challenge to theoretical physics today, having an impact as great on fundamental theories

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

Preface to the first edition

© in this web service Cambridge University Press & Assessment www.cambridge.org

xiv Preface to the first edition

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xv Preface to the first edition

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