Mount Kilimanjaro

1. Dormant volcano in Tanzania.

2. Mount Kilimanjaro is Africa’s tallest mountain and

the world’s largest free-standing mountain (which
means it is not part of a mountain range).

3. The mountain is also known for its snow-capped

peak.

4. It is a large dormant stratovolcano composed of three distinct volcanic cones: Kibo,

Mawenzi and Shira. Mawenzi and Shira are extinct, while Kibo is dormant and could
erupt again.

5. Kilimanjaro National park is a UNESCO World Heritage site (1987).

The Equator passes through 13 countries, 3 continents and 3 water bodies.

South America 1.Ecuador, 2. Colombia, 3. Brazil

Africa 4. Gabon, 5. Congo, 6. Democratic Republic of Congo, 7. Uganda, 8.

Kenya, 9. Sao Tome and Principe, 10. Somalia.

Asia 11. Maldives, 12. Indonesia, 13. Kiribati (Oceania)

Water Bodies: Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean.

Barren Island

Barren Island is an island located in the Andaman Sea. It is the only confirmed active
volcano in the Indian subcontinent, and the only active volcano along a chain of volcanoes
from Sumatra to Myanmar.

Volcanism

● Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive and intrusive landforms based on
whether magma cools within the crust or above the crust.
World Distribution of Volcano:

Circum-Pacific Belt:

1. The Pacific "Ring of Fire" is a string of volcanoes and sites located on most of the
Earth's subduction zones having high seismic activity, around the edges of the Pacific
Ocean.
2. The Pacific Ring of Fire has a total of 452 volcanoes.
3. Most of the active volcanoes are found on its western edge, from the Kamchatka
Peninsula in Russia, through the islands of Japan and Southeast Asia, to New
Zealand.

Mid-Continental Belt:

1. This volcanic belt extends along the Alpine Mountain system of Europe, North
America, through Asia Minor, Caucasia, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan to the
Himalayan Mountain system, including Tibet, the Pamir, Tien-Shan, Altai, and the
mountains of China, Myanmar and eastern Siberia.
2. This belt includes the volcanoes of Alps mountains, Mediterranean Sea (Stromboli,
Vesuvius, Etna, etc.), volcanoes of Aegean Sea, Mt. Ararat (Turkey), Elburz, Hindu
Kush and Himalayas.

Mid Atlantic Ridge:

1. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the North and South American Plate from the
Eurasian and African Plate.
2. Magma rises through the cracks and leaks out onto the ocean floor like a long, thin,
undersea volcano. As magma meets the water, it cools and solidifies, adding to the
edges of the sideways-moving plates.
3. This process along the divergent boundary has created the longest topographic
feature in the form of Mid oceanic ridges under the Oceans of the world.

Intraplate Volcanoes:

1. The 5% of known volcanoes in the world that are not closely related to plate margins
are generally regarded as intraplate, or “hot-spot,” volcanoes.
2. A hot spot is believed to be related to the rising of a deep-mantle plume, which is
caused by very slow convection of highly viscous material in Earth’s mantle.
3. It can be represented by a single oceanic volcano or lines of volcanoes such as the
Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chains.

Baratang Island ● Baratang Island is also known as

Ranchiwalas Island.

● The only known mud volcanoes in

India (Andaman)
 Mount Etna (Italy) ● Mount Etna is an active volcano on
Sicily's east coast of Italy.

● It is Europe's highest and most

famous active volcano.

● Mount Etna is a UNESCO World

Heritage Site.

Mauna Loa (Hawaiian Islands, Pacific ● Mauna Loa is the largest active
Ocean) volcano on Earth.

Kilauea (Hawaiian Islands, Pacific ● Kilauea is an active shield volcano.

Ocean)

Mount Vesuvius (Italy) ● Mount Vesuvius is the only active

volcano in Europe.

Mount Merapi (Indonesia) ● Mount Merapi is an active

stratovolcano on the Indonesian
border between the provinces of
Central Java and Yogyakarta's
Special Region.

● It is Indonesia's most active volcano,

erupting on a regular basis since
1548.

Important Seas of the world and their location

1. Caspian Sea - enclosed body of water between Asia and

Europe. It is bordered by Iran, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan,
Azerbaijan, Russia. (TARIK)

2. Aral Sea - Uzbekistan and

Kazakhstan.

3. Red Sea - lying between Africa and Asia + The connection

to the ocean is in the south through the Bab-el-Mandeb strait and the
Gulf of Aden + To the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of
Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez (leading to the Suez Canal) + The sea
is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley.
 ● 6 countries bordering the Red Sea - Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Egypt, Sudan,
Eritrea and Djibouti
4. Persian Gulf

5. Black Sea - located between

far-southeastern Europe and the
far-western edges of the continent of
Asia and the country of Turkey.

It’s bordered by Turkey, and by

Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia,
and Georgia.

Important seas like the Black Sea,

Sea of Azov, Sea of Marmara and the
Aegean Sea.

6. South China Sea - Places in

dispute are Paracel, Scarborough
Shoal, and The Spratly Islands.
 7. East China Sea - Marginal sea of the
Western Pacific Ocean.

Towards the east of this sea are the

Japanese islands of Kyushu and the Ryukyu
Islands.

The sea connects with the Sea of Japan

through the Korea Strait and opens to the
north into the Yellow Sea. The countries
which border the sea include South Korea,
Japan, the Republic of China (Taiwan) and
the People’s Republic of China.

8. Sea of Okhotsk - marginal sea of the

western Pacific Ocean.

It is located between Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula on the

east, the Kuril Islands on the southeast, Japan’s island of
Hokkaido on the south, the island of Sakhalin along the west,
and a stretch of eastern Siberian coast along the west and
north.

Kuril Islands - stretched from the Japanese island of Hokkaido

to the southern tip of Russia’s the Kamchatka Peninsula
separating the Okhotsk Sea from the North Pacific ocean.

9. Adriatic Sea

The Adriatic Sea is a body of water separating the Italian

Peninsula from the Balkan Peninsula. It is a part of the
Mediterranean Sea.

Border - Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Italy,

Montenegro, and Slovenia.

10. Black Sea - Bordered by Turkey, and by

Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, and
Georgia.
 11. Mediterranean Sea

12. Sargasso Sea - Sargasso Sea is

defined only by ocean currents.

Bounded on the west by the Gulf Stream,

north, by the North Atlantic Current, east, by
the Canary Current, and south, by the North
Atlantic Equatorial Current.

This system of ocean currents forms the

North Atlantic Gyre.

It is the only sea on Earth which has no

coastline.

13. Gulf of Mexico - connected to the Atlantic

Ocean by the Straits of Florida, running
between the peninsula of Florida and the
island of Cuba, and to the Caribbean Sea by
the Yucatán Channel, which runs between the
Yucatán Peninsula and Cuba.

The dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico, fueled by the

nutrient-laden water spilling from the mouth of the
Mississippi River, is the second-largest in the world.
 14. Andaman Sea - bounded by the coastlines of
Myanmar and Thailand along the Gulf of
Martaban and west side of the Malay Peninsula
and separated from the Bay of Bengal to its west
by the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands.

Its southernmost end is defined by Breueh Island, an

island just north of Sumatra, and communicates with the
Malacca Strait.

Galapagos Islands

These are located in the eastern Pacific

Ocean around 1,000 km away from the South
American continent.

1. Spread over almost 60,000 sq km, it is

a part of Ecuador.
 2. Known for their large number of endemic species that were studied by Charles
Darwin during the second voyage of HMS Beagle.
3. The Galapagos Triple Junction is a geological area in the eastern Pacific Ocean
several hundred miles west of the Galapagos Islands where three tectonic plates -
the Cocos Plate, the Nazca Plate and the Pacific Plate - meet. The archipelago is
precisely located on the Nazca Plate.
4. In 1978 the islands were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site.
5. Mount Azul at 5,541 feet is the highest point of the Galapagos Islands.

Diffusion, Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis

● Diffusion is the natural movement of a substance from a high-concentration area to

a low-concentration area.

Diffusion is important in the gaseous exchange between cells as well as between the cell
and its external environment in living organisms.

● Osmosis is the passage of water (diffusion of solvent molecules) through a

semipermeable membrane from a low solute concentration (hypotonic) region to a
high solute concentration region (hypertonic).

As a result, osmosis is a subset of diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane.

Most unicellular freshwater organisms and plant cells obtain water via osmosis. Water
absorption by plant roots is another example of osmosis.

● Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification technology that removes larger

particles from drinking water using a semipermeable membrane.

1. Grafting is a most common method of vegetative propagation. In this method, parts

of two plants are joined in such a way that they grow as a one plant

2. Layering is another type of vegetative propagation. In this method, roots are

artificially induced on the stem branches before they are detached from the plant for
propagation.
Books and Authors

The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857 - Ramesh Chandra Majumdar

Civil Rebellion in the Indian Mutinies, 1857-1859 - Sashi Bhusan Chaudhuri

Awadh in revolt 1857-58 - Rudrangshu Mukherjee

1857 - SN Sen

Vijay Nagar Empire

Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an engineer, surveyor, and cartographer, discovered the ruins
of Hampi in 1800. He was an employee of the English East India Company and the first
Surveyor General of India from 1815–1821.

Mackenzie prepared the first survey of Hampi. Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara
Empire in the 14th century.

Hampi

It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is also called the “World’s Largest Open-air
Museum. Traditionally known as Pampakshetra of Kishkindha, Hampi is located in central
Karnataka on the banks of the Tungabhadra River.

Some of the prominent landmarks include the Virupaksha Temple, Vittala Temple, Lotus
Mahal, Queen's Bath, and Elephant Stables.

About Vijayanagar Empire

Vijayanagara or “city of victory” is the name of both a city and an empire.

● Historians use the term Vijayanagara Empire, contemporaries described it

as Karnataka Samrajyamu.

● Important Contemporaries: On their northern frontier, the contemporary

rulers were Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa.

● It was founded by two brothers Harihar and Bukka in 1336 CE in the wake of the
rebellions against Tughluq rule in the region between the river Krishna and
Tungabhadra.

Capital City: Hampi

● The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an engineer and

antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie.

● Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

It was ruled by four dynasties:

● Sangama (1336 to 1485 CE): Founded by Harihara I.

● Saluva (1485 to 1503 CE): Founded by Saluva Narasimha.

● Tuluva (1491 to 1570 CE): Founded by Tuluva Narasa Nayaka and the
most famous king was Krishnadeva Raya.

● Aravidu (1542 to 1646 CE): Founded by Tirumala.

Important Features

● The most striking feature about the location of Vijayanagara is the natural
basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly
direction.

● Special attention was given to agriculture and land revenue was the main
source of income.

● As this is one of the aridest zones of the peninsula, elaborate

arrangements were made to store rainwater and conduct it to the city.

● The most important such tank was built in the early years of the
fifteenth century and is now called the Kamalapuram tank.

● Water from this tank irrigated fields nearby and was also
conducted through a channel to the “royal centre”.

● The Hiriya canal is also one of the most prominent waterworks

which drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and
irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre”
from the “urban core”. It was apparently built by kings of the
Sangama dynasty.

Temple architecture flourished during the Vijayanagar empire and combined the
architectural features of Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas and Chalukyas and the Indo-Islamic
style of Bijapur.

● A mythical creature of Yali (Horse) is engraved in temple pillars.

● A central mandap called Kalyan Mandap was incorporated for

marriage ceremonies.

● The monolithic carvings of Nandi and the rock-cut idol of

Narasimha on Shesh (snake) are masterpieces of their
architecture.

● The rulers had a well organised administrative system with the King
having all the powers.
Decline

● It began with the death of Krishnadeva Raya in 1529.

● The kingdom came to an end in 1565, when Ramrai was defeated at

Talikota by the joint efforts of Adil Shahi, Nizam Shahi, Qutub Shahi and
Barid Shahi.

Chronology of Discovery and Conservation

● 1800: Colin Mackenzie visits Vijayanagara.

● 1856: Alexander Greenlaw takes the first detailed photographs of

archaeological remains at Hampi.

● 1876: J F Fleet begins documenting the inscriptions on the temple walls at

the site.

● 1902: Conservation begins under John Marshall.

● 1986: Hampi was declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO.

Foreign travellers in Indian History

Name Time Visited during the reign of Significance

(Nationality) Period (Dynasty/Ruler)
Deimachos 320-273 Mauryan (Bindusara)
(Greek) BC
Megasthenes 302-298 Mauryan (Chandragupta First person to
(Greek) BC Maurya) describe ancient India

Ambassador of
Seleucus Nicator.

Described India in his

book Indika.

Megasthenes also
describes India's two
major rivers Sindhu
and Ganga.

Ptolemy 130 AD Wrote “the geography

(Greece) of India
Fa-Hien 405-411 Gupta (Chandragupta II) First Buddhist pilgrim
(Chinese) AD to visit India
 His voyage is
described in his
travelogue “Record of
Buddhist Kingdom”

Hiuen Tsang 630-645 Pushyabhuti Studied about the caste

(Chinese) AD (Harshavardhana) system
I-Tsing (Chinese) 671-695 (Visited India in connection
AD with Buddhism)
Al-Masudi (Arab) 956 AD (Has given account of India in
his book ‘Muruj- ul-Zehab’)
Al-Biruni 1024-1030 (He came to India along with 1st Muslim scholar to
(Khwarazm) AD Mahmud of Ghazni) study India.

Wrote the book

‘Tahqiq-i-Hind’.
Marco Polo 1292-1294 Pandyan (Madverman, Visited Southern India
(Italian) AD Kulasekhara) during the reign of
Rudramma Devi of the
Kakatiyas.
Ibn Battuta 1333-1347 Tughlaq (Muhammad-Bin- Appointed as judge by
(Moroccan) AD Tughlaq) Tughlaq.

His book - The Travels

& Rehla
Shihabuddin 1348 AD At-Ta’rif bi-al-mustalah
al-Umari ash-sharif
(Damascus)
Nicolo De Conti 1420-1421 Vijayanagara (Devaraya I)
(Venetian) AD
Abdur Razzaq 1443-1444 Vijayanagara (Devaraya II) Persian traveller,
(Persian) AD Ambassador of
Shahrukh of Timurid
dynasty.

His book entitled

‘Matla-us-Sadain wa
Majma-ul-Bahrain’
described the life and
events in Calicut
under the Zamorin
and also of the
Ancient City of
Vijayanagar at Hampi.
Athanasius 1470-1474 Bahmani (Muhammad III)
Nikitin (Russian) AD
Domingo Paes 1520-1522 Vijayanagara (Krishnadeva
(Portuguese) AD Raya)
Duarte Barbosa 1500-1516 Vijayanagara (Krishnadeva Barbosa studied
(Portuguese) AD Raya) Malayalam and has
written about the caste
culture
Domingo Paes 1520-1522 Visited the court of Covers in detail
(Portuguese) A.D. Krishnadeva Raya of Tuluva Vijayanagara’s
dynasty of Vijayanagar military structure
empire. called Malankara
system and the yearly
royal Durga festival.
Fernao Nuniz 1535-1537 Tuluva dynasty (Achyutdeva Give a glimpse into the
(Portuguese) AD Raya) Mahanavami festival.

He admires the
extravagant jewels
worn by the ladies of
the court and the
thousands of women
who serve the king.

John Hughen 1583 Given a valuable

Von Linschoten account of the social
(Dutch) and economic life of
South India.

Ralph Fitch 1585 visited Akbar’s court in 1585 He visited Bihar in

(British) AD 1587. He travelled to
traveller) India through the land
route.

William Hawkins 1608-1611 Mughal Emperor (Jahangir) Britain’s King James I

(British) AD had sent Hawkins as
ambassador.

Led the first

expedition of the
English East India
Company to India in
1609.

Did not succeed in

getting Jahangir’s
 permission to start a
factory
Thomas Coryat 1612-1617 Jahangir
AD
Pal Canning 1615-1625 Jahangir

Sir Thomas Roe 1615-1619 Mughal Emperor (Jahangir) Ambassador of James

(British) AD I, king of England.

Came to seek
protection for an
English factory at
Surat.

Franciso 1620 Gave a vivid account

Palsaer(Dutch) -1627 of the flourishing
trade at Surat,
Ahmadabad, Broach,
Cambay, Lahore,
Multan etc.

John Fryer 1627-1681 Reign of Shahjahan.

(British)
Peter 1630-1634 Mughal Emperor (Shah
Mundy(Italian) AD Jahan)
Jean Baptiste 1638- Mughal Emperor (Shah Between 1638 and
Tavernier 1643 AD Jahan) 1643 AD, during his
(French) second voyage, he
came to India and
travelled as far as Agra
before arriving in the
Kingdom of Golconda.

In his book, he goes

into great detail on
diamonds and Indian
diamond mines.

He is famous for
discovering and
purchasing the Blue
Diamond, which he
later sold to Louis XIV
of France.

Nicolao Manucci 1653- Timurid dynasty (Dara

(Italian) 1708 AD Shikoh)
 Francois Bernier 1656-1717 French physician and
(French) AD Philosopher.

visited India during the

reign of Shah Jahan.

Francois Bernier was

the physician of Dara
Shikoh.

Jean de 1666 Aurangzeb Given an account of

Thevenot cities like
(French) Ahmedabad, Cambay,
Aurangabad and
Golconda.

Gemelli Careri 1695 landed at Daman. remarks on the

(Italian) Mughal emperor’s
military organisation
and administration

Chlorofluorocarbons

Chlorofluorocarbons [CFCs] are organic compounds. These organic compounds are

composed of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. They are hydrocarbons that are fully or partly
halogenated. CFCs are known for being stable, non-toxic, non-flammable, and having
low reactivity with other chemicals.

They were commonly used as refrigerants, propellants, and solvents, but their use has
been largely phased out due to their detrimental impact on the ozone layer.

Applications of CFCs - Refrigeration and Air Conditioning ( CFC-12 (also known as

R-12), Aerosol Propellants, Foam Blowing Agents, Solvents, Medical Inhalers, Fire
Suppression, Electronic Component Cleaning, Production of Plastics, Degreasing
Agents

Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) - Chlorofluorocarbons, Halons, Carbon Tetrachloride,

Methyl Chloroform, Hydrochlorofluorocarbons ,Hydrobromofluorocarbons,
Hydrochlorobromofluorocarbons, Nitrous Oxide, Chlorobromomethane
Biogeochemical Cycle

Gaseous Cycle: The atmosphere or the hydrosphere serves as the reservoir in the gaseous
cycle. Ex- Water, carbon, and nitrogen
Sedimentary Cycle: The reservoir in the sedimentary cycle is the Earth's crust.

1. Water Cycle

Water is moved from one reservoir to another through

evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff,
infiltration, transpiration, and groundwater flow.

2. Carbon Cycle
● Plants absorb carbon from the atmosphere
during photosynthesis.
● Animals consume these plants, causing carbon to
bioaccumulate in their bodies.
● When these animals and plants die, carbon is
released back into the atmosphere as they
decompose.
● Carbon that is not released back into the
atmosphere is eventually converted into fossil fuels.
● These fossil fuels are subsequently used for human
activities, which releases even more carbon into the
atmosphere.

Ocean Carbon Cycle

● Oceans absorb more carbon than

they emit from an ecological
standpoint. This is why it is referred
to as a "carbon sink."
● Carbon is converted into carbonate
by marine creatures, which provides
the basic elements for hard shells
like those seen in clams and
oysters.
● Carbonate-shelled creatures
disintegrate and leave behind their
hard shells when they die.
● These build up at the ocean's bottom, where they are finally broken down by waves
and compressed into limestone under immense pressure.
 ● When these limestone cliffs are exposed to the air, the carbon gets weathered and
released as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

3. Nitrogen Cycle

● Nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, degradation, and putrefaction are some

of the processes involved.
● Organic and inorganic forms of nitrogen gas occur. Organic nitrogen is found in living
species and is transferred down the food chain through other living organisms' intake.
● Inorganic nitrogen can be found in large quantities in the atmosphere.
● Symbiotic bacteria that can convert inert nitrogen into useful forms, such as nitrates
and nitrates, make this nitrogen available to plants.

Nitrogen Fixation
● Atmospheric nitrogen (N2), which is predominantly available in an inert form, is
transformed into the useful form -of ammonia in this process (NH3).
● Later, the nitrogen undergoes a series of changes that result in the separation of two
nitrogen atoms, which mix with hydrogen to produce ammonia (NH4+).
● The entire nitrogen fixation process is finished by symbiotic bacteria known as
Diazotrophs.
● Azotobacter and Rhizobium are other important players in this process.
● The nitrogenase enzyme in these bacteria is capable of combining gaseous nitrogen
with hydrogen to produce ammonia.
Nitrification
● The presence of microorganisms in the soil converts ammonia to nitrate in this
process.
● The oxidation of ammonia with the help of Nitrosomonas bacterium species produces
nitrates.
● Nitrobacter then converts the nitrites generated into nitrates.
● The following is the reaction that occurs during the nitrification process:

2NH4+ + 3O2 → 2NO- + 4H+ + 2H2O

2NO2- + O2 → 2NO3-

Assimilation
● Plants use their roots to absorb nitrogen molecules from the soil.
● These molecules are available in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate ions, or
ammonium ions and are employed in the production of plant and animal proteins.

Ammonification
● The process of converting organic nitrogen to ammonium (NH4+) is known as
ammonification.
● The nitrogen in organic matter is released back into the soil when plants or animals
die.
● The organic waste is converted back into ammonium by decomposers, which are
bacteria or fungus found in the soil.

Denitrification
● Denitrification is the process of turning nitrate (NO3-) into gaseous nitrogen and
releasing nitrogen compounds back into the atmosphere (N).
● This is the final stage of the nitrogen cycle, and it happens in the absence of oxygen.
● The denitrifying bacterial species Clostridium and Pseudomonas metabolise nitrate to
produce oxygen and free nitrogen gas as a byproduct.

Nitrogen Cycle in Marine Ecosystem

● Rainfall, surface runoff, and atmospheric nitrogen all contribute to nitrogen entering
the oceans.
● The next phase carried out by cyanobacteria is nitrogen fixation.
● The cyanobacteria are consumed by phytoplankton, which excretes ammonia and
urea into the water.
● Ammonia is injected at lower depths because of waste mixing or sinking.
● Ammonia is converted to nitrates and nitrites by bacteria.
● Nitrates rise because of vertical mixing and upwelling and are absorbed by
phytoplankton. As a result, the cycle continues.
4. Phosphorus Cycle
● Phosphorus circulates through
rocks, water, soil, sediments, and
organisms in a cycle.
● Rain and weathering cause
phosphate ions and other minerals
to be released from rocks
throughout time.
● This inorganic phosphate is
subsequently dispersed
throughout the soil and water.
● Inorganic phosphate is taken up by plants from the soil. Animals may eat the plants
after that.
● Phosphate is integrated into organic molecules such as DNA once it reaches the
plant or animal.
● When a plant or animal dies, it decomposes, releasing organic phosphate into the
soil.
● Bacteria that break down organic materials to inorganic forms of phosphorus can
make organic forms of phosphate available to plants in the soil. Mineralisation is the
name for this process.
● Phosphorus from the soil can end up in streams and, eventually, the oceans.
● It can be absorbed into sediments over time once it reaches that location.

5. Sulphur Cycle
● The majority of the world's sulphur is
bound up in rocks and salts or buried
deep within oceanic sediments.
● Sulphur is also contained in the air we
breathe. Both natural and human
sources contribute to its presence in the
atmosphere.
● Volcanic eruptions, microbiological
activities, water evaporation, and
decomposing organisms are just a few
examples of natural resources.
● When sulphur enters the atmosphere as
a result of human activity, it is primarily
due to industrial activities that
generate large amounts of sulphur
dioxide (SO2) and hydrogen sulphide
(H2S) gases.
● Sulphur dioxide reacts with oxygen to form sulphur trioxide gas (SO3), or with other
chemicals in the atmosphere to produce sulphur salts, when it reaches the
atmosphere.
● Sulphur dioxide can also form sulphuric acid when it reacts with water (H2SO4).
 ● Dimethyl Sulphide, which is exhaled into the atmosphere by plankton species, can
also be used to make sulphuric acid.
● All of these particles will either fall back to earth or will react with rain and fall as acid
deposits.
● Plants will then absorb the particles, which will then be released back into the
atmosphere, restarting the sulphur cycle.

Major Biomes of the World

Name of Distribution Significance

the Biome
Tundra The world's northern and
southernmost regions are adjacent
to the ice-bound poles.
The biotic components comprise lichen,
mosses, and sedges in the tundra
biome, which is devoid of trees in the
southern section.

Reindeer, arctic fox, polar bear, snowy

owl, lemming, arctic hare, and
ptarmigan are common consumers
found here.

Amphibians and reptiles are essentially

non-existent.
Taiga Northern Europe, Asia, and North Coniferous evergreens, predominantly
America. spruce, some pine, and firs are the
autotrophs which dominate the
The temperature is more moderate landscape.
than the tundra.
Birds, hawks, fur-bearing carnivores,
They are also referred to \as boreal small mink, elks, puma, Siberian tiger,
forests.

Temperate This biome extends over Central
Deciduous and Southern Europe, Eastern
Forest North America, Western China,
Japan, New Zealand etc.
Moderate average temperature and
abundant rainfall is prevalent here.
These are the world's most
productive agricultural regions in
general.
Tropical The equatorial regions' tropical
Rainforest areas are teeming with life.
Temperatures are high, and there is consumers.
a lot of rain.
Savannah In Africa, the Savannah is most
extensive.
Grassland Spread across North America,
Ukraine, etc.
Temperate conditions with low
rainfall is a distinguishing feature.
Desert Low humidity and infrequent rainfall The producers include
in the interiors of the continent.
wolverine, and wolves are among the
heterotrophs.
Beech, oak, maple, and cherry trees
are among the producers.
The most common animals are
vertebrates and invertebrates.
Tropical rainforests encompass roughly
7% of the earth's surface and account
for 40% of global producers and
There are numerous species of
broad-leaved evergreen trees with
multiple storeys.
The canopy or tree top zones are home
to the majority of consumers and
epiphytic plants.
Grasses with scattered trees and
prickly plants that can withstand fire.
Antelopes, buffaloes, zebras,
elephants, and rhinoceros are among
the grazers and browsers.
Carnivores include lion, cheetah, and
hyena; and mongoose, as well as many
rodents.
The vegetation is dominated by the
producers, notably grasses.
Large herbivores such as bison,
antelope, cattle, rodents, prairie dogs,
wolves, and a broad array of
ground-nesting birds are among the
consumers.
drought-resistant varieties such as
cactus, euphorbias and sagebrush.
 The days are hot, but the nights are The consumers found here include
chill. reptiles, small mammals and birds.

Wallace and Weber lines

The Wallace and Weber lines are imaginary dividers

used to mark the difference between species found
in Australia and Papua New Guinea and Southeast
Asia.

Major Crops

● There are three distinct crop seasons in the northern and interior parts of the country:
kharif, rabi, and zaid.
● Kharif Season: It largely coincides with the Southwest Monsoon that is from June to
October, allowing the cultivation of a variety of major crops like rice, cotton, jute,
jowar, bajra, and tur.
● Rabi Season: It starts in
October-November and ends in
March-April, facilitating the
cultivation of temperate and
subtropical Major crops such as
wheat, gram, and mustard.
● Zaid: It is a short-duration
summer cropping season that
begins after harvesting the rabi crops.
○ It is used for cultivating watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables, and fodder
crops on irrigated lands.
● Food Crops: It mainly includes cereals, pulses, oilseeds and Non food crops
includes cotton, jute etc.
○ Along with these other plantation crops such as tea, coffee, sugarcane are
also grown.
Note 3 Points in Major Crops - Cropping Season, Temp, Soil, Rainfall, Major Growing
States, World Producer

Routine vaccinations protect against these 14

diseases: 1. Polio 2. Tetanus 3. Flu (Influenza) 4.
Hepatitis B 5. Hepatitis A 6. Rubella 7. Hib 8. Measles 9.
Whooping Cough (Pertussis) 10. Pneumococcal Disease
11. Rotavirus 12. Mumps 13. Chickenpox 14. Diphtheria

There is no vaccine for hepatitis C.

Genetic disorders:

1. Down syndrome
A genetic disorder that causes physical and mental disabilities. It's caused by an
extra chromosome 21.
2. Klinefelter syndrome
A genetic condition that occurs in about 1 in 500 to 1,000 male births. It's caused by
a random error in cell division during foetal development.
3. Patau syndrome
A genetic disorder caused by an abnormal chromosome. It's characterised by three
copies of chromosome 13, when there should only be two.
4. Trisomy 18
A genetic chromosomal disorder that causes abnormalities in various parts of the
body. It's also known as Edwards' syndrome.
5. Turner syndrome
A genetic disorder that occurs in about 25–50 per 100,000 females. It's caused by a
partial or complete absence of an X chromosome.
6. Cystic fibrosis
A genetic disorder that's passed down through families. It's caused by a genetic
mutation.
7. Genetic polymorphism
The occurrence of multiple forms or variants of a particular gene within a population.
 8. Usher syndrome
A genetic condition that's passed from both parents who have faulty genes
responsible for the disease

Sangitaraja, Sangita Mimansa and Sudha Prabandha - Maharana Kumbha of Mewar

Virupaksha Temple

The Virupaksha Temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the ten major temples
at the Pattadakal group of monuments. Queen Lokamahadevi, wife of King Vikramaditya II,
built the temple around 740 to commemorate his victory over the Pallavas.

The temple was built along the structural lines of Kailashnath Temple (Kanchi), but
Virupaksha became the inspiration for Kailashnath Temple at Ellora. The temple is
well-known for its opulent structures such as Lingodbhava, Nataraja, Ravananugraha, and
Ugra Narasimha.

Important Commissions of India

● Central Information Commission (CIC)

● Central Vigilance Commission (CVC)
● Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP)
● National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC)
● National Commission for Women (NCW)
● Competition Commission of India (CCI)
● Law Commission
● National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)
● Finance Commission (FCI)
● National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST)
● Central Water Commission (CWC)
● National Commission for Minorities

Smog

Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by the burning of large amounts of coal,
vehicular emission and industrial fumes (Primary pollutants).
It contains soot particulates like smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and other
components.
Two types of smog are: sulfurous smog and photochemical smog.

Sulfurous smog
● Also called “London smog.
● Results from a high concentration of SULFUR OXIDES in the air and is caused by
the use of sulfur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal

Photochemical smog
● Also known as “Los Angeles smog”.
● Photochemical (summer smog) forms when
pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (primary
pollutant) and organic compounds (primary
pollutants) react together in the presence of
SUNLIGHT. A gas called OZONE
(Secondary pollutant) is formed.

Nitrogen Dioxide + Sunlight + Hydrocarbons =

Ozone (Ozone in stratosphere it is beneficial, but near the earth’s surface it results in
global warming as it is a greenhouse gas)

The major chemical pollutants in Photochemical smog are NO and NO2, VOCs(volatile
organic compounds), Ozone(O3) and PAN (Peroxyacetyl Nitrate). NO2 decreases visibility
due to yellowish colour. It also contributes to heart and lung problems. Ozone(O3)
contributes to bronchial constriction, coughing and wheezing. PAN causes eye irritation, high
toxicity to plants.

Condensation can take place when the dew point is:

● lower than the freezing point,
● higher than the freezing point.

Fog - is formed when air at or near the earth’s surface becomes saturated by any of
the three processes – cooling, addition of moisture, or mixing with another air parcel.
Generally, fog forms in a stable air mass environment. Fog does not generally form
with an unstable atmosphere because vertical mixing results in convective or layered
cloudiness.
In urban and industrial centres smoke provides plenty of nuclei which help the
formation of fog and mist. Such a condition when fog is mixed with smoke, is
described as smog.

Dew - When the moisture is deposited in the form of water droplets on cooler
surfaces of solid objects (rather than nuclei in air above the surface) such as stones,
grass blades and plant leaves, it is known as dew.
● The ideal conditions for its formation are clear sky, calm air, high relative
humidity, and cold and long nights.
But when the sky is cloudy, the trees and plants do not get cool in the night and
hence there is less dew formation because on a cloudy night, the clouds send the
heat (earth’s radiation) back to the ground so the ground never gets cold enough for
the dew to be formed.

● For the formation of dew, it is necessary that the dew point is above the
freezing point.

Mist - The difference between the mist and fog is that mist contains more moisture
than fog
Haze - is an atmospheric phenomenon where dust, smoke and other dry particles
obscure the clarity of the sky (No condensation. Smog is similar to haze but there is
condensation in smog).

Frost - forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below freezing point
(0° C), i.e. the dew point is at or below the freezing point.